Rutherford Scattering:

Classical and Quantum

Historical Context

▶ Geiger and Marsden performed scattering experiments under

Rutherford’s supervision.
▶ Most α-particles passed straight through gold foil, but some
deflected at large angles.
▶ Thomson’s “plum pudding” model predicted only small
deviations.
▶ Large deflections revealed the nuclear model of the atom.
Momentum Conservation

mα ⃗v0 = mα ⃗vα + mt ⃗vt , (1)

or
mt
⃗v0 = ⃗vα + ⃗vt . (2)
mα
2
1
2 mα v0 = 21 mα vα2 + 21 mt vt2 , (3)
or
mt 2
v02 = vα2 + v . (4)
mα t
Elastic Collision Geometry

mα , ⃗vα
mα , v0
mt
mt , ⃗vt

Figure: Collision of mα with stationary target mt .

Key Relations
From combining momentum and energy conservation:
 2 !
m t mt mt 2
v02 = vα2 + vt2 + 2 ⃗vα · ⃗vt = vα2 + v ,
mα mα mα t
 
mt
or vt2 1− = 2 ⃗vα · ⃗vt .
mα
▶ If mt ≪ mα : only small deviations of α-particles.
▶ If mt ≫ mα : large-angle scattering possible.
Now in plum-pudding setting:
me ≈ 0.5 MeV/c 2 , (5)
3 2
mα ≈ 4 × 10 MeV/c , (6)
mt
mt = me =⇒ ≈ 10−4 , (7)
mα
mt
mt = mAu ≈ 2 × 105 MeV/c 2 =⇒ ≈ 50. (8)
mα
Coulomb Potential

For a charge Ze:

Ze
U(r ) = . (9)
r
For two charges Ze, Z ′ e:

ZZ ′ e 2
V (r ) = . (10)
r

F⃗ (⃗r ) = −∇V (⃗r ). (11)

Central force condition:

V (⃗r ) = V (|⃗r |) = V (r ). (12)

Scattering Geometry
Trajectories and impact parameters
Energy/AM Conservation

The total energy at infinity is E = 12 mv02 = constant > 0

q
Incident velocity in terms of energy: v0 = 2E m
Angular momentum magnitude for the incident particle:
√ 1 2mE
ℓ = mv0 b = b 2mE =⇒ 2 = 2 (1.14)
b ℓ
From its definition, the angular momentum relates to angular
frequency:

ℓ = |⃗r × m⃗v | = m|⃗r × (r˙ rˆ + r χ̇ χ̂)| = mr 2 χ̇ ≡ mr 2 χ̇ (1.15)

Therefore,
ℓ
χ̇ = (1.16)
mr 2
Equations of Motion and Effective Potential
Since the force is repulsive the trajectories are hyperbolic. The
energy at each trajectory point:
 2
1 2 dχ 2
 
1 dr
E= m + mr + V (r ) (13)
2 dt 2 dt
Substitute for χ̇:
2
ℓ2

1 dr
= m + + V (r ) (14)
2 dt 2mr 2
Rearranged:
2
ℓ2

1 dr
m =E− − V (r ) (15)
2 dt 2mr 2
Or,
1/2
ℓ2
 
dr 2
=− E − V (r ) − (1.17)
dt m 2mr 2
ℓ2
The centrifugal barrier term: 2mr 2
Radial Velocity Recursion

Rearrangement:
   1/2
dr ℓ 2 V (r ) 2
=− r 1− −b (1.18)
dt mr E

Using previous results:

ℓ ℓ dt
dχ = 2
dt = dr (16)
mr mr 2 dr
bdr
=− h   i1/2 (1.19)
r r 2 1 − VE(r ) − b 2
Integral Expression for Closest Approach

Integrating between the initial point and the point of closest

approach:
Z χ0 Z r0
b dr
dχ = − h   i1/2 (17)
0 ∞
r r 2 1 − VE(r ) − b 2

Or, Z ∞
dr
χ0 = b h   i1/2 (1.20)
r0 V (r )
r r2 1− E − b2
Finding the Point of Closest Approach
At r = r0 , radial velocity vanishes:

dr
=0 (18)
dt r =r0

Giving:
ℓ2
E − V (r0 ) − =0 (19)
2mr02
Or,  
V (r0 )
r02 1− − b2 = 0 (1.21)
E
Defining the scattering angle as the change in asymptotic angles:
Z ∞
dr
θ = π − 2χ0 = π − 2b h   i1/2 (1.22)
r0
r r 2 1 − VE(r ) − b 2
Repulsive Coulomb Potential and Closest Approach
Potential:
ZZ ′ e 2
V (r ) = (1.23)
r
Distance of closest approach:

