EST Complete Review Notes

Electronics Systems and Technologies - TOS-Aligned Board Exam Reviewer

Compiled from the EST notes prepared in this conversation

August 2026

Contents

1 How to Use This Reviewer 5

1.1 Suggested Review Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2 Signals, Spectra, and Signal Processing 6

2.1 Topic Priority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 Signal Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Signal Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4 System Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.5 Sampling Theorem and Aliasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.6 Difference Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.7 FIR and IIR Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.8 Z-Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.9 Transfer Function and Pole-Zero Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.10Convolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.11Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.12Fourier Transform and Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.13Filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.14Signals and Processing - Common Traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.15Quick Solved Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.16Chapter Memory Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3 Principles of Communication 18
3.1 Topic Priority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.2 Basic Communication System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.3 Message, Carrier, Modulation, and Demodulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.4 Why Modulation Is Necessary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.5 Baseband, Passband, and Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.6 Decibels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.7 Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.8 Amplitude Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.9 Angle Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.10Frequency Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.11AM versus FM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.12Radio Receiver Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.13TRF and Superheterodyne Receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.14Pulse Modulation Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.15PCM Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.16Digital Carrier Modulation Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.17Multiplexing Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.18Principles of Communication - Common Traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.19Quick Solved Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.20Chapter Memory Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

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4 Digital Communications 30
4.1 Topic Priority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.2 Digital Communication System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.3 Advantages and Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.4 Bit Rate, Symbol Rate, and Modulation Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.5 Pulse Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.6 Sampling Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.7 Pulse-Code Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.8 Delta Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.9 Line Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.10Inter-Symbol Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.11Eye Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.12Digital Carrier Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.13Amplitude-Shift Keying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.14Frequency-Shift Keying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.15Phase-Shift Keying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.16Quadrature-Amplitude Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.17Modulation Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.18Coherent and Noncoherent Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.19Bit-Error Rate and Energy per Bit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.20Information Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.21Nyquist and Shannon Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.22Error Detection and Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.23Multiplexing and Multiple Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.24Digital Communications - Common Traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.25Quick Solved Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.26Chapter Memory Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

5 Transmission and Antenna Systems 42

5.1 Topic Priority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.2 Transmission-Line Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.3 Balanced and Unbalanced Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.4 Transmission-Line Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.5 Reflection Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.6 Standing-Wave Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.7 Return Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.8 Standing-Wave Positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.9 Quarter-Wave and Half-Wave Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.10Quarter-Wave Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.11Stub Matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.12Smith Chart Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.13Free-Space Electromagnetic Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.14Power Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.15Electric Field Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.16Free-Space Path Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.17Friis Transmission Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.18Link Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.19Radio-Wave Propagation Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.20Ionospheric Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.21Critical Frequency and MUF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.22Skip Distance and Virtual Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.23Radio Horizon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.24Other Propagation Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.25Polarization Mismatch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.26Antenna Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.27Isotropic Radiator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.28Directivity, Efficiency, and Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.29Radiation Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.30Half-Wave Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

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5.31Quarter-Wave Monopole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.32Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.33Radiation Pattern Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.34Front-to-Back Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.35Effective Aperture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.36dBi and dBd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.37EIRP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.38Common Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.39Waveguide Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.40Rectangular Waveguide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.41Guide Wavelength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.42Phase and Group Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.43Fiber-Optic Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.44Transmission and Antenna - Common Traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.45Quick Solved Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.46Chapter Memory Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

6 Electronic Systems and Design 56

6.1 Topic Priority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.2 Basic Electronic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.3 Sensor and Transducer Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.4 Active and Passive Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.5 Analog and Digital Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.6 Static Sensor Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.7 Dynamic Sensor Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.8 Temperature Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.9 Optoelectronic Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.10Position and Proximity Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.11Force, Pressure, and Strain Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.12Signal Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
6.13Industrial Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.14ADC Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.15DAC Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.16Interfacing Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.17PLC Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6.18Sourcing and Sinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.19Ladder Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.20Start-Stop Seal-In Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.21Timers and Counters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.22Interlocking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.23Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.24On-Off and PID Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.25Building Management Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.26HVAC Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6.27Security and Surveillance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
6.28Fire and Life-Safety Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
6.29Audio-Video and Lighting Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.30SCADA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.31Communication Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
6.32Reliability and Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
6.33Electronic Systems - Common Traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
6.34Quick Solved Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
6.35Chapter Memory Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

7 Data Communications 73
7.1 Topic Priority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
7.2 Data Communication Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
7.3 Characteristics of Effective Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
7.4 Performance Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

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7.5 Protocol Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

7.6 Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
7.7 Communication Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
7.8 Network Topologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
7.9 Network Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
7.10Transmission Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
7.11Two-Wire and Four-Wire Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
7.12Serial and Parallel Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
7.13Synchronization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
7.14Manchester Encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
7.15Switching Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
7.16Multiplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7.17Network Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7.18DTE and DCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7.19Common Network Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7.20OSI Reference Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
7.21Layer Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
7.22Encapsulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
7.23TCP/IP Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
7.24TCP and UDP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
7.25Important Internet Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
7.26SNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.27Character-Oriented and Bit-Oriented Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.28Error Detection and Flow Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.29Security Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
7.30Encryption and Cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
7.31Common Threats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
7.32ISDN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
7.33B-ISDN and Broadband Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
7.34Data Communications - Common Traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
7.35Quick Solved Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
7.36Chapter Memory Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

8 Combined High-Yield Formula Sheet 85

8.1 Signals and Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
8.2 Principles of Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
8.3 Digital Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
8.4 Transmission Lines and Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
8.5 Electronic Systems and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
8.6 Data Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

9 Final Board-Exam Answering Techniques 90

9.1 Step 1: Identify the Topic Keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
9.2 Step 2: Write the Governing Formula First . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
9.3 Step 3: Convert Units Before Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
9.4 Step 4: Determine Linear versus Decibel Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
9.5 Step 5: Eliminate Conceptually Impossible Choices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
9.6 Step 6: Use Direction and Trend Checks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
9.7 Step 7: Use Safety and System Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
9.8 Universal Memory Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

10 End of Reviewer 91

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1 How to Use This Reviewer

This PDF combines the six EST review notes prepared in this conversation:
1. Signals, Spectra, and Signal Processing
2. Principles of Communication
3. Digital Communications
4. Transmission and Antenna Systems
5. Electronic Systems and Design
6. Data Communications
The notes are organized for board-exam review. Each chapter emphasizes:
• Fundamental concepts and definitions
• High-yield formulas
• Fast recognition techniques
• Memory aids and mnemonics
• Common question traps
• Short solved examples

1.1 Suggested Review Cycle

1. Read the concept summary.
2. Memorize the formula and recognition tables.
3. Cover the answers and solve the quick examples.
4. Review the common traps before taking practice tests.
5. Repeat the final memory map at the end of each chapter.
Overall memory path: Understand the signal, identify the system, select the formula, check
the units, and eliminate choices that violate the basic principle.

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2 Signals, Spectra, and Signal Processing

2.1 Topic Priority

Review area Board-review emphasis

Signal classification and characteristics High
Sampling theorem and aliasing High
FIR and IIR difference equations Very high
Convolution, correlation, transforms, poles Very high
and zeros, filtering

Memory pattern: Classify - Sample - Difference Equation - Transform - Filter.

2.2 Signal Fundamentals

A signal is a function that carries information. A spectrum describes the frequency components con-
tained in a signal. Signal processing means analyzing, modifying, filtering, or extracting information
from a signal.
Examples:
• Speech voltage: 𝑥(𝑡)
• Temperature sampled every minute: 𝑥[𝑛]
• Digital image: 𝑥[𝑚, 𝑛]
• ECG waveform: 𝑥(𝑡)

2.2.1 Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals

Type Notation Meaning

Continuous-time 𝑥(𝑡) Defined at every time value
Discrete-time 𝑥[𝑛] Defined at integer sample numbers
Analog Usually 𝑥(𝑡) Continuous time and continuous amplitude
Digital Usually 𝑥[𝑛] Sampled and quantized values

A discrete-time signal is not necessarily digital. It becomes digital after its amplitude has also been
quantized.
Memory tip: Parentheses mean continuous time; brackets mean numbered samples.

2.2.2 Sinusoidal Signal

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
where 𝐴 is amplitude, 𝜔 is angular frequency, 𝑓 is frequency in hertz, 𝑇 is period, and 𝜙 is phase.

1 1
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓, 𝑓= , 𝑇 =
𝑇 𝑓
A-F-P: Amplitude is height, frequency is repetition speed, and phase is horizontal position.

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2.2.3 Periodic and Aperiodic Signals

A continuous-time signal is periodic if:

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑇0 )
A discrete-time signal is periodic if:

𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛 + 𝑁0 ]

For 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos(𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜙):

2𝜋
𝑇0 =
𝜔0

For 𝑥[𝑛] = 𝐴 cos(𝜔0 𝑛 + 𝜙), periodicity requires:

𝜔0
to be rational
2𝜋
To find a discrete-time period, solve:

𝜔0 𝑁0 = 2𝜋𝑘
for positive integers 𝑁0 and 𝑘.

2.2.4 Deterministic and Random Signals

Signal type Description Example

Deterministic Predictable exactly 5 cos(100𝜋𝑡)
Random or stochastic Future value cannot be predicted Thermal noise
exactly

Memory tip: Deterministic means definite; random means uncertain.

2.2.5 Even and Odd Signals

Even signal:

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥(−𝑡)
Odd signal:

𝑥(𝑡) = −𝑥(−𝑡)
Even and odd parts:

𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑥(−𝑡)
𝑥𝑒 (𝑡) =
2

𝑥(𝑡) − 𝑥(−𝑡)
𝑥𝑜 (𝑡) =
2

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𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥𝑒 (𝑡) + 𝑥𝑜 (𝑡)

Recognition: Even signals mirror about the vertical axis; odd signals have origin symmetry.

2.2.6 Energy and Power Signals

Continuous-time energy:

∞
𝐸=∫ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡
−∞

Discrete-time energy:

∞
𝐸 = ∑ |𝑥[𝑛]|2
𝑛=−∞

Continuous-time average power:

𝑇
1
𝑃 = lim ∫ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 →∞ 2𝑇
−𝑇

Discrete-time average power:

𝑁
1
𝑃 = lim ∑ |𝑥[𝑛]|2
𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1
𝑛=−𝑁

Example Usual classification

Finite-duration pulse Energy signal
Decaying exponential Energy signal
Periodic sinusoid Power signal
Constant nonzero signal Power signal
Unit impulse Energy signal

Memory tip: Energy signals die away. Power signals stay or repeat.

2.2.7 Unit Impulse and Unit Step

1, 𝑛 = 0
𝛿[𝑛] = {
0, 𝑛 ≠ 0

1, 𝑛 ≥ 0
𝑢[𝑛] = {
0, 𝑛 < 0
Relationships:

𝛿[𝑛] = 𝑢[𝑛] − 𝑢[𝑛 − 1]

𝑛
𝑢[𝑛] = ∑ 𝛿[𝑘]
𝑘=−∞

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Any sequence may be represented by shifted impulses:

∞
𝑥[𝑛] = ∑ 𝑥[𝑘]𝛿[𝑛 − 𝑘]
𝑘=−∞
Impulse: one sample only. Step: turns on and remains on.

2.3 Signal Transformations

Operation Expression Effect

Delay 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) Shift right
Advance 𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑡0 ) Shift left
Time reversal 𝑥(−𝑡) Flip about vertical axis
Compression 𝑥(𝑎𝑡), |𝑎| > 1 Narrower
Expansion 𝑥(𝑎𝑡), 0 < |𝑎| < 1 Wider
Amplitude scaling 𝐴𝑥(𝑡) Changes height

Common trap: Inside the argument, the direction appears opposite: minus means right, plus
means left.

2.4 System Characteristics

A system maps an input to an output:

𝑥(𝑡) ⟶ 𝑦(𝑡)

2.4.1 Linearity

A system is linear if:

𝑇 {𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑥2 } = 𝑎𝑇 {𝑥1 } + 𝑏𝑇 {𝑥2 }

This combines additivity and homogeneity.
A quick test is 𝑇 {0} = 0. If a zero input produces a nonzero output, the system is nonlinear.

Typical nonlinear operations include 𝑥2 , |𝑥|, and 𝑥 + 5.

2.4.2 Time Invariance

If 𝑥(𝑡) → 𝑦(𝑡), a time-invariant system satisfies:

𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) → 𝑦(𝑡 − 𝑡0 )

2.4.3 Causality

A causal system depends only on present and past values.

• 𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛] + 𝑥[𝑛 − 1]: causal
• 𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛 + 1]: noncausal
Causal systems cannot see the future.

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2.4.4 BIBO Stability

Every bounded input must produce a bounded output.

For a discrete-time LTI system:

∞
∑ |ℎ[𝑛]| < ∞
𝑛=−∞

For a continuous-time LTI system:

∞
∫ |ℎ(𝑡)| 𝑑𝑡 < ∞
−∞

2.5 Sampling Theorem and Aliasing

Sampling converts a continuous-time signal to a sequence:

𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑥(𝑛𝑇𝑠 )

1
𝑓𝑠 =
𝑇𝑠
For a band-limited signal:

𝑓𝑠 ≥ 2𝑓max

The theoretical minimum sampling rate is the Nyquist rate:

𝑓𝑠,min = 2𝑓max

The highest frequency representable at a given sampling rate is the Nyquist frequency:

𝑓𝑠
𝑓𝑁 =
2

Quantity Formula
Nyquist rate 2𝑓max
Nyquist frequency 𝑓𝑠 /2

2.5.1 Aliasing

Aliasing occurs when:

𝑓𝑠 < 2𝑓max
An alias frequency can be found using:

𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑠 = |𝑓 − 𝑘𝑓𝑠 |

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Choose 𝑘 so that:

𝑓𝑠
0 ≤ 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑠 ≤
2
If 𝑓𝑠 /2 < 𝑓 < 𝑓𝑠 , a fast shortcut is:

𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑠 = 𝑓𝑠 − 𝑓
An anti-aliasing low-pass filter is placed before the ADC.

2.5.2 Sampling Question Technique

1. Find 𝑓max .
2. Compute 2𝑓max .
3. Compare with 𝑓𝑠 .
4. If 𝑓𝑠 is lower, aliasing occurs.
5. Fold the frequency into the range 0 to 𝑓𝑠 /2.

2.6 Difference Equations

The general causal LTI difference equation is:

𝑀 𝑁
𝑦[𝑛] = ∑ 𝑏𝑘 𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑘] − ∑ 𝑎𝑘 𝑦[𝑛 − 𝑘]
𝑘=0 𝑘=1
• 𝑏𝑘 terms multiply inputs.
• 𝑎𝑘 terms multiply previous outputs.
Memory tip: 𝑏 multiplies the input; 𝑎 multiplies previous answers.

