8

Converter Transfer Functions

The engineering design process is comprised of several major steps:

1. Specifications and other design goals are defined.
2. A circuit is proposed. This is a creative process that draws on the physical insight and
experience of the engineer.
3. The circuit is modeled. The converter power stage is modeled as described in Chap. 7.
Components and other portions of the system are modeled as appropriate, often with vendor-
supplied data.
4. Design-oriented analysis of the circuit is performed. This involves development of equa-
tions that allow element values to be chosen such that specifications and design goals are
met. In addition, it may be necessary for the engineer to gain additional understanding and
physical insight into the circuit behavior, so that the design can be improved by adding
elements to the circuit or by changing circuit connections.
5. Model verification. Predictions of the model are compared to a laboratory prototype, under
nominal operating conditions. The model is refined as necessary, so that the model predic-
tions agree with laboratory measurements.
6. Worst-case analysis (or other reliability and production yield analysis) of the circuit is per-
formed. This involves quantitative evaluation of the model performance, to judge whether
specifications are met under all conditions. Computer simulation is well suited to this task.
7. Iteration. The above steps are repeated to improve the design until the worst-case behavior
meets specifications, or until the reliability and production yield are acceptably high.
This chapter covers techniques of design-oriented analysis, measurement of experimental trans-
fer functions, and computer simulation, as needed in steps 4, 5, and 6.
Sections 8.1 to 8.3 discuss techniques for analysis and construction of the Bode plots of the
converter transfer functions, input impedance, and output impedance predicted by the equiva-
lent circuit models of Chap. 7. For example, the small-signal equivalent circuit model of the
buck–boost converter is illustrated in Fig. 7.18c. This model is reproduced in Fig. 8.1, with the
important inputs and terminal impedances identified. The line-to-output transfer function Gvg (s)
is found by setting duty cycle variations d̂(s) to zero, and then solving for the transfer function
from v̂g (s) to v̂(s): 
v̂(s) 
Gvg (s) =  (8.1)
v̂g (s) d̂(s) = 0
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 277
R. W. Erickson, D. Maksimović, Fundamentals of Power Electronics,
[Link]
278 8 Converter Transfer Functions

L
1:D D' : 1 Output

+
Line +
input ˆi(s)
(Vg V) d(s)
vg(s) + Zin(s) I d(s) I dˆ(s) C vˆ(s) R Zout(s)

dˆ(s) Control input

Fig. 8.1 Small-signal equivalent circuit model of the buck–boost converter, as derived in Chap. 7

This transfer function describes how variations or disturbances in the applied input voltage vg (t)
lead to disturbances in the output voltage v(t). It is important in design of an output voltage
regulator. For example, in an off-line power supply, the converter input voltage vg (t) contains
undesired even harmonics of the ac power line voltage. The transfer function Gvg (s) is used to
determine the effect of these harmonics on the converter output voltage v(t).
The control-to-output transfer function Gvd (s) is found by setting the input voltage variations
v̂g (s) to zero, and then solving the equivalent circuit model for v̂(s) as a function of d̂(s):

v̂(s) 
Gvd (s) =  (8.2)
d̂(s) v̂g (s) = 0

This transfer function describes how control input variations d̂(s) influence the output voltage
v̂(s). In an output voltage regulator system, Gvd (s) is a key component of the loop gain and has
a significant effect on regulator performance.
The output impedance Zout (s) is found under the conditions that v̂g (s) and d̂(s) variations are
set to zero. Zout (s) describes how variations in the load current affect the output voltage. This
quantity is also important in voltage regulator design. It may be appropriate to define Zout (s)
either including or not including the load resistance R.
The converter input impedance Zin (s) plays a significant role when an electromagnetic inter-
ference (EMI) filter is added at the converter power input. The relative magnitudes of Zin and
the EMI filter output impedance influence whether the EMI filter disrupts the transfer function
Gvd (s). Design of input EMI filters is the subject of Chap. 17.
An objective of this chapter is the construction of Bode plots of the important transfer func-
tions and terminal impedances of switching converters. For example, Fig. 8.2 illustrates the
magnitude and phase plots of Gvd (s) for the buck–boost converter model of Fig. 8.1. Rules for
construction of magnitude and phase asymptotes are reviewed in Sect. 8.1, including two types
of features that often appear in converter transfer functions: resonances and right half-plane
zeroes. Bode diagrams of the small-signal transfer functions of the buck–boost converter are
derived in detail in Sect. 8.2, and the transfer functions of the basic buck, boost, and buck–boost
converters are tabulated. The physical origins of the right half-plane zero are also described.
A difficulty usually encountered in circuit analysis (step 4 of the above list) is the complex-
ity of the circuit model: practical circuits may contain hundreds of elements, and hence their
 8.1 Review of Bode Plots 279

80 dBV
|| Gvd || || Gvd || Gvd
60 dBV
Gd0 = V Q = D'R C
DD' L
40 dBV f0 –40 dB/decade
D' Vg
20 dBV 2 LC 2D'LC
DVg
0˚ 10 -1/2Q
f0 (D') 3RC
0 dBV fz 0˚
Gvd fz /10 D' 2R –20 dB/decade
–20 dBV 2 DL –90˚
(RHP)
–40 dBV –180˚
10 1/2Q f0 10fz
–270˚
–270˚
10 Hz 100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz
f