ZZ ′ e 2
r02 − r0 − b 2 = 0 (20)
E
Solution: r 2
ZZ ′ e 2 ZZ ′ e 2
E ± E + 4b 2
r0 = (1.24)
2
Positive root:
s !
ZZ ′ e 2 4b 2 E 2
r0 = 1+ 1+ (1.25)
2E (ZZ ′ e 2 )2
Scattering Angle Integral

Expressing the angle:

Z ∞
dr
θ = π − 2b h   i1/2 (1.26)
r0 ZZ ′ e 2
r r2 1− Er − b2

Change of variable:
1
x= (1.27)
r
and
s !−1
1 2E 4b 2 E 2
x0 = = 1+ 1+ (1.28)
r0 ZZ ′ e 2 (ZZ ′ e 2 )2
Integral for Scattering Angle

With this variable,

dr dx
dx = − , dr = − 2 (21)
r2 x
Z 0
dx
θ = π + 2b ZZ ′ e 2
(1.29)
x0 (1 − E x − b 2 x 2 )1/2

Using the table result:

!
−β + 2γx
Z
dx 1
p =√ cos−1 p (1.30)
α + βx + γx 2 −γ β 2 − 4αγ
Evaluating the Scattering Angle
Applying the result:
 
ZZ ′ e 2 0
1 + 2b 2 x 
θ = π + 2b × cos−1  E

r  (22)
b  
ZZ ′ e 2
2 
+ 4b 2 x0
E
 
b2 E 0
−1  1 + ZZ ′ e 2 x 
= π + 2 cos q (23)
4b 2 E 2
1 + (ZZ ′ e 2 )2 x0
 
1
= π + 2 cos−1  q  − 2 cos−1 (1) (24)
4b 2 E 2
1 + (ZZ ′ e 2 )2
 
1
= π + 2 cos−1  q  (1.31)
4b 2 E 2
1 + (ZZ ′ e 2 )2
Relating Scattering Angle and Impact Parameter

Manipulating the previous result:

 
1 θ π
q = cos − (25)
4b 2 E 2
1 + (ZZ 2 2
′ e 2 )2
   
1 2 θ π 2 θ 1
4b 2 E 2
= cos − = sin = (26)
1 + (ZZ ′ e 2 )2 2 2 2 csc ( 2θ )
2

Thus,
 
2bE θ
= cot (27)
ZZ ′ e 2 2
ZZ ′ e 2
 
θ
b= cot (1.32)
2E 2
Physical Interpretation

▶ Larger Z (nuclear charge) increases scattering angle for a

given b and E .
▶ Smaller E leads to larger scattering angles.
▶ Smaller b results in stronger deflection.
▶ Equation (1.32) summarizes how impact parameter and
observables are connected in Coulomb scatter.
Scattering Cross Section and Geometry

Number of particles scattered per unit time:

▶ N0 : incident flux per area per time.
▶ Particles with impact parameter between b and b + db scatter
into solid angle dΩ.
▶ Area: 2πb db; number scattered: 2πN0 b db.
Any particle passing within b and b + db will be emitted into θ and
θ − dθ.
Scattering Geometry
Area and Differential Cross Section
Transverse cross-sectional area for scattering into dΩ:
∆σ = 2πb db (28)
More generally,
dσ dσ
∆σ(θ, ϕ) = b db dϕ = − (θ, ϕ)dΩ = − (θ, ϕ) sin θ dθ dϕ
dΩ dΩ
(1.33)
When there is spherical symmetry (no ϕ dependence),
dσ
∆σ(θ) = − (θ)2π sin θ dθ = 2πb db (29)
dΩ
Or equivalently,
dσ b db
(θ) = − (1.34)
dΩ sin θ dθ
The total cross section is given by
Z Z π
dσ dσ
σTOT = dΩ (θ, ϕ) = 2π dθ sin θ (θ) (1.35)
dΩ 0 dΩ
Rutherford Impact Parameter and Cross Section
From earlier,
ZZ ′ e 2 θ
b= cot (30)
2E 2
Differentiating,
db 1 ZZ ′ e 2 θ
=− csc2 (1.36)
dθ 2 2E 2
Substitute into definition,
dσ b db
(θ) = − (31)
dΩ sin θ dθ
 ′ 2 2
ZZ e θ
= csc4 (32)
4E 2
 ′ 2 2
ZZ e 1
= (1.37)
4E sin4 2θ
Total Cross Section Integral

Integrating over all angles,

Z Z π
dσ dσ
σTOT = (θ)dΩ = 2π dθ sin θ (θ) (33)
dΩ 0 dΩ
 ′ 2 2 Z 1  
ZZ e θ 1
= 8π d sin →∞ (1.38)
4E 0 2 sin3 2θ