2.6.1 FIR Identification

𝑦[𝑛] = 0.5𝑥[𝑛] + 0.3𝑥[𝑛 − 1] + 0.2𝑥[𝑛 − 2]

No previous output terms appear, so the filter is FIR.

2.6.2 IIR Identification

𝑦[𝑛] = 0.5𝑥[𝑛] + 0.3𝑥[𝑛 − 1] + 0.8𝑦[𝑛 − 1]

The term 𝑦[𝑛 − 1] creates feedback, so the filter is IIR.

Fast rule: Previous 𝑦 present means IIR. No previous 𝑦 means FIR.

2.6.3 Filter Order

For:

𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑏0 𝑥[𝑛] + 𝑏1 𝑥[𝑛 − 1] + 𝑏2 𝑥[𝑛 − 2] − 𝑎1 𝑦[𝑛 − 1]

The highest input delay is 2 and highest output delay is 1. The overall order is normally:

max(𝑀 , 𝑁 ) =2

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2.7 FIR and IIR Filters

Property FIR IIR

Feedback Normally none Present
Previous outputs Not used Used
Impulse response Finite Potentially infinite
Stability Inherently stable for finite Must be checked
coefficients
Linear phase Easy to design Difficult
Required order Usually higher Usually lower
Computation Usually more Usually less
Quantization sensitivity Lower Higher

FIR: Finite, Input-only, Reliable.

IIR: Infinite, Includes feedback, Risk of instability.

2.8 Z-Transform
∞
𝑋(𝑧) = ∑ 𝑥[𝑛]𝑧 −𝑛
𝑛=−∞

The Z-transform includes both the algebraic expression and its region of convergence.

2.8.1 Important Transform Pairs

Sequence Z-transform ROC

𝛿[𝑛] 1 Entire plane
𝛿[𝑛 − 𝑛0 ] 𝑧 −𝑛0 Except possible endpoints
𝑢[𝑛] 1/(1 − 𝑧 −1 ) |𝑧| > 1
𝑎𝑛 𝑢[𝑛] 1/(1 − 𝑎𝑧 −1 ) |𝑧| > |𝑎|
−𝑎𝑛 𝑢[−𝑛 − 1] 1/(1 − 𝑎𝑧 −1 ) |𝑧| < |𝑎|

2.8.2 Important Properties

Linearity:

𝑎𝑥1 [𝑛] + 𝑏𝑥2 [𝑛] ⟷ 𝑎𝑋1 (𝑧) + 𝑏𝑋2 (𝑧)

Delay:

𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑛0 ] ⟷ 𝑧 −𝑛0 𝑋(𝑧)

Convolution:

𝑥[𝑛] ∗ ℎ[𝑛] ⟷ 𝑋(𝑧)𝐻(𝑧)

Initial value:

𝑥[0] = lim 𝑋(𝑧)

𝑧→∞

Final value, when pole conditions are satisfied:

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lim 𝑥[𝑛] = lim (1 − 𝑧 −1 )𝑋(𝑧)

𝑛→∞ 𝑧→1

2.9 Transfer Function and Pole-Zero Concepts

For zero initial conditions:

𝑌 (𝑧)
𝐻(𝑧) =
𝑋(𝑧)
General rational form:

∏(𝑧 − 𝑧𝑘 )
𝐻(𝑧) = 𝐾
∏(𝑧 − 𝑝𝑘 )
• A zero makes 𝐻(𝑧) = 0.
• A pole makes 𝐻(𝑧) grow without bound.
Zeros stop; poles promote.

2.9.1 Stability in the Z-Plane

A discrete-time LTI system is stable when its ROC includes the unit circle.
For a causal rational system:

|𝑝𝑘 | < 1

The frequency response is obtained on the unit circle:

𝐻(𝑒𝑗𝜔 ) = 𝐻(𝑧)∣𝑧=𝑒𝑗𝜔

A pole near the unit circle strengthens the response near its angle. A zero on or near the unit circle
attenuates the corresponding frequency.

2.9.2 Difference Equation to Transfer Function

Given:

𝑦[𝑛] − 0.5𝑦[𝑛 − 1] = 𝑥[𝑛] + 𝑥[𝑛 − 1]

Taking the Z-transform:

𝑌 (𝑧)(1 − 0.5𝑧 −1 ) = 𝑋(𝑧)(1 + 𝑧 −1 )

Therefore:

1 + 𝑧 −1 𝑧+1
𝐻(𝑧) = =
1 − 0.5𝑧 −1 𝑧 − 0.5
Zero: 𝑧 = −1. Pole: 𝑧 = 0.5. A causal realization is stable because |0.5| < 1.

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2.10 Convolution
For an LTI system:

𝑦 =𝑥∗ℎ
Continuous time:

∞
𝑦(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑥(𝜏 )ℎ(𝑡 − 𝜏 ) 𝑑𝜏
−∞

Discrete time:

∞
𝑦[𝑛] = ∑ 𝑥[𝑘]ℎ[𝑛 − 𝑘]
𝑘=−∞

2.10.1 Graphical Procedure

F-S-M-S: Flip, Shift, Multiply, Sum.

2.10.2 Properties

𝑥∗ℎ=ℎ∗𝑥

𝑥 ∗ (ℎ1 ∗ ℎ2 ) = (𝑥 ∗ ℎ1 ) ∗ ℎ2

𝑥 ∗ (ℎ1 + ℎ2 ) = 𝑥 ∗ ℎ1 + 𝑥 ∗ ℎ2

𝑥[𝑛] ∗ 𝛿[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛]

𝑥[𝑛] ∗ 𝛿[𝑛 − 𝑛0 ] = 𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑛0 ]

For finite sequences:

𝐿𝑦 = 𝐿𝑥 + 𝐿ℎ − 1

2.11 Correlation
Correlation measures similarity.
Cross-correlation:

∞
𝑟𝑥𝑦 [𝑚] = ∑ 𝑥[𝑛]𝑦∗ [𝑛 − 𝑚]
𝑛=−∞

Autocorrelation:

∞
𝑟𝑥𝑥 [𝑚] = ∑ 𝑥[𝑛]𝑥∗ [𝑛 − 𝑚]
𝑛=−∞

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For an energy signal:

𝑟𝑥𝑥 [0] = ∑ |𝑥[𝑛]|2

𝑛

and:

|𝑟𝑥𝑥 [𝑚]| ≤ 𝑟𝑥𝑥 [0]

Convolution Correlation
Determines LTI output Measures similarity
Uses input and impulse response Compares signals
Used in filtering Used in detection and delay measurement

Convolution combines; correlation compares.

2.12 Fourier Transform and Spectrum

Continuous-time Fourier transform:

∞
𝑋(𝜔) = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒−𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞

Inverse:

∞
1
𝑥(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑋(𝜔)𝑒𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔
2𝜋 −∞
Discrete-time Fourier transform:

∞
𝑋(𝑒𝑗𝜔 ) = ∑ 𝑥[𝑛]𝑒−𝑗𝜔𝑛
𝑛=−∞

The DTFT is periodic in frequency with period 2𝜋.

Magnitude and phase:

𝑋(𝜔) = |𝑋(𝜔)|𝑒𝑗∠𝑋(𝜔)

2.12.1 High-Yield Properties

Time-domain operation Frequency-domain result

Convolution Multiplication
Multiplication Convolution
Delay Phase shift
Differentiation Multiplication by 𝑗𝜔

Time shift:

𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) ⟷ 𝑒−𝑗𝜔𝑡0 𝑋(𝜔)

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Frequency shift:

𝑥(𝑡)𝑒𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 ⟷ 𝑋(𝜔 − 𝜔0 )
Convolution theorem:

𝑥(𝑡) ∗ ℎ(𝑡) ⟷ 𝑋(𝜔)𝐻(𝜔)

Differentiation:

𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
⟷ 𝑗𝜔𝑋(𝜔)
𝑑𝑡

2.13 Filtering

Filter Passes Rejects

Low-pass Low frequencies High frequencies
High-pass High frequencies Low frequencies
Band-pass A selected band Frequencies outside the band
Band-stop Frequencies outside a band A selected band
Notch Almost all frequencies A narrow unwanted frequency
All-pass All magnitudes Mainly changes phase

Cutoff is commonly the half-power point:

1
|𝐻| = √
2
which corresponds to approximately:

−3 dB
For a band-pass filter:

𝐵𝑊 = 𝑓𝐻 − 𝑓𝐿

𝑓0 = √𝑓𝐿 𝑓𝐻

𝑓0
𝑄=
𝐵𝑊

2.13.1 Moving-Average FIR Filter

1 𝑀−1
𝑦[𝑛] = ∑ 𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑘]
𝑀 𝑘=0

It is a smoothing, nonrecursive FIR low-pass filter.

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2.14 Signals and Processing - Common Traps

1. Nyquist rate is 2𝑓max ; Nyquist frequency is 𝑓𝑠 /2.
2. A previous output term normally indicates IIR.
3. Poles, not zeros alone, determine stability.
4. LTI output uses convolution; similarity uses correlation.
5. 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) is a delay to the right.
6. A nonzero periodic signal is normally a power√ signal.
7. At cutoff, power is one-half, amplitude is 1/ 2, and level is about −3 dB.

2.15 Quick Solved Examples

2.15.1 Sampling Rate

A signal has 𝑓max = 4 kHz:

𝑓𝑠,min = 2(4) = 8 kHz

2.15.2 Alias Frequency

A 900 kHz sinusoid is sampled at 1 MHz:

𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑠 = |900 − 1000| = 100 kHz

2.15.3 Filter Classification

𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛] + 0.5𝑥[𝑛 − 1] − 0.2𝑥[𝑛 − 2]

No past outputs appear, so the filter is FIR.

2.15.4 Convolution Length

For lengths 5 and 4:

𝐿𝑦 = 5 + 4 − 1 = 8

2.15.5 Pole and Zero

𝑧+2
𝐻(𝑧) =
𝑧 − 0.8
Zero: −2. Pole: 0.8. A causal system is stable because the pole is inside the unit circle.

2.16 Chapter Memory Map

Signal - Sample - System - Transform - Filter
• Classify the signal.
• Check energy, power, symmetry, and periodicity.
• Sample above the Nyquist rate.
• Identify FIR or IIR from feedback.
• Use convolution for LTI output.
• Use correlation for similarity.
• Check poles for stability.
• Use the Fourier transform for spectrum.

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3 Principles of Communication
3.1 Topic Priority

Review area Board-review emphasis

Communication system fundamentals High
Noise and noise calculations Very high
AM, SSB, and FM Very high
Radio receivers High
Pulse and digital modulation Very high

Memory path: Source - Transmitter - Channel - Receiver - Destination.

3.2 Basic Communication System

A communication system transfers information from one location to another:

Source → Input Transducer → Transmitter → Channel → Receiver → Output Transducer → Destination

Block Main function Example

Information source Produces the message Human voice
Input transducer Converts physical information to Microphone
an electrical signal
Transmitter Processes and modulates the Radio transmitter
signal
Channel Carries the signal Air, cable, or fiber
Noise Unwanted disturbance Thermal noise
Receiver Selects, amplifies, and Radio receiver
demodulates
Output transducer Converts the electrical signal to Speaker
physical form

3.3 Message, Carrier, Modulation, and Demodulation

The message signal is also called the modulating, intelligence, or baseband signal.
A sinusoidal carrier is:

𝑐(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜙)
Modulation changes a carrier parameter according to the message:

Modulation Carrier parameter varied

AM Amplitude
FM Frequency
PM Phase

A-F-P: Amplitude, Frequency, Phase.

Demodulation or detection recovers the original message from the modulated signal.

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3.4 Why Modulation Is Necessary

A practical antenna is often related to wavelength by:

𝜆
ℎ≈
4
𝑐
𝜆=
𝑓
Using a high carrier frequency makes antenna size practical and improves radiation.
Other reasons for modulation:
• Practical antenna size
• Efficient radiation
• Multiplexing
• Frequency allocation
• Longer range
• Reduced interference
• Better noise performance
• Channel matching
RANGE: Radiation, Antenna size, Noise, Grouping, Efficient allocation.

3.5 Baseband, Passband, and Bandwidth

A baseband signal is the original unmodulated message. A passband signal has been shifted around a
carrier.
Bandwidth is:

𝐵𝑊 = 𝑓𝐻 − 𝑓𝐿
Frequency tells where a signal is located; bandwidth tells how much frequency space it occupies.

3.6 Decibels
Power ratio:

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐺𝑑𝐵 = 10 log10 ( )
𝑃𝑖𝑛
Voltage ratio for equal impedances:

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐺𝑑𝐵 = 20 log10 ( )
𝑉𝑖𝑛
Power in dBm:

𝑃
𝑃𝑑𝐵𝑚 = 10 log10 ( )
1 mW

Quantity Equivalent
1 mW 0 dBm

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Quantity Equivalent
10 mW 10 dBm
100 mW 20 dBm
1W 30 dBm
Power doubled +3 dB
Voltage doubled, equal impedance approximately +6 dB

For cascaded stages, add gains and subtract losses in decibels.

3.7 Noise
Noise is an unwanted disturbance that interferes with the desired signal.

3.7.1 External Noise

• Atmospheric: lightning and natural electrical disturbances

• Extraterrestrial: sun, stars, and cosmic sources
• Man-made: motors, ignition systems, switching circuits

3.7.2 Internal Noise

Noise type Cause

Thermal Random electron motion
Shot Random carrier flow across a junction
Flicker Low-frequency device variation
Transit-time Carrier travel-time effects at high frequency
Partition Random current division among paths

3.7.3 Thermal Noise Power

𝑁 = 𝑘𝑇 𝐵

where 𝑘 = 1.38 × 10−23 J/K, 𝑇 is absolute temperature, and 𝐵 is bandwidth.

Thermal-noise voltage:

√
𝑉𝑛 = 4𝑘𝑇 𝑅𝐵
At room temperature, noise density is approximately:

−174 dBm/Hz
Thus:

𝑁𝑑𝐵𝑚 ≈ −174 + 10 log10 𝐵

Including receiver noise figure:

𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 ≈ −174 + 10 log10 𝐵 + 𝑁 𝐹

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3.7.4 Shot Noise

𝐼𝑛 = √2𝑞𝐼𝐵

where 𝑞 = 1.602 × 10−19 C.