Fig. 8.2 Bode plot of control-to-output transfer function predicted by the model of Fig. 8.1, with analyti-
cal expressions for the important features

analysis may lead to complicated derivations, intractable equations, and lots of algebra mis-
takes. Design-oriented analysis [78] is a collection of tools and techniques that can alleviate
these problems. Some tools for approaching the design of a complicated converter system are
described in this chapter. Writing the transfer functions in normalized form directly exposes the
important features of the response. Analytical expressions for these features, as well as for the
asymptotes, lead to simple equations that are useful in design. Well-separated roots of trans-
fer function polynomials can be approximated in a simple way. Sect. 8.3 describes a graphical
method for constructing Bode plots of transfer functions and impedances, essentially by inspec-
tion. This method can: (1) reduce the amount of algebra and associated algebra mistakes; (2)
lead to greater insight into circuit behavior, which can be applied to design the circuit; and (3)
lead to the insight necessary to make suitable approximations that render the equations tractable.
Some more advanced techniques of design-oriented analysis are covered in Part IV.
Experimental measurement of transfer functions and impedances (needed in step 4, model
verification) is discussed in Sect. 8.5. Use of computer simulation to plot converter transfer
functions (as needed in step 6, worst-case analysis) is covered in Chap. 14.

8.1 Review of Bode Plots

A Bode plot is a plot of the magnitude and phase of a transfer function or other complex-valued
quantity, vs. frequency. Magnitude in decibels and phase in degrees are plotted vs. frequency, us-
ing semi-logarithmic axes. The magnitude plot is effectively a log–log plot, since the magnitude
is expressed in decibels and the frequency axis is logarithmic.
280 8 Converter Transfer Functions

The magnitude of a dimensionless quantity G can be expressed in decibels as follows:

 GdB = 20 log10 ( G ) (8.3)

Decibel values of some simple magnitudes are listed in Table 8.1. Care must be used when the
magnitude is dimensionless. Since it is not proper to take the logarithm of a quantity having
dimensions, the magnitude must first be normalized. For example, to express the magnitude of
an impedance Z in decibels, we should normalize by dividing by a base impedance Rbase :
 
Z 
 Z dB = 20 log10 (8.4)
Rbase
The value of Rbase is arbitrary, but we need
to tell others what value we have used. So Table 8.1 Expressing magnitudes in decibels
if  Z  is 5 Ω, and we choose Rbase =
10 Ω, then we can say that  Z dB = Actual magnitude Magnitude in dB
20 log10 (5 Ω/10Ω) = −6 dB with respect to
1/2 −6 dB
10 Ω. A common choice is Rbase = 1 Ω; deci-
1 0 dB
bel impedances expressed with Rbase = 1 Ω
2 6 dB
are said to be expressed in dBΩ. So 5 Ω is
5 = 10/2 20 dB − 6 dB = 14 dB
equivalent to 14 dBΩ. Current switching har-
10 20 dB
monics at the input port of a converter are of-
1000 = 103 3 · 20 dB = 60 dB
ten expressed in dBμA, or dB using a base
current of 1 μA : 60 dBμA is equivalent to
1000 μA, or 1 mA.
The magnitude Bode plots of functions equal to powers of f are linear. For example, suppose
that the magnitude of a dimensionless quantity G( f ) is
 n
f
G  = (8.5)
f0
where f0 and n are constants. The magnitude in decibels is
 n  
f f
 G dB = 20 log10 = 20n log10 (8.6)
f0 f0
This equation is plotted in Fig. 8.3, for several values of n. The magnitudes have value 1 ⇒ 0 dB
at frequency f = f0 . They are linear functions of log10 ( f ). The slope is the change in  G dB
arising from a unit change in log10 ( f ); a unit increase in log10 ( f ) corresponds to a factor of
10, or a decade, increase in f . From Eq. (8.6), a decade increase in f leads to an increase in
 G dB of 20n dB. Hence, the slope is 20n dB per decade. Equivalently, we can say that the
slope is 20n log10 (2) ≈ 6n dB per octave, where an octave is a factor of 2 change in frequency.
In practice, the magnitudes of most frequency-dependent functions can usually be approximated
over a limited range of frequencies by functions of the form (8.5); over this range of frequencies,
the magnitude Bode plot is approximately linear with slope 20n dB/decade.
A simple transfer function whose magnitude is of the form (8.5) is the pole at the origin:
1
G(s) =   (8.7)
s
ω0
 8.1 Review of Bode Plots 281

60 dB 2
f
40 dB f0

2 f
20 dB =
n f0
1
n=
0 dB
n
20 dB/decade 1
f
n f0
2
f
40 dB/decade
f0
0.1f0 f0 10f0 f
log scale

Fig. 8.3 Magnitude Bode plots of functions which vary as f n are linear, with slope n dB per decade

The magnitude is
1 1
 G( jω))  = ++ ++ =   (8.8)
++ jω + ω
+ ω0 ++ ω0
If we define f = ω/2π and f0 = ω0 /2π, then Eq. (8.8) becomes
 −1
f
G  = (8.9)
f0

which is of the form of Eq. (8.5) with n = −1. As illustrated in Fig. 8.3, the magnitude Bode
plot of the pole at the origin (8.7) has a −20 dB per decade slope, and passes through 0 dB at
frequency f = f0 .