Why divergent? Remember total cross section reflects the largest

values of impact parameter a particle can have and still undergo
scattering. Couloumb is a long range force, extends to infinity, so a
particle very far away from the center will still experience the
Coulomb force, albeit only very slightly. Solution: cut off the value
at some finite θ corresponding to bmax .
Scattering Annulus
Units and Physical Interpretation

▶ Cross-sectional area is measured in barns

(1 barn = 10−24 cm2 ).
▶ Emitted solid angles use steradians; 4π sr covers a sphere.
▶ Divergence in σTOT reflects that arbitrarily large b can still
yield finite scattering, consistent with long-range Coulomb
force.
▶ The deviation from the Rutherford cross section with the
increasing projectile energy are an evidence for nuclear
reactions.
Units and Physical Interpretation

1. If projectile energy is not sufficient to bring two nuclei to a

distance smaller than the range of nuclear interactions, the only
result of the collision is either elastic (Rutherford) or inelastic
(Coulomb) scattering.
2. For Rutherford scattering both projectile and target emerge
from the collision in their respective ground states. In Coulomb
scattering either the target or the projectile emerge in an excited
state.
Reactions and Cross-sections: Quantum
Decay: The incoming plane wave ”decays” into outgoing spherical
waves
More precisely: The initial momentum state (plane wave)
transitions to different momentum states (scattered waves)
The strength of a reaction between two particles is specified by the
interaction cross-section.
Cross-section σ: effective target area for the incoming particle to
cause reaction.
Defined as reaction rate per target particle Γ per unit incident flux
Φ:
Γ = Φσ,
where flux Φ is the number of beam particles passing through unit
area per second.
Γ is given by Fermi’s Golden Rule :

Γ(i → f ) = 2π|Mfi |2 ρ(Ef ), ℏ = 1,

Normalized Derivation: Setup
The total Hamiltonian is

H = H0 + H ′

We expand an arbitrary quantum state’s time evolution in terms of

energy eigenstates of the unperturbed system:
Z
−iωi t
|ψ(t)⟩ = ai e |i⟩ + dε aε e −iωt |ε⟩
C

Physically necessary for understanding decay processes, ionization,

and resonant scattering
▶ |i⟩ – discrete state with energy εi
▶ |ε⟩ – continuum state(s), normalized as ⟨ε′ |ε⟩ = δ(ε′ − ε)
▶ ωi = εi /ℏ, ω = ε/ℏ
▶ ai (t), aε (t) – probability amplitudes for each sector
Transition Equations

Substituting into the time-dependent Schrödinger equation

∂
iℏ ∂t |ψ(t)⟩ = H|ψ(t)⟩ and projecting gives:
Z
dai (t)
= −i dε Ωiε e −i(ω−ωi )t aε (t)
dt C

where Ωiε = ⟨i|H ′ |ε⟩/ℏ.

daε (t)
= −iΩεi e i(ω−ωi )t ai (t)
dt
and we use the normalization ⟨ε′ |ε⟩ = δ(ε′ − ε).
Beautifully symmetric! The discrete state feeds the continuum,
and vice versa
Markov Approximation and Delta Function
Initially: ai (0) = 1, aε (0) = 0, Integrating and substituting,
Z Z t
dai (t) ′
=− dεΩiε Ωεi dt ′ e −i(ω−ωi )(t−t ) ai (t ′ )
dt C 0

then making the Markov approximation, we get:

Z Z t
dai (t)
= 2
dε |Ωiε | ai (t) dT e −i∆T
dt C 0

where T = t − t ′ , ∆ = ω − ωi .
e −i∆t/2 sin(∆t/2)
Z
dai (t)
= −2πℏ dε |Ωiε |2 ai (t)
dt C πℏ∆
The fraction for large t, this is sharply peaked at ∆ = 0 and
approaches a Dirac delta:
sin2 (∆t/2)
∼ πt δ(∆)
(∆/2)2
Final Result: Fermi’s Golden Rule

Finally,
dai (t)
= −2πℏ|Ωiεi |2 ai (t)
dt
The solution:
ai (t) = exp(−Γi→εi t/2)
where the decay of population in the initial discrete state is

Pi (t) = |ai (t)|2 = exp(−Γi→εi t)

with
2π
Γi→εi = 2πℏ|Ωiεi |2 = |⟨i|H ′ |ε⟩|2
ℏ
Density of states is number of continuum states divided by dE in
the infinitesimally small energy interval from E to E + dE .
Scattering with a beam
Consider a beam of particles incident on a target:
▶ Beam of N particles per unit time in area A.
▶ Target of n nuclei per unit volume.
▶ Target thickness dx is small.
Number of target particles in A:
NT = nAdx.
Effective area for absorption:
σNT = σnAdx.
Incident flux:
Φ = N/A.
Number of particles scattered per unit time,
N
−dN = ΦσNT = σnAdx = Nσndx.
A
Rate of change:
dN
σ=− .
nNdx
Differential Cross-section

Angular distribution of scattered particles not necessarily uniform.

dΩ considered in position or momentum space.
Number of particles scattered per unit time into dΩ is dN/dΩ.
Differential cross-section:
dσ dN/dΩ
= .
dΩ Φ × NT × dΩ

Units: area/steradian.
Most experiments do not cover full 4π solid angle; usually measure
dσ
dΩ .
Angular distributions reveal information about interaction
mechanisms, e.g., angular momentum.
Partial Cross-section

Different interaction types between particles:

X
σtot = σi ,
i

where σi are partial cross-sections for different final states.