Thermal noise: temperature and resistance. Shot noise: junction current.

3.7.5 Signal-to-Noise Ratio

𝑃𝑆
𝑆𝑁 𝑅 =
𝑃𝑁
𝑃𝑆
𝑆𝑁 𝑅𝑑𝐵 = 10 log10 ( )
𝑃𝑁
For equal impedances:

𝑉𝑆
𝑆𝑁 𝑅𝑑𝐵 = 20 log10 ( )
𝑉𝑁
A larger SNR means a cleaner signal.

3.7.6 Noise Figure

Noise factor:

𝑆𝑁 𝑅𝑖𝑛
𝐹 =
𝑆𝑁 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡
Noise figure:

𝑁 𝐹 = 10 log10 𝐹
A smaller noise figure is better.
Equivalent noise temperature:

𝑇𝑒 = 𝑇0 (𝐹 − 1), 𝑇0 = 290 K
Friis noise formula:

𝐹2 − 1 𝐹3 − 1
𝐹𝑇 = 𝐹1 + + +⋯
𝐺1 𝐺1 𝐺2
All factors and gains must be linear. The first stage has the greatest effect, so a low-noise, high-gain
amplifier should be placed first.

3.8 Amplitude Modulation

For single-tone conventional AM:

𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 [1 + 𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑚 𝑡] cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡

where 𝑚 is the modulation index.

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3.8.1 AM Modulation Index

𝐴𝑚
𝑚=
𝐴𝑐

%𝑀 = 100𝑚

Value Condition
𝑚=0 Unmodulated carrier
0<𝑚<1 Under-modulated
𝑚=1 100% modulation
𝑚>1 Overmodulated

Envelope formula:

𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑚=
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛
Difference over sum.
For distortion-free envelope detection:

𝑚≤1

3.8.2 AM Frequency Components

Carrier:

𝑓𝑐
Upper sideband:

𝑓𝑈𝑆𝐵 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚
Lower sideband:

𝑓𝐿𝑆𝐵 = 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚
AM bandwidth:

𝐵𝑊𝐴𝑀 = 2𝑓𝑚,𝑚𝑎𝑥

3.8.3 AM Power

Carrier power:

𝐴2𝑐
𝑃𝑐 =
2𝑅
Each sideband:

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𝑚2
𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 = 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 = 𝑃
4 𝑐
Total sideband power:

𝑚2
𝑃𝑆𝐵 = 𝑃
2 𝑐
Total transmitted power:

𝑚2
𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝑐 (1 + )
2
Efficiency:

𝑚2
𝜂=
𝑚2 + 2
At 𝑚 = 1:

𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 33.3%
Important: Conventional AM is never 100% efficient at 100% modulation.

3.8.4 AM Types

System Carrier Sidebands Bandwidth Detection

Conventional AM Full Both 2𝑓𝑚 Envelope
DSB-SC Suppressed Both 2𝑓𝑚 Coherent
SSB-SC Suppressed One 𝑓𝑚 Coherent
VSB Present or One full and part Slightly above 𝑓𝑚 Appropriate
reduced of the other detector

3.8.5 Single-Sideband

SSB transmits one sideband and normally suppresses the carrier.

Advantages:
• Half the AM bandwidth
• Better power efficiency
• Less noise because of narrower bandwidth
• Useful for long-distance voice

𝐵𝑊𝑆𝑆𝐵 = 𝑓𝑚,𝑚𝑎𝑥
SSB saves space and power.

3.8.6 AM Envelope Detector

A diode, resistor, and capacitor recover the envelope.

The RC time constant must be long enough to remove carrier ripple but short enough to follow the message.
Too large an RC can cause diagonal clipping.

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3.9 Angle Modulation

FM and PM have constant carrier amplitude, giving better immunity to amplitude noise than AM.

3.10 Frequency Modulation

Single-tone FM:

𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos[2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝛽 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)]

FM modulation index:

Δ𝑓
𝛽=
𝑓𝑚

Frequency limits:

𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑓𝑐 + Δ𝑓

𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑓𝑐 − Δ𝑓
Frequency swing:

2Δ𝑓

Condition Classification
𝛽<1 Narrowband FM
𝛽>1 Wideband FM

Deviation ratio for a complex message:

Δ𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐷=
𝑓𝑚,𝑚𝑎𝑥

3.10.1 Carson’s Rule

𝐵𝑊𝐹 𝑀 = 2(Δ𝑓 + 𝑓𝑚,𝑚𝑎𝑥 )

or, for a single tone:

𝐵𝑊𝐹 𝑀 = 2𝑓𝑚 (𝛽 + 1)
Carson doubles the deviation plus message frequency.

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3.10.2 FM Sidebands and Power

FM sidebands occur at:

𝑓𝑐 ± 𝑛𝑓𝑚 , 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, …

Their amplitudes are determined by Bessel functions 𝐽𝑛 (𝛽).

FM has a constant envelope, so ideal total power remains constant:

𝐴2𝑐
𝑃𝑇 =
2𝑅
Changing 𝛽 redistributes power among the carrier and sidebands.

3.10.3 FM Advantages

• Better noise immunity

• Constant envelope
• Efficient nonlinear RF amplifiers may be used
• Capture effect
• Amplitude limiter removes amplitude noise
Disadvantages include greater bandwidth and more complex circuits.

3.10.4 Capture Effect

An FM receiver tends to respond mainly to the stronger of two signals near the same frequency.

3.10.5 Pre-Emphasis and De-Emphasis

Pre-emphasis boosts high-frequency message components at the transmitter. De-emphasis restores the
frequency response at the receiver while reducing high-frequency noise.
Pre before transmission; de after reception.

3.10.6 FM versus PM

Feature FM PM
Parameter varied Frequency Phase
Modulation index Δ𝑓/𝑓𝑚 Phase deviation in radians
Carrier amplitude Constant Constant

For sinusoidal PM:

Δ𝑓 = 𝛽𝑝 𝑓𝑚

3.11 AM versus FM

Feature AM FM
Carrier parameter Amplitude Frequency
Carrier amplitude Varies Constant
Bandwidth 2𝑓𝑚 2(Δ𝑓 + 𝑓𝑚 )

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Feature AM FM
Noise immunity Lower Better
Circuit complexity Simpler Higher
Capture effect No Yes
Limiter Normally no Yes

AM is simple and narrow; FM is clean but wide.

3.12 Radio Receiver Characteristics

Characteristic Meaning
Sensitivity Ability to receive weak signals
Selectivity Ability to reject nearby unwanted frequencies
Fidelity Accuracy of reproduction
Stability Ability to remain tuned

Weak signal = sensitivity. Nearby station = selectivity. Accurate sound = fidelity.

3.13 TRF and Superheterodyne Receivers

A TRF receiver uses tuned RF amplification followed by detection. It is simple but difficult to tune uniformly
over a wide range.
A superheterodyne receiver converts the incoming RF signal to a fixed intermediate frequency:

𝑓𝐼𝐹 = |𝑓𝐿𝑂 − 𝑓𝑅𝐹 |

Typical blocks:

Antenna → RF Amplifier → Mixer → IF Amplifier → Detector → Audio Amplifier

The IF amplifier provides most of the gain and selectivity.

3.13.1 Image Frequency

For high-side injection:

𝑓𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑓𝑠 + 2𝑓𝐼𝐹

For low-side injection:

𝑓𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑓𝑠 − 2𝑓𝐼𝐹

General rule:

|𝑓𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 − 𝑓𝑠 | = 2𝑓𝐼𝐹
The image is two IFs away from the desired station.

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3.13.2 AGC and FM Receiver Blocks

Automatic gain control maintains a nearly constant output over changing input levels.
An FM receiver commonly includes a limiter, discriminator or PLL detector, de-emphasis network, and
audio amplifier.
• Limiter removes amplitude variations.
• Discriminator converts frequency changes to voltage changes.

3.14 Pulse Modulation Review

System What changes? Memory cue

PAM Pulse amplitude Height
PWM Pulse width Width
PPM Pulse position Where
PCM Binary code Code

PAM is most sensitive to amplitude noise. PPM requires strong synchronization.

3.15 PCM Review

PCM steps:

Sampling → Quantization → Encoding

SQE: Sample, Quantize, Encode.
Sampling:

𝑓𝑠 ≥ 2𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥
Quantization levels:

𝐿 = 2𝑛
PCM bit rate:

𝑅𝑏 = 𝑛𝑓𝑠
Ideal full-scale sinusoidal quantization SNR:

𝑆𝑄𝑁 𝑅𝑑𝐵 ≈ 6.02𝑛 + 1.76

Each additional bit improves ideal SQNR by about 6 dB.

3.16 Digital Carrier Modulation Overview

Modulation Parameter changed

ASK Amplitude
FSK Frequency
PSK Phase
QAM Amplitude and phase

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Bits per symbol:

𝑘 = log2 𝑀

𝑅𝑏 = 𝑅𝑠 log2 𝑀

𝑅𝑏
𝑅𝑠 =
log2 𝑀

Scheme Bits per symbol

BPSK 1
QPSK 2
16-QAM 4
64-QAM 6
256-QAM 8

3.17 Multiplexing Overview

Method Separation principle

FDM Frequency bands
TDM Time slots
WDM Optical wavelengths

3.18 Principles of Communication - Common Traps

1. AM bandwidth depends on message frequency, not carrier frequency.
2. Each AM sideband has 𝑚2 𝑃𝑐 /4; both have 𝑚2 𝑃𝑐 /2.
3. Conventional AM maximum efficiency is 33.3%.
4. FM frequency swing is twice the deviation.
5. FM theoretically has infinitely many sidebands.
6. Noise factor uses 𝑆𝑁 𝑅𝑖𝑛 /𝑆𝑁 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 .
7. The first receiver stage dominates cascaded noise figure.
8. Sensitivity is not selectivity.
9. A mixer changes frequency; a detector recovers information.
10. Bit rate equals baud rate only for binary signaling.

3.19 Quick Solved Examples

3.19.1 AM Modulation Percentage

Given 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 12 V and 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 4 V:

12 − 4
𝑚= = 0.5
12 + 4

%𝑀 = 50%

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3.19.2 AM Sideband Frequencies

For 𝑓𝑐 = 1 MHz and 𝑓𝑚 = 5 kHz:

𝑓𝑈𝑆𝐵 = 1005 kHz, 𝑓𝐿𝑆𝐵 = 995 kHz

𝐵𝑊 = 10 kHz

3.19.3 AM Total Power

For 𝑃𝑐 = 100 W and 𝑚 = 0.8:

0.82
𝑃𝑇 = 100 (1 + ) = 132 W
2

3.19.4 FM Bandwidth

For Δ𝑓 = 50 kHz and 𝑓𝑚 = 10 kHz:

𝐵𝑊 = 2(50 + 10) = 120 kHz

3.19.5 Intermediate Frequency

For 𝑓𝑅𝐹 = 1000 kHz and 𝑓𝐿𝑂 = 1455 kHz:

𝑓𝐼𝐹 = |1455 − 1000| = 455 kHz

3.19.6 PCM Bit Rate

For 𝑓𝑠 = 8 kHz and 8 bits/sample:

𝑅𝑏 = 8(8000) = 64 kbps

3.20 Chapter Memory Map

• Source to destination through transmitter, channel, and receiver.
• AM changes amplitude; FM changes frequency; PM changes phase.
• Noise power is 𝑘𝑇 𝐵 .
• AM uses difference-over-sum for modulation index.
• AM bandwidth is twice the message bandwidth.
• FM bandwidth uses Carson’s rule.
• Sensitivity hears weak signals; selectivity separates stations.
• PAM is height, PWM is width, PPM is position, PCM is code.

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4 Digital Communications
4.1 Topic Priority

Review area Board-review emphasis

Digital communication fundamentals High
PAM, PWM, PPM, and PCM High
ASK, FSK, PSK, and QAM Very high
Information theory and error control High
Multiplexing and multiple access Very high

Memory path: Encode - Protect - Modulate - Transmit - Detect - Decode.

4.2 Digital Communication System

A digital communication system transfers information using a finite set of symbols, normally binary 0 and
1.

Source → Source Encoder → Channel Encoder → Digital Modulator → Channel

Demodulator → Channel Decoder → Source Decoder → Destination

Block Main function

Source encoder Removes unnecessary redundancy and compresses data
Channel encoder Adds controlled redundancy for error protection
Digital modulator Maps bits to channel signals
Channel Carries the signal and introduces noise or distortion
Demodulator Estimates transmitted symbols
Channel decoder Detects or corrects errors
Source decoder Reconstructs the original information

Source Shrinks; Channel Shields. Source coding removes redundancy. Channel coding
intentionally adds redundancy.

4.3 Advantages and Disadvantages

4.3.1 Advantages

• Better noise immunity

• Regenerative repeaters can reshape and retime pulses
• Easy storage, processing, and encryption
• Error detection and correction
• Consistent quality over long distances
• Efficient multiplexing

4.3.2 Disadvantages

• Often requires more bandwidth

• Requires synchronization
• Quantization error may occur
• Analog information must first be converted
• Circuitry may be more complex

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A digital regenerator performs the 3Rs:

Re-amplify - Reshape - Retime.

4.4 Bit Rate, Symbol Rate, and Modulation Order

Bit rate:

𝑅𝑏 = bits per second

Symbol rate:

𝑅𝑠 = symbols per second or baud

For 𝑀 possible symbols:

𝑘 = log2 𝑀

𝑅𝑏 = 𝑅𝑠 log2 𝑀

𝑅𝑏
𝑅𝑠 =
log2 𝑀

𝑀 Bits per symbol

2 1
4 2
8 3
16 4
64 6
256 8

Memory equation: 𝑀 = 2𝑘 .
Bit rate equals baud rate only for binary signaling.

4.5 Pulse Modulation

System Parameter varied Memory word

PAM Pulse amplitude Height
PWM Pulse width or duration Width
PPM Pulse position Where
PCM Binary code Code

PAM is most sensitive to amplitude noise. PPM requires accurate synchronization.

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4.6 Sampling Theorem

𝑓𝑠 ≥ 2𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥

1
𝑇𝑠 =
𝑓𝑠
Aliasing occurs when 𝑓𝑠 < 2𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 . An anti-aliasing low-pass filter is placed before sampling.

