Root Locus Diagram
Construction and Usage Notes
Notes
1. These are meant as supplemental notes to the prescribed text
2. While every effort is made to be accurate there may be errors – please review
carefully
3. Some examples are given for each rule – but not enough to cover all of the
possible situations
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There are 10 rules to use in drawing any root locus diagram (RLD) – each will be given and
an example or two shown to demonstrate the rule. An RLD is a sketch on the Real-Imaginary
plane that shows visually the structure of the system that is being investigated. This structure
together with other information allows a simple mechanism for designing controllers that will
enable the control design engineer to determine the effect of any proposed controller –
without the need for extensive analysis or simulation. After this step a controller value can be
chosen to ensure that the system performance incorporating the controller closely resembles
the desired performance.
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Rule 1
(Poles and zeroes)
Given the transfer function
𝑌(𝑠) 𝑃(𝑠)
𝐺(𝑠) = =
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑄(𝑠)
The roots of the polynomial in the numerator are the zeroes of the transfer function.
The roots of the polynomial in the denominator are the poles of the transfer function.
The number of zeroes = O(P(s)) = #z
The number of poles = O(Q(s)) = #p
The number of branches (or trajectories) is given by
𝑛 = (#𝑝)
Example
(𝑠 + 2)
𝐺(𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3)
#𝑝 = 𝑂(𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3)) = 3
𝑛 = (#𝑝) = 3
This plant has 3 branches.
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Rule 2
(Symmetry)
All RLDs are symmetric with respect to the Real axis.
Example
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Rule 3
(Real axis segments)
Any point on the Real axis can be tested to see whether it is part of the RLD by simply
counting the number of poles and zeroes to the right of the point in question.
If there are an even number of (or zero) poles and zeroes to the right of the point then the
point is not part of a branch.
If there are an odd number of poles and zeroes to the right of the point then the point is part of
a branch.
Example
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Rule 4
(Starting and ending points)
All branches start at a pole (where the system gain, K, is zero). (There are #p starting points)
All branches end at either a zero or at infinity (where the system gain, K, is infinite). (There
are #z finite ending points – at the zeroes AND (#p – #n) infinite ending points.)
Example
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Rule 5
(Asymptotes intersection with the real axis – ending at infinity)
The point that the asymptotes cut the Real axis is given by:
∑ 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 − ∑ 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑒𝑠
𝜎𝑎 =
(#𝑝 − #𝑧)
Example
(𝑠 + 2)
𝐺(𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3)
𝑛 = (#𝑝 − #𝑧) = (3 − 1) = 2
Thus:
∑ 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 − ∑ 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑒𝑠
𝜎𝑎 =
(#𝑝 − #𝑧)
(0) + (−1) + (−3) − (−2) (−4) + 2
𝜎𝑎 = =
2 2
𝜎𝑎 = −1
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Rule 6
(Asymptotes angles with respect to the real axis)
Since there must be: 𝑛 = (#𝑝 − #𝑧) branches ending at infinity we must have n asymptotes
indicating the directions of the branches on their way to infinity. We can thus determine the
angles for these asymptotes by calculating the angle the asymptotes make with the Real axis
by:
(2𝑘 + 1)𝜋
𝜃𝑎 =
(#𝑝 − #𝑧)
Example
(𝑠 + 2)
𝐺(𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3)
Thus:
(2𝑘 + 1)𝜋
𝜃𝑎 =
2
Solving for k=0, +/- 1, +/- 2 (until values repeat!) we get:
k=0:
1𝜋 𝜋
𝜃𝑎 = =
2 2
k=+1:
(2 ∗ 1 + 1)𝜋 3𝜋 𝜋
𝜃𝑎 = = =−
2 2 2
(any larger values of k – or smaller simply give the same angles!)
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Rule 7
(Breakaway and break-in points)
The points at which branches leave the Real axis – or arrive at the Real axis are called the
breakaway and break-in points. These points satisfy the following relationship:
#𝑧 #𝑝
1 1
∑ =∑
(𝜎 + 𝑧𝑖 ) (𝜎 + 𝑝𝑗 )
𝑖=1 𝑗=1
Example
(𝑠 + 2)
𝐺(𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3)
1 3
1 1
∑ =∑
(𝜎 + 𝑧𝑖 ) (𝜎 + 𝑝𝑗 )
𝑖=1 𝑗=1
1 1 1 1
= + +
(𝜎 + 2) (𝜎) (𝜎 + 1) (𝜎 + 3)
𝜎(𝜎 + 1)(𝜎 + 3) (𝜎 + 2)(𝜎 + 1)(𝜎 + 3) + (𝜎 + 2)𝜎(𝜎 + 3) + (𝜎 + 2)𝜎(𝜎 + 1)
=
(𝜎 + 2)𝜎(𝜎 + 1)(𝜎 + 3) (𝜎 + 2)𝜎(𝜎 + 1)(𝜎 + 3)
𝜎(𝜎 + 1)(𝜎 + 3) = (𝜎 + 2)(𝜎 + 1)(𝜎 + 3) + (𝜎 + 2)𝜎(𝜎 + 3) + (𝜎 + 2)𝜎(𝜎 + 1)
𝜎(𝜎 + 1)(𝜎 + 3) = (𝜎 + 2)(𝜎 + 1)(𝜎 + 3) + (𝜎 + 2)𝜎(𝜎 + 3) + (𝜎 + 2)𝜎(𝜎 + 1)
2𝜎 3 + 10𝜎 2 + 16𝜎 + 6 = 0
Solving for roots:
𝜎1 = −0.534; 𝜎2,3 = −2.23 ± 𝑗0.79
We only care about the roots on the Real axis. Therefore the system has a breakaway point at
-0.534.