Types of interaction:
▶ Elastic scattering: a + b → a + b, only momenta change.
▶ Inelastic scattering: a + b → c + d, final states differ from
initial.
Scattering in Quantum Mechanics

Consider beam scattering from fixed potential V (⃗r ):

⃗ = p⃗f − p⃗i ,
q

“momentum transfer”.
Using natural units p⃗ = ℏ⃗k, p⃗ = ⃗k.
Scattering rate characterized by cross-section:
Γ Number scattered
σ= = .
Φ Incident flux
Use Fermi’s Golden Rule for transition rate:

Γ = 2π|Mfi |2 ρ(Ef ),

where Mfi is matrix element, ρ(Ef ) density of final states.

Scattering in Quantum Mechanics

Using 1st order perturbation theory with plane wave solutions

ψ = Ne −i(Et−⃗p·⃗r ) , require:
1. Wave-function normalization
2. Matrix element Mfi
3. Incident flux Φ
4. Density of states ρ(Ef )
Normalization for one particle in box side L:
 1/2
2 21 1
|ψ| = N = 3 ⇒ N = .
L L3
Matrix Element

Matrix element contains physics of interaction:

Z Z
∗
Mfi = ⟨ψf |Ĥ|ψi ⟩ = ψf Ĥψi d ⃗r = Ne −i p⃗f ·⃗r V (⃗r )Ne i p⃗i ·⃗r d 3⃗r ,
3

Z
1
Mfi = 3 e −i q⃗ ·⃗r V (⃗r )d 3⃗r ,
L
where q⃗ = p⃗f − p⃗i .
Target area A, beam particles traveling at velocity vi towards
target. Volume crossing A per second: vi A. Number density
n = 1/L3 . Incident flux:
vi
Φ = 3.
L
Density of States
Also known as phase space. For box of side L, momentum states:
2π
p⃗ = (px , py , pz ) = (nx , ny , nz ).
L
Each state occupies volume (2π/L)3 in momentum space.
Number of states between p and p + dp in solid angle dΩ:
 3
L
dN = p 2 dpdΩ,
2π
L 3 2
so density of states in momentum: ρ(p) = dN


dp = 2π p dΩ.
2 2 2 dE p
For energy E = p + m , 2EdE = 2pdp =⇒ dp = E .
Density of states in energy:
 3 2  3
dN dN dp L p E L
ρ(E ) = = = dΩ = EpdΩ.
dE dp dE 2π p 2π
For relativistic scattering (E ≈ p):
 3
L
ρ(E ) = E 2 dΩ.
2π
Putting all parts together

Differential cross-section:
2
L3 pf2 L3
Z
1 1
dσ = 2π|Mfi |2 ρ(Ef ) = 2π 3 e −i q⃗ ·⃗r V (⃗r )d 3 r vf dΩ,
Φ vi L (2π)3

simplifies to
Z 2
dσ pf Ef
= e −i q⃗ ·⃗r V (⃗r )d 3 r .
dΩ (2π)2 vi

For relativistic scattering vi = c = 1, p ≈ E ,

2
E2
Z
dσ −i q
⃗ ·⃗
r 3
= e V (⃗r )d r .
dΩ (2π)2

(Born Approximation for differential cross-section).

Rutherford Scattering
Consider relativistic elastic scattering in Coulomb potential:
Ze 2 Zα
V (⃗r ) = − =−
4πϵ0 r r
−mr
Special case of Yukawa potential V = g e r with g = Z α, m = 0.

16π 2 Z 2 α2
|Mif |2 = ,
q4
⃗ = p⃗f − p⃗i ,
where q
q |2 = |⃗
|⃗ pi |2 + |⃗
pf |2 − 2⃗
pi · p⃗f .
Elastic scattering |⃗
pi | = |⃗
pf | = |⃗
p |,
θ
q |2 = 2|⃗
|⃗ p |2 (1 − cos θ) = 4E 2 sin2 .
2
Differential cross-section:
dσ 4E 2 Z 2 α2 4E 2 Z 2 α2 Z 2 α2
= = = .
dΩ q4 16E 4 sin4 (θ/2) 4E 2 sin4 (θ/2)