4.7 Pulse-Code Modulation

PCM steps:

Sampling → Quantization → Encoding

SQE: Sample, Quantize, Encode.

4.7.1 Quantization Levels

For 𝑛 bits per sample:

𝐿 = 2𝑛
For 𝐿 levels:

𝑛 = log2 𝐿
Uniform quantization step:

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
Δ=
𝐿
Maximum quantization error:

Δ
|𝑒𝑞,𝑚𝑎𝑥 | ≈
2
More bits produce more levels, a smaller step, lower quantization error, and a higher bit rate.

4.7.2 PCM Bit Rate

𝑅𝑏 = 𝑛𝑓𝑠

For 𝑁 equal channels:

𝑅𝑏,𝑇 = 𝑁 𝑛𝑓𝑠

Add framing, signaling, and synchronization bits when specified.

Approximate ideal binary minimum bandwidth:

𝑅𝑏
𝐵𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≈
2

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4.7.3 Quantization SNR

For an ideal uniform quantizer with a full-scale sinusoid:

𝑆𝑄𝑁 𝑅𝑑𝐵 ≈ 6.02𝑛 + 1.76

Each extra bit adds approximately 6 dB.

4.7.4 Companding

Companding combines compression at the transmitter and expansion at the receiver. It improves weak-
signal quantization.
Common laws:
• 𝜇-law
• A-law
COMPress first, exPAND later.

4.8 Delta Modulation

Delta modulation sends whether the estimate must move up or down.

4.8.1 Slope-Overload Distortion

The step is too small to follow a fast-changing input.

Reduce it by increasing the step size or sampling rate.

4.8.2 Granular Noise

The step is too large for a slowly changing input.

Reduce it by decreasing the step size.
Slope overload: steps too small. Granular noise: steps too large.
Adaptive delta modulation changes the step size according to signal behavior.

4.9 Line Coding

A line code maps binary data into baseband pulses. A good line code should support synchronization, low
DC content, reasonable bandwidth, and noise immunity.

Line code Main characteristic

Unipolar NRZ One polarity used
Polar NRZ-L Level represents the bit
NRZ-I Transition represents a bit value
RZ Returns to zero within each bit
Manchester Mid-bit transition always occurs
Differential Manchester Information depends on transitions
Bipolar AMI Ones alternate positive and negative
Pseudoternary Zeros alternate in polarity

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4.9.1 Manchester

Advantages:
• Self-clocking
• No large DC component
Disadvantage:
• Requires more bandwidth than NRZ

4.9.2 AMI

• Binary 0 is zero voltage.

• Consecutive binary 1s alternate positive and negative.
AMI = Alternating Marks; zeros remain zero.

4.10 Inter-Symbol Interference

ISI occurs when a pulse spreads into neighboring symbol intervals.
Causes:
• Limited bandwidth
• Multipath
• Improper filtering
• Excessive data rate
Reduction methods:
• Equalization
• Proper pulse shaping
• Raised-cosine filtering
• Lower symbol rate

4.11 Eye Diagram

An eye diagram superimposes many symbol intervals.

Observation Meaning
Large vertical opening Good noise margin
Large horizontal opening Good timing margin
Closed eye Noise or ISI
Thick crossing Timing jitter
Distortion Channel impairment

The more open the eye, the better the signal.

4.12 Digital Carrier Modulation

Technique Carrier parameter changed

ASK Amplitude
FSK Frequency
PSK Phase
QAM Amplitude and phase

A-F-P-Both.

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4.13 Amplitude-Shift Keying

ASK changes carrier amplitude. On-off keying uses carrier present for one bit and absent for the other.
Advantages:
• Simple
• Low cost
Disadvantages:
• Poor amplitude-noise immunity
• Sensitive to fading
Carrier switched on and off = ASK/OOK.

4.14 Frequency-Shift Keying

Binary FSK assigns two frequencies:
• Mark frequency for one binary state
• Space frequency for the other
Advantages:
• Better amplitude-noise immunity than ASK
• Constant envelope
• Noncoherent detection possible
Disadvantage:
• Often requires more bandwidth than PSK
A common bandwidth estimate is:

𝐵𝐹 𝑆𝐾 ≈ 2Δ𝑓 + 𝑅𝑠

4.15 Phase-Shift Keying

4.15.1 BPSK

BPSK uses two phases, commonly 0∘ and 180∘ .

Each symbol carries one bit.
Advantages:
• Excellent binary noise performance
• Constant envelope
• Good power efficiency
Disadvantage:
• Requires carrier phase synchronization for coherent detection

4.15.2 QPSK

QPSK uses four phases and carries two bits per symbol:

𝑅𝑏
𝑅𝑠 =
2
Gray coding is normally used so adjacent symbols differ by only one bit.

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4.15.3 M-PSK

𝑘 = log2 𝑀

As 𝑀 increases:
• Spectral efficiency improves
• Phase separation decreases
• Required SNR increases
• Error probability generally rises for the same 𝐸𝑏 /𝑁0

4.16 Quadrature-Amplitude Modulation

QAM varies both amplitude and phase and is represented on in-phase and quadrature axes.

Scheme Bits per symbol

4-QAM 2
16-QAM 4
64-QAM 6
256-QAM 8

Advantages:
• High spectral efficiency
• High data rate per symbol
Disadvantages:
• Requires a high-quality channel
• Sensitive to amplitude and phase errors
• Higher orders require higher SNR
Higher QAM means more bits but less margin.

4.17 Modulation Comparison

Property ASK FSK BPSK QPSK QAM

Parameter Amplitude Frequency Phase Phase Amplitude and
phase
Noise Lowest Moderate Very good Very good Depends on
immunity order
Envelope Variable Constant Constant Constant Variable
Spectral Moderate Usually lower Good Better Highest at
efficiency large 𝑀

4.17.1 Fast Recognition

• Carrier on/off: ASK

• Two carrier frequencies: FSK
• Opposite phases: BPSK
• Two bits per symbol: QPSK
• Both amplitude and phase: QAM
• Highest spectral efficiency: higher-order QAM

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4.18 Coherent and Noncoherent Detection

Coherent detection requires a local reference synchronized in phase and frequency.
Common coherent systems:
• BPSK
• QPSK
• QAM
• DSB-SC and SSB
Noncoherent detection does not require exact phase synchronization and is simpler but normally has
poorer performance.

4.19 Bit-Error Rate and Energy per Bit

erroneous bits
𝐵𝐸𝑅 =
total transmitted bits

A lower BER is better.

Digital link quality is often expressed as:

𝐸𝑏
𝑁0
Relationship with ordinary SNR:

𝐸𝑏 𝑆 𝐵
=
𝑁0 𝑁 𝑅𝑏
For coherent BPSK in ideal AWGN:

2𝐸𝑏
𝑃𝑏 = 𝑄 ( √ )
𝑁0

Gray-coded QPSK has the same ideal bit-error expression as BPSK.

4.20 Information Theory

4.20.1 Self-Information

1
𝐼 = − log2 𝑝 = log2 ( )
𝑝
Rare events carry more information than common events.

4.20.2 Entropy

𝐻(𝑋) = − ∑ 𝑝𝑖 log2 𝑝𝑖
𝑖

For 𝑀 equally likely symbols:

𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 = log2 𝑀

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For a binary source:

𝐻(𝑝) = −𝑝 log2 𝑝 − (1 − 𝑝) log2 (1 − 𝑝)

Maximum binary entropy occurs at 𝑝 = 0.5 and equals 1 bit/symbol.
Maximum uncertainty gives maximum information.

4.21 Nyquist and Shannon Capacity

4.21.1 Nyquist for a Noiseless Channel

𝐶 = 2𝐵 log2 𝑀

4.21.2 Shannon for a Noisy Channel

𝑆
𝐶 = 𝐵 log2 (1 + )
𝑁

The SNR must be linear:

𝑆
= 10𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑑𝐵 /10
𝑁
Reliable communication is theoretically possible when the required bit rate is below capacity.
Common trap: Never insert dB directly into the Shannon formula.

4.22 Error Detection and Correction

4.22.1 Parity

A parity bit makes the total number of ones even or odd.

Parity detects any odd number of bit errors but may miss an even number. Simple parity normally detects
but does not correct.

4.22.2 LRC

Longitudinal redundancy check calculates parity across columns and is better than single parity for some
burst errors.

4.22.3 Checksum

The sender adds data words, complements the sum, and transmits it. The receiver repeats the process.

4.22.4 Cyclic Redundancy Check

CRC uses modulo-2 polynomial division.

• Zero remainder: no error detected
• Nonzero remainder: error detected
Modulo-2 subtraction is XOR.
Polynomial division, XOR, and remainder = CRC.

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4.22.5 Hamming Distance

The Hamming distance is the number of bit positions in which two codewords differ.
For minimum distance 𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 :

𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑡 = 𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 1

𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 1
𝑡=⌊ ⌋
2
Example: 𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 5 detects 4 errors and corrects 2.

4.22.6 Hamming Parity Bits

For 𝑚 data bits and 𝑟 parity bits:

2𝑟 ≥ 𝑚 + 𝑟 + 1

4.23 Multiplexing and Multiple Access

Multiplexing combines signals on one link. Multiple access allows multiple users to share a system.

Multiplexing Principle
FDM Frequency bands
TDM Time slots
WDM Optical wavelengths

Multiple access User separation

FDMA Frequency
TDMA Time
CDMA Code

4.23.1 FDM

Different signals occupy different frequency bands simultaneously. Guard bands separate channels.

4.23.2 TDM

Different signals use different time slots.

• Synchronous TDM: fixed slots, even when idle
• Statistical TDM: slots assigned to active sources
For 𝑁 channels each producing 𝑅 bits/s with no overhead:

𝑅𝑇 = 𝑁 𝑅

4.23.3 WDM

Different optical wavelengths share one fiber.

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4.23.4 CDMA

Users share time and frequency but use distinct spreading codes. Power control is important because of
the near-far problem.
Frequency - Time - Code.

4.24 Digital Communications - Common Traps

1. PAM is analog pulse modulation; PCM is binary coding.
2. Sampling discretizes time; quantization discretizes amplitude.
3. 𝐿 = 2𝑛 .
4. Bit rate is not always baud rate.
5. Higher-order modulation improves spectral efficiency but requires higher SNR.
6. Shannon SNR must be linear.
7. Source coding removes redundancy; channel coding adds it.
8. Detection is not correction.
9. FDM/TDM/WDM combine signals; FDMA/TDMA/CDMA separate users.
10. CDMA users may share the same time and frequency.

4.25 Quick Solved Examples

4.25.1 Quantization Levels

For a 10-bit PCM system:

𝐿 = 210 = 1024

4.25.2 Bits Required

For 256 levels:

𝑛 = log2 256 = 8

4.25.3 PCM Bit Rate

A 5 kHz signal is sampled at Nyquist using 8 bits/sample:

𝑓𝑠 = 10 kHz

𝑅𝑏 = 8(10, 000) = 80 kbps

4.25.4 QPSK Symbol Rate

For 𝑅𝑏 = 12 Mbps:

12
𝑅𝑠 = = 6 Mbaud
2

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4.25.5 64-QAM Symbol Rate

For 𝑅𝑏 = 30 Mbps:

𝑘 = log2 64 = 6

30
𝑅𝑠 = = 5 Mbaud
6

4.25.6 Hamming Capability

For 𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 7:

𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑡 = 6

𝑡=3

4.26 Chapter Memory Map

• Compress, protect, modulate, transmit, detect, correct, reconstruct.
• PAM-height, PWM-width, PPM-position, PCM-code.
• ASK-amplitude, FSK-frequency, PSK-phase, QAM-both.
• Bits equal symbols times bits per symbol.
• Parity is simple, CRC uses division, Hamming corrects.
• FDM-frequency, TDM-time, WDM-wavelength.
• FDMA-frequency, TDMA-time, CDMA-code.

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5 Transmission and Antenna Systems

5.1 Topic Priority

Review area Board-review emphasis

Transmission lines, matching, and Smith chart Very high
Radio-wave propagation and field calculations Very high
Antenna systems Very high
Waveguides and fiber optics High

Study order: Propagation - Antennas - Transmission Lines - Waveguides - Fiber.

5.2 Transmission-Line Fundamentals

A transmission line is a distributed-parameter structure that guides electromagnetic energy.
Examples:
• Twisted pair
• Twin lead
• Coaxial cable
• Open-wire line
• Microstrip
• Waveguide

5.2.1 Distributed Parameters

Symbol Meaning Location

𝑅 Series resistance per unit length Along the line
𝐿 Series inductance per unit length Along the line
𝐺 Shunt conductance per unit length Across the dielectric
𝐶 Shunt capacitance per unit length Across the conductors

R and L run along; G and C go across.

5.2.2 Characteristic Impedance

General form:

𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿
𝑍0 = √
𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶

For a lossless line:

𝑅 = 0, 𝐺=0

𝐿
𝑍0 = √
𝐶
A lossless line still has inductance and capacitance.

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5.2.3 Propagation Constant

𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽
• 𝛼: attenuation constant
• 𝛽 : phase constant
General expression:

𝛾 = √(𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)(𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶)

For a lossless line:

𝛼=0

√ 2𝜋
𝛽 = 𝜔 𝐿𝐶 =
𝜆
Alpha attenuates; beta advances phase.

5.2.4 Velocity and Wavelength

For a lossless line:

1
𝑣=√
𝐿𝐶
𝑣
𝜆=
𝑓
Velocity factor:

𝑣
𝑉𝐹 =
𝑐

𝑣 =𝑉𝐹 ⋅𝑐

𝜆𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 𝑉 𝐹 ⋅ 𝜆0
where:

𝑐
𝜆0 =
𝑓
Since 𝑉 𝐹 < 1, wavelength in a cable is shorter than free-space wavelength.

5.3 Balanced and Unbalanced Lines

A balanced line has equal and opposite conductor voltages relative to ground. Examples include twin lead
and twisted pair.
An unbalanced line normally has one conductor grounded or used as a shield. Coaxial cable is the main
example.
A balun connects balanced to unbalanced systems.
BAL-UN = BALanced to UNbalanced.

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5.4 Transmission-Line Losses

5.4.1 Conductor Loss

𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐼 2 𝑅

5.4.2 Skin Effect

At high frequency, current concentrates near the conductor surface. Effective area falls, resistance rises,
and conductor loss increases.

5.4.3 Dielectric Loss

Caused by imperfect insulation between conductors.