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Rule 8
(Imaginary (jω) Axis crossing behaviour)
To determine whether the Imaginary axis is crossed we must solve the Routh Hurwitz (RH)
stability criterion. Only if the system is unconditionally stable is there no point at which the
Imaginary axis is crossed.
(Revising RH tabulation!)
Given a system with transfer function
𝑌(𝑠) 𝑃(𝑠)
𝐺(𝑠) = =
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑄(𝑠)
We can perform the RH tabulation for the characteristic equation Q(s) = 0. Assume Q(s) is a
polynomial of order n with coefficients as per:
𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑠 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎2 𝑠 2 + 𝑎1 𝑠1 + 𝑎0 = 0
𝑠𝑛 1 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑎𝑛−4 … 𝑎2 𝑎0
𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑎𝑛−3 𝑎𝑛−5 … 𝑎1 0
𝑠 𝑛−2 A B C
: D
:
𝑠2 X 𝑎0
𝑠 Z 0
𝑠0 𝑎0 0
Where A, B etc are calculated via the adapted determinant formula for a 2 x 2 matrix.
(𝑎𝑛−1 . 𝑎𝑛−2 ) − (𝑎𝑛−3 . 1)
𝐴=
𝑎𝑛−1
(𝑎𝑛−1 . 𝑎𝑛−4 ) − (𝑎𝑛−5 . 1)
𝐵=
𝑎𝑛−1
(𝑎𝑛−1 . 𝑎𝑛−6 ) − (𝑎𝑛−7 . 1)
𝐶=
𝑎𝑛−1
(𝐴. 𝑎𝑛−3 ) − (𝑎𝑛−1 . 𝐵)
𝐷=
𝐴
Etc.
To determine the stability it is important to determine the number of sign changes in the first
column of the tabulation. Every sign change indicates at least one root of the transfer
function characteristic equation in the positive Real half of the plane.
The crossing of the jω Axis occurs when any row has only zeroes in it. In that case the row
above this row is manipulated to determine the value of the gain at which the branch crosses
the Imaginary axis as well as the value at which it crosses the axis.
Example
In a unit feedback loop with a simple proportional controller the plant is given by:
1
𝐺(𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠 + 3)(𝑠 + 1)
The overall transfer function is then:
𝐾𝐺(𝑠)
𝐺 ′ (𝑠) =
1 + 𝐾𝐺(𝑠)
𝐾
𝐺 ′ (𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3) + 𝐾
𝐾
𝐺 ′ (𝑠) =
𝑠3 + 4𝑠2 + 3𝑠 + 𝐾
𝑠3 1 3 0
𝑠2 4 K 0
𝑠1 A 0 C
(12-K)/4
𝑠0 K 0
Have a row of zeroes when K=0 and (12-K)/4=0, K=12.
Crosses imaginary axis when 4s2-K=0 and K=12,
Thus s=√−3, s = +/- 1.732j
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Rule 9
(Angles of arrival and departure from a complex pole or zero)
(− ∑ 𝜃𝑝 + ∑ 𝜃𝑧 ) = (2𝑘 + 1)𝜋
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Rule 10
(K value at any point)
∏ 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ𝑠
𝐾=
∏ 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ𝑠
Example
In a unit feedback loop with a simple proportional controller the plant is given by:
(𝑠2 + 15𝑠 − 50)
𝐺(𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠 + 3)(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠2 + 2𝑠 + 2)
|𝐶||𝐷||𝐸||𝐹||𝐺||𝐻|
𝐾=
|𝐴||𝐵|
Properly scaled from drawing gives:
𝐾 ≈ 10
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Uses and other RLD pieces of information
(Design issues and Sensitivity)
Example
In a unit feedback loop with a simple proportional controller the plant is given by:
(𝑠2 + 15𝑠 − 50)
𝐺(𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠 + 3)(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠2 + 2𝑠 + 2)
Show the damping =0.4 line so that a design decision can be made!
Show the frequency circle of constant 2 rad/s so that a design decision can be made!