Angle Modulation Technical Reference Guide
Comprehensive Principles, Equations, Transmitter/Receiver Circuits & Solved GATE/Exam Problems
1. Foundational Principles of Angle Modulation
In angle modulation, the amplitude of the carrier wave remains constant, while its angle (phase or frequency)
is varied in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal m(t).
A general angle-modulated carrier signal is represented as:
s(t) = Ac cos( θi(t) ) = Ac cos( ωct + ϕ(t) )
where θi(t) is the instantaneous phase and the instantaneous angle frequency is defined as:
ωi(t) = dθi(t) / dt = ωc + dϕ(t) / dt
A. Phase Modulation (PM)
In Phase Modulation, the phase departure ϕ(t) is directly proportional to the message signal m(t):
Instantaneous Phase: θi(t) = ωct + kp m(t)
PM Signal: sPM(t) = Ac cos( ωct + kp m(t) )
Instantaneous Frequency Deviation: Δω = kp (dm(t)/dt)
where kp is the phase sensitivity factor of the modulator (rad/V).
B. Frequency Modulation (FM)
In Frequency Modulation, the instantaneous frequency departure from the carrier frequency is proportional to
the message signal m(t):
Instantaneous Frequency: fi(t) = fc + kf m(t)
FM Signal: sFM(t) = Ac cos( 2πfct + 2πkf ∫ m(τ) dτ )
where kf is the frequency sensitivity factor (Hz/V).
C. Interrelationship between PM and FM
• FM Generation via PM: Frequency modulation can be generated by first integrating the message signal
m(t) and passing it into a phase modulator.
• PM Generation via FM: Phase modulation can be generated by first differentiating the message signal
m(t) and passing it into a frequency modulator.
2. Single-Tone & Wideband Frequency Modulation
Consider a single-tone sinusoidal message signal m(t) = Am cos(2πfmt).
Peak Frequency Deviation: Δf = kf Am (Hz)
Modulation Index: β = Δf / fm = (kf Am) / fm
Single-Tone FM Equation: sFM(t) = Ac cos( 2πfct + β sin(2πfmt) )
Narrowband FM (NBFM) vs. Wideband FM (WBFM)
Parameter Narrowband FM (NBFM) Wideband FM (WBFM)
Modulation Index
β << 1 (typically β < 0.3) β >> 1 (typically β > 1)
(β)
Bandwidth (BW) BW ≈ 2 fm (Same as AM) BW ≈ 2(Δf + fm) = 2 fm(1 + β)
Infinite pairs of sidebands (Bessel
Sidebands Only carrier and single pair of sidebands
functions)
Mobile communications, VHF hand-held High-fidelity FM broadcasting, Satellite
Applications
radios links
Carson's Rule for Bandwidth Estimation
Carson's Rule provides an empirical approximation for the bandwidth containing 98% of the total signal power:
BWCarson = 2 (Δf + fm,max) = 2 fm,max (1 + β)
3. Generation & Demodulation Circuits
A. FM Generation Methods
• Direct FM Generation: The carrier frequency is directly modulated by varying the capacitance or
inductance of an LC oscillator circuit using a Varactor Diode or Reactance Modulator.
• Indirect FM Generation (Armstrong Method): A crystal-controlled oscillator generates a stable
Narrowband FM signal (β1 << 1). The NBFM signal is then passed through a chain of Frequency
Multipliers (n) and Mixers/Local Oscillators to increase both the carrier frequency and the modulation
index (β2 = n · β1, Δf2 = n · Δf1).
B. FM Demodulation Methods
• Slope Detector: Uses a tuned circuit set slightly off-resonance to convert frequency variations into
amplitude variations, followed by a diode envelope detector.
• Foster-Seeley Discriminator & Ratio Detector: Utilizes a center-tapped transformer tuned circuit where
phase difference between primary and secondary changes with input frequency.
• Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) Demodulator: Consists of a Phase Detector, Low Pass Filter (LPF), and
Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO). The control voltage feeding the VCO acts directly as the demodulated
audio signal.
4. Noise Suppression & Pre-Emphasis / De-Emphasis
In FM systems, noise power spectral density increases quadratically with output frequency. Higher audio
frequencies suffer from poorer signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).
• Pre-Emphasis (Transmitter): A high-pass filter network boosts the amplitude of high-frequency message
components before modulation.
• De-Emphasis (Receiver): A low-pass filter network attenuates high-frequency components (restoring
original amplitude balance) and simultaneously suppresses high-frequency noise.
• Standard Time Constant: τ = R C = 75 μs (North America/Japan) or 50 μs (Europe/Asia). Cutoff frequency:
fc = 1 / (2πRC) ≈ 2.12 kHz.
5. Solved Competitive Exam & GATE Numerical Problems
Example 1: Armstrong Indirect FM Transmitter Parameter Calculations GATE FORMAT
Problem: A Narrowband FM generator produces a carrier frequency of f1 = 200 kHz with a maximum
frequency deviation of Δf1 = 25 Hz. A wideband FM signal with fc = 100 MHz and Δf = 75 kHz is desired.
Calculate the required multiplier factor and mixer oscillator frequency.
Solution:
1. Determine Multiplier Factor (n):
n = Δfout / Δf1 = (75,000 Hz) / (25 Hz) = 3000
2. Carrier Frequency after Multiplication:
fc,multiplied = n · f1 = 3000 × 200 kHz = 600 MHz
3. Down-conversion via Mixer:
To bring 600 MHz to the target carrier frequency of 100 MHz:
fLO = 600 MHz - 100 MHz = 500 MHz (or 700 MHz).
Example 2: Carson's Bandwidth for Multitone FM NUMERICAL
Problem: An FM signal is expressed by s(t) = 10 cos( 2π × 108 t + 3 sin(2000πt) + 5 sin(4000πt) ). Find the
total power, peak frequency deviation Δf, and Carson's bandwidth.
Solution:
1. Total Power:
Ptotal = Ac2 / 2 = 102 / 2 = 50 W (across 1 Ω resistor).
2. Instantaneous Frequency Deviation:
Phase term ϕ(t) = 3 sin(2000πt) + 5 sin(4000πt)
dϕ(t)/dt = 3(2000π) cos(2000πt) + 5(4000π) cos(4000πt)
Maximum phase derivative: (dϕ/dt)max = 6000π + 20000π = 26000π rad/s
Δf = (1 / 2π) (dϕ/dt)max = 26000π / 2π = 13 kHz
3. Carson's Bandwidth:
Maximum modulating frequency fm,max = 4000π / 2π = 2000 Hz = 2 kHz.
BW = 2 (Δf + fm,max) = 2 (13 kHz + 2 kHz) = 30 kHz.