5.4.4 Radiation and Induction Losses

Energy may escape from the line or couple to nearby circuits.

CDRI: Conductor, Dielectric, Radiation, Induction.

5.5 Reflection Coefficient

When 𝑍𝐿 ≠ 𝑍0 , part of the wave is reflected:

𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍 0
Γ𝐿 =
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍 0

Condition Reflection coefficient

Perfect match, 𝑍𝐿 = 𝑍 0 0
Open circuit +1
Short circuit −1

Open is plus, short is minus, match is zero.

5.6 Standing-Wave Ratio

1 + |Γ|
𝑆𝑊 𝑅 =
1 − |Γ|

Inverse:

𝑆𝑊 𝑅 − 1
|Γ| =
𝑆𝑊 𝑅 + 1

Condition |Γ| SWR

Perfect match 0 1
Partial mismatch Between 0 and 1 Greater than 1
Open or short 1 Infinite

Lower SWR is better.

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5.7 Return Loss

𝑅𝐿 = −20 log10 |Γ|

Higher return loss means a better match.

Good match: |Γ| low, SWR near 1, return loss high.

5.8 Standing-Wave Positions

Distance between adjacent voltage maxima:

𝜆
2
Distance between a maximum and nearest minimum:

𝜆
4
At an open circuit:
• Voltage maximum
• Current minimum
At a short circuit:
• Voltage minimum
• Current maximum
Open voltage rises; short current rises.

5.9 Quarter-Wave and Half-Wave Lines

Quarter-wave line:

𝜆
𝑙=
4

𝑍02
𝑍𝑖𝑛 =
𝑍𝐿

A quarter-wave line is an impedance inverter:

• Open load appears short at the input.
• Short load appears open at the input.
Half-wave line:

𝜆
𝑙=
2

𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍𝐿
Quarter wave inverts; half wave repeats.

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5.10 Quarter-Wave Transformer

To match two real impedances:

𝑍𝑡 = √𝑍0 𝑍𝐿

It is frequency-sensitive and relatively narrowband.

5.11 Stub Matching

A stub is an open- or short-circuited line section used to cancel reactance or susceptance.
• Shunt stub adds susceptance.
• Series stub adds reactance.
Shunt - susceptance; series - reactance.

5.12 Smith Chart Fundamentals

Normalized impedance:

𝑍𝐿
𝑧𝐿 =
𝑍0
Denormalization:

𝑍𝐿 = 𝑧 𝐿 𝑍0

Location Meaning
Center Perfect match, 1 + 𝑗0
Far right Open circuit
Far left Short circuit
Upper half Inductive
Lower half Capacitive

Movement:
• Toward generator: clockwise
• Toward load: counterclockwise
• Impedance to admittance: rotate 180∘
• On a lossless line, movement stays on the same SWR circle
Right open, left short, upper inductor, lower capacitor.

5.13 Free-Space Electromagnetic Waves

Intrinsic impedance of free space:

𝜂0 ≈ 377 Ω

For RMS electric field 𝐸:

𝐸2
𝑆=
377
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√
𝐸= 377𝑆

𝐸 = 377𝐻

5.14 Power Density

For transmitted power 𝑃𝑡 and gain 𝐺𝑡 :

𝑃 𝑡 𝐺𝑡
𝑆=
4𝜋𝑟2

For an isotropic radiator, 𝐺𝑡 = 1 .

Power density follows the inverse-square law:

1
𝑆∝
𝑟2
Double the distance, quarter the power density.

5.15 Electric Field Strength

√30𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡
𝐸=
𝑟
Field strength falls as:

1
𝐸∝
𝑟
Field falls as 1/𝑟; power density falls as 1/𝑟2 .

5.16 Free-Space Path Loss

For 𝑓 in MHz and 𝑑 in km:

𝐹 𝑆𝑃 𝐿𝑑𝐵 = 32.44 + 20 log10 𝑓𝑀𝐻𝑧 + 20 log10 𝑑𝑘𝑚

Doubling frequency or distance adds about 6 dB of free-space loss.

5.17 Friis Transmission Equation

2
𝜆
𝑃𝑟 = 𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝐺𝑟 ( )
4𝜋𝑟

Received power increases with transmit power, antenna gains, and wavelength, and decreases with dis-
tance.

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5.18 Link Budget

𝑃𝑟 (𝑑𝐵𝑚) = 𝑃𝑡 (𝑑𝐵𝑚) + 𝐺𝑡 (𝑑𝐵𝑖) + 𝐺𝑟 (𝑑𝐵𝑖) − 𝐿𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ (𝑑𝐵) − 𝐿𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 (𝑑𝐵)

Add power and gains; subtract every loss.

5.19 Radio-Wave Propagation Modes

Mode Main behavior Common use

Ground wave Follows Earth’s surface Lower frequencies
Sky wave Refracted by ionosphere Long-distance HF
Space wave Direct and reflected paths VHF and above

Ground hugs, sky hops, space sees.

5.20 Ionospheric Layers

Layer Main characteristic

D Daytime absorption, especially lower HF and MF
E May return some signals
F1 Daytime subdivision of F region
F2 Important for long-distance HF and remains at night

D = daytime absorption; F2 = far-distance communication.

5.21 Critical Frequency and MUF

Critical frequency is the highest frequency returned for vertical incidence.
For a flat-layer model:

𝑀 𝑈 𝐹 = 𝑓𝑐 sec 𝜃

where 𝜃 is measured from the vertical.

5.22 Skip Distance and Virtual Height

• Skip distance: minimum horizontal distance at which a sky wave returns.
• Skip zone: area between ground-wave coverage and first sky-wave return.
• Virtual height: apparent reflecting height of the ionosphere.
Skip distance is horizontal; virtual height is vertical.

5.23 Radio Horizon

For antenna heights in meters:

𝑑𝑘𝑚 = 4.12(√ℎ1 + √ℎ2 )

Radio horizon increases with the square root of height.

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5.24 Other Propagation Effects

Effect Meaning
Reflection Wave bounces from a surface
Refraction Direction changes because velocity changes
Diffraction Wave bends around obstacles
Tropospheric ducting Wave becomes trapped in a refractive layer
Multipath Several copies arrive by different paths
Fading Received signal strength varies
Rain attenuation Important at microwave and millimeter-wave
frequencies

5.25 Polarization Mismatch

For linear antennas separated by angle 𝜃:

𝑃 𝐿𝐹 = cos2 𝜃
At 90∘ , ideal coupling is zero.

5.26 Antenna Fundamentals

An antenna converts guided electrical energy to radiated electromagnetic energy and performs the re-
verse process in reception.
The reciprocity principle states that an antenna has the same directional properties in transmit and receive
operation.

5.27 Isotropic Radiator

An isotropic radiator is an ideal reference that radiates equally in all directions.

𝐺 = 1 = 0 dBi

5.28 Directivity, Efficiency, and Gain

𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐷=
𝑈𝑎𝑣𝑔

𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝜂=
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

𝐺 = 𝜂𝐷
Directivity points, efficiency saves, gain includes both.

5.29 Radiation Resistance

2
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅𝑟
Approximate values:

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Antenna Resistance
Half-wave dipole 73 Ω
Quarter-wave monopole over perfect ground 36.5 Ω

5.30 Half-Wave Dipole

Approximate total length:

143
𝐿𝑑𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 (𝑚) =
𝑓(𝑀 𝐻𝑧)

Each arm is half the total length.

Current is maximum at the center and nearly zero at the ends.
Radiation is maximum broadside and has nulls along the wire axis.

5.31 Quarter-Wave Monopole

71.5
𝐿𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 (𝑚) =
𝑓(𝑀 𝐻𝑧)

It normally operates over a ground plane.

5.32 Polarization
Polarization follows the orientation of the electric-field vector.
Types:
• Vertical
• Horizontal
• Circular
• Elliptical
Maximum power transfer occurs when transmit and receive polarization match.

5.33 Radiation Pattern Terms

• Main lobe: strongest radiation
• Side lobes: smaller unwanted lobes
• Back lobe: opposite the main lobe
• Null: direction of very weak radiation
• Half-power beamwidth: angle between the −3 dB points

5.34 Front-to-Back Ratio

𝑃𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡
𝐹 /𝐵 =
𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘
𝑃𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡
𝐹 /𝐵𝑑𝐵 = 10 log10 ( )
𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘

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5.35 Effective Aperture

𝐺𝜆2
𝐴𝑒 =
4𝜋
At equal gain, larger wavelength gives larger aperture.

5.36 dBi and dBd

𝐺𝑑𝐵𝑖 = 𝐺𝑑𝐵𝑑 + 2.15

5.37 EIRP

𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃 (𝑑𝐵𝑚) = 𝑃𝑡 (𝑑𝐵𝑚) + 𝐺𝑡 (𝑑𝐵𝑖) − 𝐿𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 (𝑑𝐵)

5.38 Common Antennas

Antenna Main characteristic

Half-wave dipole Basic resonant wire antenna
Quarter-wave monopole Uses a ground plane
Yagi-Uda Reflector, driven element, directors
Horn Gradual transition from waveguide to free space
Axial-mode helix End-fire and circular polarization
Small loop Maximum radiation in its plane; null on axis
Broadside array Maximum perpendicular to array axis
End-fire array Maximum along array axis

Yagi: reflector behind, driven element, directors toward the desired direction.

5.39 Waveguide Modes

5.39.1 TEM

Both electric and magnetic fields are transverse. A true TEM mode normally requires two conductors. A
hollow single-conductor waveguide cannot support true TEM.

5.39.2 TE

𝐸𝑧 = 0

5.39.3 TM

𝐻𝑧 = 0
TE: electric field entirely transverse. TM: magnetic field entirely transverse.

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5.40 Rectangular Waveguide

Dominant mode:

𝑇 𝐸10

For broad dimension 𝑎 in an air-filled guide:

𝑐
𝑓𝑐 =
2𝑎
Propagation occurs only when:

𝑓 > 𝑓𝑐
Below cutoff, the field is evanescent and decays.

5.41 Guide Wavelength

𝑐
𝜆0 =
𝑓

𝜆0
𝜆𝑔 =
√1 − (𝑓𝑐 /𝑓)2

For a propagating mode:

𝜆𝑔 > 𝜆 0

5.42 Phase and Group Velocity

For an ideal air-filled waveguide:

𝑣𝑝 𝑣𝑔 = 𝑐 2

Above cutoff:

𝑣𝑝 > 𝑐, 𝑣𝑔 < 𝑐

Information and energy travel with group velocity, so relativity is not violated.

5.43 Fiber-Optic Fundamentals

Fiber guides light by total internal reflection.
Requirements:
1. Core index greater than cladding index: 𝑛1 > 𝑛2 .
2. Light travels from higher to lower refractive index.
3. Incidence angle exceeds the critical angle.

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5.43.1 Refractive Index

𝑐
𝑛=
𝑣

5.43.2 Numerical Aperture

For a step-index fiber in air:

𝑁 𝐴 = √𝑛21 − 𝑛22

𝑁 𝐴 = sin 𝜃𝑎
A larger NA accepts light over a wider angle.

5.43.3 Single-Mode Criterion

𝑉 < 2.405

5.43.4 Fiber Types

Fiber Main characteristic

Multimode step-index Abrupt index change, high modal dispersion
Multimode graded-index Gradual index change, reduced modal dispersion
Single-mode Lowest modal dispersion,
long-distance/high-bandwidth

5.43.5 Fiber Loss and Dispersion

Total link loss:

𝐿𝑇 = 𝐿𝑐𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 + 𝐿𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 + 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠

𝐿𝑐𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 = 𝛼𝑑𝐵/𝑘𝑚 𝑑𝑘𝑚

Dispersion broadens pulses. Important types are modal, material, and waveguide dispersion.

5.44 Transmission and Antenna - Common Traps

1. Low SWR and high return loss both mean a good match.
2. A quarter-wave line inverts impedance; a half-wave line repeats it.
3. Field strength falls as 1/𝑟; power density falls as 1/𝑟2 .
4. The FSPL constant 32.44 requires MHz and km.
5. In the MUF formula here, angle is measured from vertical.
6. Gain equals efficiency times directivity.
7. 𝑑𝐵𝑖 = 𝑑𝐵𝑑 + 2.15.
8. Below waveguide cutoff, fields decay.
9. Guide wavelength is greater than free-space wavelength.
10. Fiber core index must exceed cladding index.

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5.45 Quick Solved Examples

5.45.1 Characteristic Impedance

Given 𝐿 = 250 nH/m and 𝐶 = 100 pF/m:

250 × 10−9
𝑍0 = √ = 50 Ω
100 × 10−12

5.45.2 Reflection Coefficient

A 50-ohm line terminated in 75 ohms:

75 − 50
Γ= = 0.20
75 + 50

5.45.3 SWR

1 + 0.20
𝑆𝑊 𝑅 = = 1.5
1 − 0.20

5.45.4 Return Loss

For |Γ| = 0.10:

𝑅𝐿 = −20 log10 (0.10) = 20 dB

5.45.5 Free-Space Path Loss

For 100 MHz and 10 km:

𝐹 𝑆𝑃 𝐿 = 32.44 + 20 log 100 + 20 log 10 = 92.44 dB

5.45.6 Dipole Length

At 100 MHz:

143
𝐿= = 1.43 m
100

5.45.7 Waveguide Cutoff

For 𝑎 = 2.286 cm:

3 × 108
𝑓𝑐 = ≈ 6.56 GHz
2(0.02286)

5.45.8 Fiber Numerical Aperture

For 𝑛1 = 1.48 and 𝑛2 = 1.46:

√
𝑁𝐴 = 1.482 − 1.462 ≈ 0.242

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5.46 Chapter Memory Map

• RLGC leads to 𝑍0 , reflection, SWR, and matching.
• Quarter wave inverts; half wave repeats.
• Ground hugs, sky hops, space sees.
• Field falls as 1/𝑟; density falls as 1/𝑟2 .
• Gain combines directivity and efficiency.
• Dipole length is 143/𝑓 ; monopole length is 71.5/𝑓 .
• 𝑇 𝐸10 dominates rectangular waveguide operation.
• Fiber uses a high-index core and total internal reflection.

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6 Electronic Systems and Design

6.1 Topic Priority

Review area Board-review emphasis

Optoelectronic devices, sensors, and High
transducers
Interfacing and PLCs Very high
Building management, HVAC, security, Very high
surveillance, AV, lighting, SCADA, fire, and
life safety

Memory pattern: Sense - Interface - Integrate.

6.2 Basic Electronic System

Physical Quantity → Sensor → Signal Conditioning → Controller → Driver → Actuator
A feedback signal may return from the output to the controller.
Sense - Condition - Decide - Drive - Act.

6.3 Sensor and Transducer Fundamentals

A sensor detects a physical quantity. A transducer converts energy or information from one form to
another.
Examples:
• Microphone: sound to electrical signal
• Loudspeaker: electrical signal to sound
• Thermocouple: temperature difference to voltage
• Motor: electrical to mechanical energy
Sensor detects; transducer converts.

6.4 Active and Passive Transducers

Type Meaning Examples

Active Generates its own electrical Thermocouple, piezoelectric
output from the measured sensor, photovoltaic cell
quantity
Passive Requires external excitation and RTD, thermistor, strain gauge,
changes 𝑅 , 𝐿, or 𝐶 LVDT

Active creates a signal; passive changes an applied signal.

6.5 Analog and Digital Sensors

Type Output
Analog sensor Continuous voltage, current, resistance, or
capacitance
Digital sensor ON/OFF state, pulses, or coded data

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6.6 Static Sensor Characteristics

6.6.1 Range and Span

𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛 = 𝑀 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 − 𝑀 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚

6.6.2 Sensitivity

Δ𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑆=
Δ𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

6.6.3 Accuracy

|𝑀 𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 − 𝑇 𝑟𝑢𝑒|
%𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100%
|𝑇 𝑟𝑢𝑒|

6.6.4 Precision

Precision is the closeness of repeated measurements to one another.

Accuracy = correct target; precision = tight grouping.

6.6.5 Resolution

The smallest detectable input change. For an ideal 𝑛-bit ADC:

𝑉𝐹 𝑆
𝐿𝑆𝐵 ≈
2𝑛

6.6.6 Linearity

An ideal linear sensor follows:

𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏

6.6.7 Hysteresis

The output for a given input depends on whether the input is increasing or decreasing.

6.6.8 Repeatability and Reproducibility

• Repeatability: same conditions

• Reproducibility: changed operator, instrument, time, or location

6.6.9 Drift

A slow output change while the input remains constant.

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6.7 Dynamic Sensor Characteristics

A first-order response is:

𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑦𝑓 + (𝑦0 − 𝑦𝑓 )𝑒−𝑡/𝜏

For a rise from zero:

𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑦𝑓 (1 − 𝑒−𝑡/𝜏 )

At one time constant:

𝑦(𝜏 ) = 0.632𝑦𝑓

At five time constants:

𝑦(5𝜏 ) ≈ 0.993𝑦𝑓
One tau = 63%; five tau = almost complete.

6.8 Temperature Sensors

6.8.1 Thermocouple

A thermocouple produces voltage from the temperature difference between junctions of dissimilar metals
through the Seebeck effect.

𝑉 = 𝑆(𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 )
Characteristics:
• Active sensor
• Wide temperature range
• Rugged
• Low output voltage
• Needs amplification and cold-junction compensation

6.8.2 RTD

An RTD uses the resistance change of a metal:

𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅0 [1 + 𝛼(𝑇 − 𝑇0 )]

Characteristics:
• Accurate and stable
• Approximately linear
• Requires excitation
• Commonly platinum
A Pt100 is approximately 100 ohms at 0∘ C.

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6.8.3 Thermistor

An NTC thermistor decreases resistance as temperature increases:

𝑇 ↑⇒ 𝑅 ↓
A PTC thermistor increases resistance as temperature increases.
A common NTC model is:

𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅0 𝑒𝛽(1/𝑇 −1/𝑇0 )
Temperatures must be in kelvin.
NTC = negative temperature-resistance relationship.

6.8.4 Temperature Sensor Comparison

Sensor Strength Limitation

Thermocouple Wide range, rugged Small nonlinear output
RTD Accurate and stable More expensive and slower
Thermistor Very sensitive Nonlinear, narrower range
IC sensor Easy to interface Limited range

6.9 Optoelectronic Devices

6.9.1 LED

Series resistor:

𝑉𝑆 − 𝑉 𝐹
𝑅𝑠 =
𝐼𝐹

6.9.2 Photodiode

Converts light to current and is commonly reverse-biased for speed.

𝐼𝑝 = ℛ𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑡

6.9.3 Phototransistor

Higher sensitivity and current than a photodiode, but normally slower.

6.9.4 LDR

As light increases, LDR resistance normally decreases.

6.9.5 Optocoupler

An LED and photodetector transfer information through light while providing electrical isolation.
Optocoupler communicates without conductive contact.

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6.10 Position and Proximity Sensors

6.10.1 Potentiometric Sensor

For a uniform potentiometer:

𝑥
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉 𝑠
𝐿

6.10.2 LVDT

A Linear Variable Differential Transformer has one primary, two series-opposed secondaries, and a mov-
able core.
• Centered core: approximately zero output
• Direction of motion changes output phase
• Frictionless and high resolution

6.10.3 Capacitive Sensor

𝜀𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑
It may detect changes in area, separation, or dielectric constant.

6.10.4 Inductive Proximity Sensor

Detects metallic targets through eddy-current effects.

6.10.5 Capacitive Proximity Sensor

Can detect metals and nonmetals, including liquids, powders, glass, plastic, and wood.

6.10.6 Hall-Effect Sensor

𝑉𝐻 ∝ 𝐵𝐼
Used for magnetic field, current, speed, and position sensing.

6.10.7 Optical Encoder

• Incremental encoder: relative movement, speed, and direction

• Absolute encoder: unique code for each position
Incremental counts movement; absolute knows location.

6.11 Force, Pressure, and Strain Sensors

6.11.1 Strain Gauge

Δ𝑅/𝑅
𝐺𝐹 =
𝜀

Δ𝐿
𝜀=
𝐿

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Δ𝑅
= 𝐺𝐹 𝜀
𝑅
A Wheatstone bridge is commonly used because the resistance change is small.

6.11.2 Load Cell

A load cell normally uses strain gauges, a bridge, and an instrumentation amplifier.

6.11.3 Piezoelectric Sensor

𝑄 = 𝑑𝐹
Best for vibration, impact, acceleration, and dynamic pressure. It is not ideal for long-term static force
because charge leaks away.
Piezo is for changing pressure, not permanent pressure.

6.12 Signal Conditioning

Signal conditioning may provide:
• Amplification
• Filtering
• Isolation
• Linearization
• Level shifting
• Excitation
• Bridge completion
• ADC conversion
• Protection

6.12.1 Op-Amp Gains

Inverting:

𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝑣 = −
𝑅𝑖𝑛
Non-inverting:

𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝑣 = 1 +
𝑅1

6.12.2 Instrumentation Amplifier

Important for small differential sensor signals because it provides:

• High input impedance
• High common-mode rejection
• Low offset
• Accurate differential gain

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6.12.3 CMRR

𝐴𝑑
𝐶𝑀 𝑅𝑅 =
𝐴𝑐

𝐴𝑑
𝐶𝑀 𝑅𝑅𝑑𝐵 = 20 log10 ( )
𝐴𝑐
Higher CMRR is better.

6.12.4 RC Low-Pass Filter

1
𝑓𝑐 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶
An anti-aliasing filter is placed before an ADC.

6.13 Industrial Signals

6.13.1 Voltage Ranges

Common ranges include 0-5 V, 0-10 V, -10 to +10 V, and 1-5 V.

6.13.2 4-20 mA Current Loop

4 mA = 0%

20 mA = 100%
Percentage of span:

𝐼 −4
%𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛 = × 100%
16
For process range 𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛 to 𝑋𝑚𝑎𝑥 :

𝐼 −4
𝑋 = 𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛 + (𝑋𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛 )
16
The 4 mA lower value is a live zero, allowing loop-powered operation and broken-wire detection.
4 is alive; 0 may mean broken.
With a 250-ohm resistor:

4 − 20 mA ⟷ 1 − 5 V

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6.14 ADC Fundamentals

Number of codes:

𝑁 = 2𝑛
Ideal LSB size:

𝑉𝐹 𝑆
𝑉𝐿𝑆𝐵 ≈
2𝑛
Quantization uncertainty:

𝑉𝐿𝑆𝐵
𝑒𝑞 ≈ ±
2
Approximate unipolar digital code:

𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑛
𝐷≈ (2 − 1)
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓

6.15 DAC Fundamentals

Approximate ideal unipolar output:

𝐷
𝑉𝑜 ≈ 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓
2𝑛 − 1
An R-2R ladder uses only resistor values 𝑅 and 2𝑅.

6.16 Interfacing Techniques

A typical output path is:

Controller → Isolation → Driver → Load

6.16.1 Loading

𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉 𝑠
𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝐿
For voltage measurement:

𝑅𝐿 ≫ 𝑅𝑠
Voltage sensing wants high input impedance.

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6.16.2 Transistor Driver

BJT base resistor:

𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝑅𝐵 =
𝐼𝐵
For saturation:

𝐼𝐶
𝐼𝐵 ≥
𝛽𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑑

6.16.3 Flyback Diode

Inductive energy:

1
𝐸𝐿 = 𝐿𝐼 2
2
A flyback diode across a DC relay, solenoid, or motor coil protects the switch from high reverse voltage.

6.16.4 Relay Contacts

• COM: common
• NO: normally open
• NC: normally closed
“Normally” refers to the de-energized coil state.

6.17 PLC Fundamentals

A PLC is an industrial computer for reliable, repetitive control in harsh environments.
Main parts:
• Power supply
• CPU
• Memory
• Input modules
• Output modules
• Programming device
• Communication module

6.17.1 PLC Scan Cycle

𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑠 → 𝐸𝑥𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑃 𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 → 𝑈 𝑝𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑠 → 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑠

R-E-U-D: Read, Execute, Update, Diagnose.

6.17.2 Typical PLC Inputs

• Pushbuttons
• Limit switches
• Proximity sensors
• Encoders
• Temperature and pressure transmitters

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6.17.3 Typical PLC Outputs

• Contactors
• Relays
• Solenoid valves
• Lamps
• VFDs
• Alarms

6.18 Sourcing and Sinking

• Sourcing device supplies current.
• Sinking device provides the return path.
Source sends; sink receives.

6.19 Ladder Logic

Ladder logic is evaluated conceptually from left to right and top to bottom.

Ladder arrangement Logic

Series contacts AND
Parallel contacts OR
Normally closed instruction NOT
Coil Output result

Series means all; parallel means any.

A ladder contact symbol describes the logical test and does not always match the physical switch type.

6.20 Start-Stop Seal-In Circuit

A typical motor control uses:
• Normally closed STOP button
• Normally open START button
• Output contact in parallel with START
• Motor contactor coil
The output contact maintains operation after START is released. A normally closed STOP loop is fail-safe
because a broken wire tends to stop the machine.

6.21 Timers and Counters

6.21.1 TON

Delays turning ON.

6.21.2 TOF

Delays turning OFF.

6.21.3 Retentive Timer

Keeps accumulated time until reset.

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6.21.4 Encoder Calculations

𝑃 𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡
𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 =
𝑃 𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
60𝑓𝑝
𝑅𝑃 𝑀 =
𝑁𝑝

6.22 Interlocking
An interlock prevents incompatible outputs from operating together.
Examples:
• Forward and reverse contactors
• Heating and cooling
• Two valves that must not open together
• Elevator movement and door opening

6.23 Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Control

Open loop does not measure the actual output.
Closed loop compares output with a setpoint:

𝑒(𝑡) = 𝑟(𝑡) − 𝑦(𝑡)

Closed loop checks the result.

6.24 On-Off and PID Control

On-off control changes between two states and often uses hysteresis to prevent rapid switching.
PID control:

𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑝 𝑒(𝑡) + 𝐾𝑖 ∫ 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + 𝐾𝑑
𝑑𝑡

Term Responds to Main effect

P Present error Faster correction; may leave
offset
I Accumulated past error Removes steady-state error; may
increase overshoot
D Rate of error change Improves damping; sensitive to
noise

P = Present, I = Past, D = Direction of the future.

6.25 Building Management Systems

A BMS integrates and supervises building services:
• HVAC
• Lighting
• Electrical monitoring

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• Security and access control

• CCTV
• Fire and life safety
• Elevators
• Water systems
• Energy management
Objectives:
• Comfort
• Energy efficiency
• Safety
• Central monitoring
• Scheduling
• Alarm management
• Trend recording

6.25.1 BMS Levels

Level Components
Field Sensors, valves, dampers, switches, actuators
Automation PLCs, DDC controllers, remote I/O
Management HMI, server, database, trend and alarm software

Field senses; controller decides; management supervises.

6.26 HVAC Fundamentals

HVAC variables include temperature, humidity, pressure, airflow, CO2, occupancy, and water tempera-
ture.
Actuators include valves, dampers, fans, pumps, compressors, heaters, and VFDs.

6.26.1 Thermostat Deadband

𝐷𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝑈 𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑇 ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑 − 𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑇 ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑

A wider deadband reduces switching but allows more variation.

6.26.2 Variable-Frequency Drive

Synchronous motor speed:

120𝑓
𝑁𝑠 =
𝑃
Slip:

𝑁𝑠 − 𝑁 𝑟
𝑠=
𝑁𝑠
For centrifugal loads:

𝑄∝𝑁

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𝐻 ∝ 𝑁2

𝑃 ∝ 𝑁3
Reducing fan or pump speed can greatly reduce power.

6.27 Security and Surveillance

6.27.1 Access Control Components

• Credential
• Reader
• Controller
• Electric lock
• Door-position switch
• Request-to-exit device
• Alarm interface
• Database
Authentication factors:
• Something you know
• Something you have
• Something you are
Know - Have - Are.

6.27.2 CCTV

Common terms:
• DVR: typically analog-camera recording
• NVR: network/IP-camera recording
• PTZ: pan, tilt, zoom
• PoE: power and data over Ethernet

6.27.3 Alarm Loops

A normally closed alarm loop supports fault and wire-cut detection. A tamper circuit detects unauthorized
opening of equipment.

6.28 Fire and Life-Safety Systems

Basic path:

Initiating Device → Fire Alarm Control Panel → Notification Appliance

Initiating devices:
• Smoke detector
• Heat detector
• Manual pull station
• Flame detector
• Water-flow switch
Notification appliances:
• Horn
• Bell

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• Strobe
• Speaker
• Voice evacuation
Signal distinctions:

Signal Meaning
Alarm Fire condition
Supervisory Fire-protection system abnormal
Trouble Equipment, wiring, or power fault

6.28.1 Detector Types

• Photoelectric smoke detector: strong response to smoldering fires

• Ionization detector: traditionally strong response to fast-flaming fires
• Fixed-temperature detector: trips at a set temperature
• Rate-of-rise detector: responds to rapid temperature increase

6.29 Audio-Video and Lighting Systems

Audio signal path:

Source → Mixer/Processor → Power Amplifier → Loudspeaker

Balanced audio uses opposite-polarity signal conductors and differential reception to reject common-mode
noise.
Lighting control methods include switches, relays, occupancy sensing, daylight sensing, schedules, dim-
ming, scenes, and BMS commands.
Daylight harvesting reduces artificial lighting when natural light is sufficient.

6.30 SCADA
SCADA means Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition.
Main components:
• Field sensors and actuators
• PLC or RTU
• Communication network
• Master station
• HMI
• Historian

Term Meaning
RTU Remote field data collection and control
HMI Operator display and commands
Historian Time-stamped process data storage

6.30.1 PLC, BMS, and SCADA

System Main purpose

PLC Direct machine or process control
BMS Integrated building control
SCADA Supervisory monitoring of a broad system

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System Main purpose

HMI Human interaction and visualization
RTU Remote data collection and control

PLC controls; BMS coordinates a building; SCADA supervises a network.

6.31 Communication Protocols

Protocol Typical use

Modbus PLC and industrial instrumentation
BACnet Building automation and HVAC
KNX Building lighting and automation
CAN Automotive and industrial control
RS-232 Short point-to-point serial link
RS-485 Differential, longer-distance, multi-drop serial link
Ethernet High-speed networks

Building automation protocol = BACnet. Robust industrial differential serial bus =

RS-485.

6.32 Reliability and Safety

6.32.1 Fail-Safe Design

A failure should move the system to the safest practical condition.

Examples:
• Normally closed emergency-stop loop
• De-energize-to-trip output
• Broken-wire detection
• Fire door release on alarm

6.32.2 Redundancy

Extra power supplies, controllers, or communication paths improve availability.

6.32.3 Watchdog Timer

Detects controller-program failure and initiates reset or alarm.

6.32.4 Emergency Stop

Should be accessible, stop hazardous motion, override normal commands, and require deliberate reset.

6.33 Electronic Systems - Common Traps

1. A sensor measures; an actuator changes the process.
2. Active sensor does not simply mean “uses power.”
3. For NTC, temperature up means resistance down.
4. LED converts electricity to light; photodiode converts light to electricity.
5. Inductive proximity detects metal; capacitive can detect nonmetal.
6. 4 mA represents zero percent, not zero current.
7. More ADC bits improve resolution, not automatically accuracy.
8. PLC ladder contacts are logical instructions.

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9. PLCs scan inputs, execute, then update outputs.

10. PLC performs direct control; SCADA performs supervisory monitoring.
11. A wiring fault is normally a trouble condition, not automatically a fire alarm.
12. Fail-safe means safest practical failure behavior, not impossibility of failure.

6.34 Quick Solved Examples

6.34.1 Sensor Sensitivity

Output changes from 1 V to 4 V while pressure changes from 20 kPa to 80 kPa:

4−1
𝑆= = 0.05 V/kPa
80 − 20

6.34.2 4-20 mA Scaling

A 0-10 m level transmitter gives 16 mA:

16 − 4
𝐹 𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = 0.75
16

𝐿𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 = 0 + 0.75(10) = 7.5 m

6.34.3 LED Resistor

For 12 V supply, 2 V LED drop, and 20 mA:

12 − 2
𝑅= = 500 Ω
0.020

6.34.4 ADC Resolution

For a 10-bit, 0-5 V ADC:

5
𝑉𝐿𝑆𝐵 = ≈ 4.88 mV
1024

6.34.5 Pt100 Resistance

Using 𝑅𝑇 = 100[1 + 0.00385(100)]:

𝑅𝑇 = 138.5 Ω

6.34.6 Motor Synchronous Speed

A four-pole, 60 Hz motor:

120(60)
𝑁𝑠 = = 1800 rpm
4
If actual speed is 1740 rpm:

1800 − 1740
𝑠= = 3.33%
1800
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6.35 Chapter Memory Map

• Sense, condition, decide, drive, act.
• 4 mA is live zero; 20 mA is full scale.
• PLC scan: read, execute, update, diagnose.
• Series ladder contacts mean AND; parallel means OR.
• Open loop acts; closed loop checks.
• PID: present, past, direction.
• Field senses, controller decides, management supervises.
• Detect faults, isolate circuits, interlock hazards, and fail safely.

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7 Data Communications
7.1 Topic Priority

Review area Board-review emphasis

Fundamentals, configurations, and topologies Very high
Transmission modes and synchronization High
Network devices, security, and cryptography High
OSI, TCP/IP, and protocols Very high
LAN, MAN, WAN, GAN, and ISDN High

Study order: OSI/TCP-IP - Fundamentals - Transmission - Devices - Security - ISDN.

7.2 Data Communication Fundamentals

Data communication is the electronic exchange of information between devices through a transmission
medium.

7.2.1 Five Basic Components

Component Function
Message Information being transmitted
Sender Originates the data
Receiver Accepts the data
Transmission medium Carries the signal
Protocol Rules governing communication

Message Sent through Medium to Receiver by Protocol.

7.3 Characteristics of Effective Communication

• Delivery: data reaches the correct destination.
• Accuracy: data arrives without errors or unauthorized alteration.
• Timeliness: data arrives when needed.
• Jitter control: packet arrival times remain sufficiently uniform.
DAT-J: Delivery, Accuracy, Timeliness, Jitter.

7.4 Performance Terms

Term Meaning
Bandwidth Theoretical or nominal capacity
Throughput Actual successfully delivered rate
Goodput Useful application-data rate
Latency End-to-end delay
Jitter Variation in delay

𝐺𝑜𝑜𝑑𝑝𝑢𝑡 ≤ 𝑇 ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑝𝑢𝑡 ≤ 𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ

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7.4.1 Transmission Delay

𝐿
𝑡𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑅
where 𝐿 is packet length in bits and 𝑅 is bit rate.

7.4.2 Propagation Delay

𝑑
𝑡𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑣

7.4.3 Total Nodal Delay

𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑡𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝑡𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑢𝑒 + 𝑡𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 + 𝑡𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

7.4.4 Bandwidth-Delay Product

𝐵𝐷𝑃 = 𝑅 × 𝑅𝑇 𝑇
It estimates the number of bits that can be in flight over a round trip.
Large packet -> transmission delay. Long distance -> propagation delay. Heavy
traffic -> queueing delay.

7.5 Protocol Fundamentals

A protocol specifies:

Element Meaning
Syntax Format and structure
Semantics Meaning and required actions
Timing When and how fast data is sent

Format - Meaning - When.

7.6 Standards
• De facto: accepted through widespread use.
• De jure: formally approved by an authority.
Important organizations:

Organization Main association

ISO OSI model and international standards
IEEE LAN and wireless standards
ITU-T Telecommunications recommendations
IETF Internet protocols and RFCs
ANSI United States standards
EIA/TIA Cabling and electrical interfaces

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7.7 Communication Configurations

7.7.1 Point-to-Point

A dedicated link connects exactly two devices.

7.7.2 Multipoint or Multidrop

Several devices share one link, reducing cost but requiring access control and shared capacity.

7.8 Network Topologies

7.8.1 Bus

All devices share one backbone.

• Advantage: less cable
• Disadvantage: backbone failure affects the network

7.8.2 Star

Every device connects to a central hub or switch.

• Easy troubleshooting and expansion
• Central-device failure affects the network

7.8.3 Ring

Each device connects to two neighbors, forming a loop.

7.8.4 Mesh

Devices have multiple direct interconnections.

For a full mesh with 𝑛 devices:

𝑛(𝑛 − 1)
𝐿=
2
Ports per device:

𝑃 =𝑛−1

7.8.5 Tree

Hierarchical combination of stars.

7.8.6 Hybrid

Combination of two or more topologies.

Topology Memory image

Bus One road
Star Central sun
Ring Closed circle
Mesh Everyone connected
Tree Branches

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7.9 Network Categories

Network Coverage
LAN Room, building, or local campus
MAN City or metropolitan region
WAN Country or continent
GAN Global scale

Local - Metropolitan - Wide - Global.

7.10 Transmission Modes

7.10.1 Simplex

One direction only:

𝐴→𝐵

7.10.2 Half-Duplex

Both directions, but one at a time. Example: walkie-talkie.

7.10.3 Full-Duplex

Both directions simultaneously. Example: telephone.

Simplex sends; half-duplex takes turns; full-duplex talks together.

7.11 Two-Wire and Four-Wire Circuits

• Two-wire: transmit and receive share one pair.
• Four-wire: separate pairs for each direction.
Two-wire shares; four-wire separates.

7.12 Serial and Parallel Transmission

Serial Parallel
Bits sent one after another Several bits sent simultaneously
Less wiring More conductors
Better for long distance Best for short distance
Less skew and crosstalk Timing skew becomes important

7.13 Synchronization
7.13.1 Asynchronous

Data is sent character by character with start and stop bits.

• Simple
• Good for irregular data
• More overhead
Start and stop bits = asynchronous.

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7.13.2 Synchronous

Data is sent in coordinated blocks or frames.

• More efficient for large data blocks
• Requires shared or recovered timing

7.13.3 Isochronous

Data is delivered at regular time intervals. Important for real-time audio and video.

7.13.4 Plesiochronous

Clocks operate at almost, but not exactly, the same rate.

7.14 Manchester Encoding

Manchester encoding includes a mid-bit transition.
Advantages:
• Self-clocking
• Low DC content
Disadvantage:
• More bandwidth than NRZ

7.15 Switching Techniques

7.15.1 Circuit Switching

A dedicated path is established before data transfer.

Stages:
1. Setup
2. Data transfer
3. Disconnect
It offers predictable performance after setup but wastes capacity during silence.

7.15.2 Packet Switching

Data is divided into addressed packets that share network links.

Advantages:
• Efficient for bursty data
• Can reroute around failures
Disadvantages:
• Variable delay
• Packet loss, reordering, and congestion may occur

7.15.3 Message Switching

An entire message is stored and forwarded at intermediate nodes.

Circuit reserves, packet divides, message stores.

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7.16 Multiplexing
7.16.1 FDM

Different signals occupy different frequency bands simultaneously. Guard bands separate channels.

7.16.2 TDM

Different signals use different time slots.

• Synchronous TDM: fixed slots
• Statistical TDM: slots assigned dynamically

7.16.3 WDM

Different optical wavelengths share one fiber.

FDM-frequency, TDM-time, WDM-wavelength.

7.17 Network Components

Device or element Main function

Terminal Data endpoint
Multiplexer Combines channels
Concentrator Collects low-speed traffic dynamically
LCU Controls communication lines
FEP Handles communication tasks for a host

FEP frees the main computer from communication work.

7.18 DTE and DCE

• DTE: source or destination of data, such as a computer or terminal.
• DCE: interfaces the DTE to the communication circuit and may provide timing, such as a modem or
CSU/DSU.
DTE creates or uses data; DCE connects it to the circuit.

7.19 Common Network Devices

Device Main function Typical OSI layer

Repeater Regenerates signals 1
Hub Repeats to all ports 1
Bridge Connects segments using MAC addresses 2
Switch Forwards frames using MAC addresses 2
Router Routes packets using IP addresses 3
Gateway Translates protocols or formats Multiple
Modem Modulates and demodulates Mainly 1
Access point Connects wireless devices to LAN 2

Repeat bits, switch frames, route packets, translate systems.

7.19.1 Hub versus Switch

A hub sends traffic to all ports and forms one shared collision domain. A switch learns MAC addresses and
forwards a frame mainly to the correct port.

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7.20 OSI Reference Model

Layer Name Main responsibility

7 Application Network services for applications
6 Presentation Translation, compression, encryption
5 Session Establishes and manages dialogs
4 Transport End-to-end process delivery
3 Network Logical addressing and routing
2 Data Link Framing, MAC addressing, local delivery
1 Physical Bits, signals, media, connectors

Mnemonics:
All People Seem To Need Data Processing - Layer 7 down to 1.
Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away - Layer 1 up to 7.

7.20.1 Protocol Data Units

Layer group PDU

Application, Presentation, Session Data
Transport Segment or datagram
Network Packet
Data Link Frame
Physical Bits

Data - Segment - Packet - Frame - Bits.

7.21 Layer Functions

7.21.1 Physical

Voltage, optical levels, connectors, media, data rate, raw bits.

7.21.2 Data Link

Framing, MAC addressing, media access, link-level error detection.

7.21.3 Network

Logical addressing, routing, path selection, packet forwarding.

7.21.4 Transport

End-to-end delivery, segmentation, reliability, flow control, and port numbers.

7.21.5 Session

Dialog establishment, maintenance, and termination.

7.21.6 Presentation

Translation, formatting, compression, and encryption.

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7.21.7 Application

User-facing network services such as HTTP, FTP, SMTP, and DNS.

7.22 Encapsulation
𝐷𝑎𝑡𝑎 → 𝑆𝑒𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 → 𝑃 𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 → 𝐹 𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒 → 𝐵𝑖𝑡𝑠
The receiver removes headers in reverse order.
Sender wraps; receiver unwraps.

7.23 TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP layer Approximate OSI equivalent

Application OSI 5-7
Transport OSI 4
Internet OSI 3
Network Access OSI 1-2

7.24 TCP and UDP

TCP UDP
Connection-oriented Connectionless
Reliable and ordered Best effort
ACKs and retransmissions No built-in guarantee
Flow and congestion control Lower overhead
Used when reliability matters Used for real-time or simple transactions

TCP checks and confirms; UDP sends without waiting.

7.24.1 TCP Three-Way Handshake

1. SYN
2. SYN-ACK
3. ACK
The TCP window supports flow control by limiting unacknowledged data.

7.25 Important Internet Protocols

Protocol Function
IP Logical addressing and packet forwarding
ARP Maps IPv4 address to MAC address
DNS Maps domain name to IP address
DHCP Assigns IP configuration automatically
HTTP/HTTPS Web communication
FTP File transfer
SMTP Sends email
POP3/IMAP Retrieves or manages email
ICMP Diagnostics and error reporting
BGP Routing between autonomous systems

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7.25.1 Address Recognition

• MAC address: local device or data-link delivery

• IP address: network-layer routing
• Port number: application process at transport layer
• Domain name: human-readable application identifier
MAC finds the local device; IP finds the network; port finds the program.

7.26 SNA
System Network Architecture is historically associated with IBM and uses a structured, hierarchical net-
work organization.
SNA = IBM-oriented hierarchical architecture.

7.27 Character-Oriented and Bit-Oriented Protocols

Character-oriented protocols use special control characters to define communication structure.
Bit-oriented protocols use bit patterns and fields independent of character coding.

7.27.1 HDLC

HDLC is a bit-oriented data-link protocol. A simplified frame is:

𝐹 𝑙𝑎𝑔|𝐴𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠|𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙|𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛|𝐹 𝐶𝑆|𝐹 𝑙𝑎𝑔

The flag is commonly:

01111110
Bit stuffing inserts a zero after five consecutive ones to prevent the flag pattern from appearing in data.
After five ones, stuff a zero.

7.28 Error Detection and Flow Control

7.28.1 Error Detection

• Parity: simple, may miss even numbers of errors

• Checksum: adds words and transmits a complement
• CRC: modulo-2 polynomial division

7.28.2 ARQ

Automatic Repeat reQuest retransmits after an error or timeout.

Common forms:
• Stop-and-wait
• Go-back-N
• Selective repeat

7.28.3 Flow Control versus Error Control

• Flow control prevents a fast sender from overwhelming a slow receiver.

• Error control protects data against corruption or loss.
Flow protects the receiver; error control protects the data.

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7.29 Security Fundamentals

7.29.1 CIA Triad

• Confidentiality: prevents unauthorized disclosure

• Integrity: prevents or detects unauthorized alteration
• Availability: keeps services accessible
CIA: Confidentiality, Integrity, Availability.

7.29.2 Authentication, Authorization, Non-Repudiation

• Authentication: verifies identity

• Authorization: determines permitted actions
• Non-repudiation: prevents denial of authorship or transaction
Authentication asks who; authorization asks what.

7.30 Encryption and Cryptography

7.30.1 Symmetric Encryption

Uses the same shared secret for encryption and decryption.

• Fast and efficient
• Key distribution is the main challenge
Symmetric = same secret.

7.30.2 Asymmetric Encryption

Uses a public-private key pair.

• Supports secure key exchange and digital signatures
• More computationally intensive

7.30.3 Hash

A one-way fixed-length digest mainly used for integrity checking.

7.30.4 Digital Signature

Provides authentication, integrity, and non-repudiation. It does not automatically provide confidentiality.
Encryption hides, hash checks, signature proves.

7.31 Common Threats

Threat Meaning
Phishing Tricks a user into revealing information
Brute force Tries many possible passwords
Malware Malicious software
Eavesdropping Unauthorized interception
Spoofing Pretending to be another identity
Denial of service Makes a service unavailable
Man-in-the-middle Intercepts or modifies communication

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7.32 ISDN
ISDN means Integrated Services Digital Network.

7.32.1 Channel Types

• B channel: bearer voice or data, commonly 64 kbps

• D channel: signaling and control
B bears information; D directs the call.

7.32.2 Basic Rate Interface

𝐵𝑅𝐼 = 2𝐵 + 𝐷
A common BRI rate is:

2(64) + 16 = 144 kbps

excluding framing overhead.

7.32.3 Primary Rate Interface

Common arrangements:
• 23𝐵 + 𝐷 in T1-based systems
• 30𝐵 + 𝐷 in E1-based systems

7.33 B-ISDN and Broadband Access

B-ISDN means Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network and was intended for integrated voice, data,
video, and multimedia.
Broadband access examples:
• DSL over telephone pairs
• Cable broadband
• Fiber access
• Wireless broadband
Fiber provides high bandwidth, low attenuation, and immunity to electromagnetic interference.

7.34 Data Communications - Common Traps

1. Bandwidth is potential capacity; throughput is actual rate.
2. Latency is delay; jitter is variation in delay.
3. Hub repeats to all ports; switch uses a MAC table.
4. Switch handles frames and MAC addresses; router handles packets and IP addresses.
5. Half-duplex is two-way, but only one direction at a time.
6. Start and stop bits indicate asynchronous transmission.
7. Circuit switching reserves a path; packet switching shares links.
8. TCP is reliable and connection-oriented; UDP is connectionless and best effort.
9. Encryption provides confidentiality; hashing mainly checks integrity.
10. Authentication is identity; authorization is permission.
11. BRI is 2𝐵 + 𝐷.
12. Presentation handles translation and encryption in the OSI model.

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7.35 Quick Solved Examples

7.35.1 Full-Mesh Links

For 10 devices:

10(9)
𝐿= = 45
2

7.35.2 Transmission Delay

A 1500-byte frame on a 10 Mbps link:

𝐿 = 1500(8) = 12, 000 bits

12, 000
𝑡𝑡 = = 1.2 ms
10 × 106

7.35.3 Propagation Delay

A 2000 km path at 2 × 108 m/s:

2 × 106
𝑡𝑝 = = 10 ms
2 × 108

7.35.4 Utilization

A 100 Mbps link delivers 75 Mbps:

75
𝜂= × 100% = 75%
100

7.35.5 BRI Rate

𝑅 = 2(64) + 16 = 144 kbps

7.36 Chapter Memory Map

• Message, sender, receiver, medium, protocol.
• Delivery, accuracy, timeliness, jitter.
• Simplex sends; half takes turns; full talks together.
• Bus-backbone, star-center, ring-loop, mesh-everyone.
• Hub repeats; switch frames; router packets; gateway translates.
• Physical bits, data-link frames, network packets, transport segments.
• TCP checks; UDP sends quickly.
• FDM-frequency, TDM-time, WDM-wavelength.
• Encryption hides, hash checks, signature proves.
• B bears information; D directs signaling.

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8 Combined High-Yield Formula Sheet

8.1 Signals and Processing
1
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓, 𝑓=
𝑇

𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑥(−𝑡) 𝑥(𝑡) − 𝑥(−𝑡)

𝑥𝑒 (𝑡) = , 𝑥𝑜 (𝑡) =
2 2
𝑓𝑠
𝑓𝑠 ≥ 2𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 , 𝑓𝑁 =
2

𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑠 = |𝑓 − 𝑘𝑓𝑠 |

∞
𝑋(𝑧) = ∑ 𝑥[𝑛]𝑧 −𝑛
𝑛=−∞

𝑌 (𝑧)
𝐻(𝑧) =
𝑋(𝑧)
∞
𝑦[𝑛] = ∑ 𝑥[𝑘]ℎ[𝑛 − 𝑘]
𝑘=−∞

𝐿𝑦 = 𝐿𝑥 + 𝐿ℎ − 1

𝑓0
𝐵𝑊 = 𝑓𝐻 − 𝑓𝐿 , 𝑄=
𝐵𝑊

8.2 Principles of Communication

𝑃𝑜 𝑉𝑜
𝐺𝑑𝐵 = 10 log , 𝐺𝑑𝐵 = 20 log
𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖

𝑁 = 𝑘𝑇 𝐵

√
𝑉𝑛 = 4𝑘𝑇 𝑅𝐵

𝑆𝑁 𝑅𝑖𝑛
𝐹 =
𝑆𝑁 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑚=
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝐵𝑊𝐴𝑀 = 2𝑓𝑚

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𝑚2
𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝑐 (1 + )
2

𝑚2
𝜂𝐴𝑀 =
𝑚2 + 2

Δ𝑓
𝛽=
𝑓𝑚

𝐵𝑊𝐹 𝑀 = 2(Δ𝑓 + 𝑓𝑚 )

𝑓𝐼𝐹 = |𝑓𝐿𝑂 − 𝑓𝑅𝐹 |

8.3 Digital Communications

𝐿 = 2𝑛

𝑅𝑏 = 𝑛𝑓𝑠

𝑆𝑄𝑁 𝑅𝑑𝐵 ≈ 6.02𝑛 + 1.76

𝑘 = log2 𝑀

𝑅𝑏 = 𝑅𝑠 log2 𝑀

𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝐵𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝐵𝐸𝑅 =
𝑇 𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐵𝑖𝑡𝑠

𝐼 = − log2 𝑝

𝐻 = − ∑ 𝑝𝑖 log2 𝑝𝑖

𝐶𝑁𝑦𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑡 = 2𝐵 log2 𝑀

𝐶𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑛 = 𝐵 log2 (1 + 𝑆/𝑁 )

𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑡 = 𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 1

𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 1
𝑡=⌊ ⌋
2

2𝑟 ≥ 𝑚 + 𝑟 + 1

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8.4 Transmission Lines and Antennas

𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿
𝑍0 = √
𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶

𝐿
𝑍0 = √ lossless
𝐶
𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍0
Γ=
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0
1 + |Γ|
𝑆𝑊 𝑅 =
1 − |Γ|
𝑅𝐿 = −20 log |Γ|

𝑍02
𝑍𝑖𝑛,𝜆/4 =
𝑍𝐿
𝑍𝑡 = √𝑍0 𝑍𝐿

𝑃 𝑡 𝐺𝑡
𝑆=
4𝜋𝑟2
√30𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡
𝐸=
𝑟
𝐹 𝑆𝑃 𝐿 = 32.44 + 20 log 𝑓𝑀𝐻𝑧 + 20 log 𝑑𝑘𝑚

2
𝜆
𝑃𝑟 = 𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝐺𝑟 ( )
4𝜋𝑟
𝑀 𝑈 𝐹 = 𝑓𝑐 sec 𝜃

𝑑𝑘𝑚 = 4.12(√ℎ1 + √ℎ2 )

𝐺 = 𝜂𝐷

𝐺𝜆2
𝐴𝑒 =
4𝜋
143 71.5
𝐿𝑑𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 = , 𝐿𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 =
𝑓𝑀𝐻𝑧 𝑓𝑀𝐻𝑧
𝑐
𝑓𝑐,𝑇 𝐸10 =
2𝑎

𝑁 𝐴 = √𝑛21 − 𝑛22

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8.5 Electronic Systems and Design

Δ𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑆=
Δ𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅0 [1 + 𝛼(𝑇 − 𝑇0 )]

𝜀𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑

Δ𝑅/𝑅
𝐺𝐹 =
𝜀
𝑉𝑆 − 𝑉𝐹
𝑅𝐿𝐸𝐷 =
𝐼𝐹
𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝑖𝑛𝑣 = − , 𝐴𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑣 = 1 +
𝑅𝑖𝑛 𝑅1
1
𝑓𝑐 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶
𝐼 −4
𝑋 = 𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛 + (𝑋𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛 )
16
𝑉𝐹 𝑆
𝑉𝐿𝑆𝐵 ≈
2𝑛
120𝑓
𝑁𝑠 =
𝑃
𝑁𝑠 − 𝑁 𝑟
𝑠=
𝑁𝑠

𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑝 𝑒(𝑡) + 𝐾𝑖 ∫ 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + 𝐾𝑑
𝑑𝑡

8.6 Data Communications

𝑛(𝑛 − 1)
𝐿𝑚𝑒𝑠ℎ =
2
𝐿
𝑡𝑡 =
𝑅
𝑑
𝑡𝑝 =
𝑣

𝐵𝐷𝑃 = 𝑅 × 𝑅𝑇 𝑇

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𝑈 𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝐷𝑎𝑡𝑎
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = × 100%
𝑇 𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑎𝑡𝑎

𝐵𝑅𝐼 = 2𝐵 + 𝐷

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9 Final Board-Exam Answering Techniques

9.1 Step 1: Identify the Topic Keyword

Keyword Think of
Maximum frequency and sampling Nyquist theorem
Previous output 𝑦[𝑛 − 𝑘] IIR filter
LTI output Convolution
Similarity or delay detection Correlation
Maximum and minimum AM envelope Difference over sum
Deviation and message frequency Carson’s rule
Weak station Sensitivity
Nearby station Selectivity
Load and characteristic impedance Reflection coefficient
Frequency and distance FSPL
Core and cladding Numerical aperture
4-20 mA Live-zero scaling
Series PLC contacts AND logic
Packet and IP address Network layer/router
Frame and MAC address Data-link layer/switch

9.2 Step 2: Write the Governing Formula First

Do not substitute immediately. Write the formula, identify the units, and only then insert values. This
prevents using the right numbers in the wrong formula.

9.3 Step 3: Convert Units Before Calculation

Common conversions:

1 kHz = 103 Hz

1 MHz = 106 Hz

1 ms = 10−3 s

1 𝜇s = 10−6 s

1 km = 103 m
Check the required units built into formulas, especially the FSPL formula.

9.4 Step 4: Determine Linear versus Decibel Form

Use linear gain in multiplication formulas such as Friis and power-density equations. Use dB, dBi, and dBm
in link-budget addition and subtraction.
Convert SNR in dB to linear before using Shannon capacity:

𝑆/𝑁 = 10𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑑𝐵 /10

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9.5 Step 5: Eliminate Conceptually Impossible Choices

Examples:
• A causal system cannot depend on future input.
• An FIR filter normally has no previous output terms.
• A high-pass filter does not pass DC.
• A switch uses MAC addresses; a router uses IP addresses.
• An inductive proximity sensor is mainly for metallic targets.
• A line below waveguide cutoff does not carry normal propagating power.

9.6 Step 6: Use Direction and Trend Checks

Before accepting a numerical answer, ask whether the direction makes sense:
• Higher bandwidth increases thermal noise.
• Longer distance increases path loss.
• More ADC bits reduce LSB size.
• Higher QAM order increases bits per symbol but reduces noise margin.
• Better impedance match lowers SWR and raises return loss.
• Reducing motor speed greatly reduces centrifugal-load power.

9.7 Step 7: Use Safety and System Logic

For control-system questions, the best engineering answer often includes:
• Isolation
• Fault detection
• Interlocking
• Fail-safe action
• Safe shutdown
• Redundancy when required

9.8 Universal Memory Chain

Classify - Model - Formula - Units - Solve - Check - Eliminate.
1. Classify the topic.
2. Model the system or signal.
3. Select the governing formula.
4. Convert units.
5. Solve carefully.
6. Check the trend and magnitude.
7. Eliminate answers that violate the principle.

10 End of Reviewer
Review the final memory map of each chapter before answering a timed practice set. Focus first on
formula recognition and concept distinctions, then improve speed through repeated short computations.

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