8.1.1 Single-Pole Response

R
Consider the simple R–C low-pass filter illustrated +
in Fig. 8.4. The transfer function is given by the
voltage divider ratio v1(s) + C v2(s)
1
v2 (s) sC
G(s) = = (8.10)
v1 (s) 1
+R
sC Fig. 8.4 Simple R–C low-pass filter example
This transfer function is a ratio of voltages, and
hence is dimensionless. By multiplying the numer-
ator and denominator by sC, we can express the
transfer function as a rational fraction:
282 8 Converter Transfer Functions

1
G(s) = (8.11)
1 + sRC
The transfer function now coincides with the following standard normalized form for a single
pole:
1
G(s) =   (8.12)
s
1+
ω0
The parameter ω0 = 2π f0 is found by equating the coefficients of s in the denominators of
Eqs. (8.11) and (8.12). The result is
1
ω0 = (8.13)
RC
Since R and C are real positive quantities, ω0 is also real and positive. The denominator of
Eq. (8.12) contains a root at s = −ω0 , and hence G(s) contains a real pole in the left half of the
complex plane.
To find the magnitude and phase of the trans-
fer function, we let s = jω, where j is the square Im(G(j ))
root of −1. We then find the magnitude and phase of G(j )
the resulting complex-valued function. With s = jω,

|
)|
Eq. (8.12) becomes

(j
|| G
ω
1− j G(j )
1 ω0
G ( jω) =  =  2 (8.14) Re(G(j ))
ω ω
1+ j 1+
ω0 ω0
The complex-valued G( jω) is illustrated in Fig. 8.5,
for one value of ω. The magnitude is Fig. 8.5 Magnitude and phase of the
++ ++ , complex-valued function G( jω)
)  *2 )  *2
+G ( jω) + = Re G ( jω) + Im G ( jω)
1
= 
 2
ω
1+
ω0
(8.15)

Here, we have assumed that ω0 is real. In decibels, the magnitude is

⎛  2 ⎞⎟
⎜⎜⎜ ω ⎟⎟⎟⎟
 G( jω) dB = −20 log10 ⎜⎜⎜⎜⎝ 1 + ⎟ dB (8.16)
ω0 ⎟⎠

The easy way to sketch the magnitude Bode plot of G is to investigate the asymptotic behavior
for large and small frequency.
For small frequency, ω ω0 and f f0 , it is true that
 
ω
1 (8.17)
ω0
 8.1 Review of Bode Plots 283

|| G(j ) || dB
0 dB
0 dB
Fig. 8.6 Magnitude
asymptotes for the f –1
–20 dB
single real pole trans- f0
fer function –20 dB/decade
–40 dB

–60 dB
0.1f0 f0 10f0 f

The (ω/ω0 )2 term of Eq. (8.15) is therefore much smaller than 1, and hence Eq. (8.15) becomes
1
 G( jω)  ≈ √ = 1 (8.18)
1
In decibels, the magnitude is approximately

 G( jω) dB ≈ 0 dB (8.19)

Thus, as illustrated in Fig. 8.6, at low frequency  G( jω) dB is asymptotic to 0 dB.
At high frequency, ω ω0 and f f0 . In this case, it is true that
 
ω
1 (8.20)
ω0

We can then say that

 2  2
ω ω
1+ ≈ (8.21)
ω0 ω0
Hence, Eq. (8.15) now becomes
 −1
++ +
+G ( jω) ++ ≈ 
1 f
= (8.22)
 2 f0
ω
ω0

This expression coincides with Eq. (8.5), with n = −1. So at high frequency,  G( jω) dB has
slope −20 dB per decade, as illustrated in Fig. 8.6. Thus, the asymptotes of  G( jω)  are equal
to 1 at low frequency, and ( f / f0 )−1 at high frequency. The asymptotes intersect at f0 . The actual
magnitude tends toward these asymptotes at very low frequency and very high frequency. In the
vicinity of the corner frequency f0 , the actual curve deviates somewhat from the asymptotes.
The deviation of the exact curve from the asymptotes can be found by simply evaluating
Eq. (8.15). At the corner frequency f = f0 , Eq. (8.15) becomes
++ +
+G ( jω0 ) ++ =
1 1
 2 = √ (8.23)
ω0 2
1+
ω0
284 8 Converter Transfer Functions

|| G(j ) || dB

0 dB
1 dB 3 dB
0.5f0 1 dB
Fig. 8.7 Deviation of the actual curve f0
–10 dB
from the asymptotes, real pole
2f0

–20 dB –20 dB/decade

–30 dB
f

In decibels, the magnitude is

⎛  2 ⎞⎟
⎜⎜⎜ ω0 ⎟⎟⎟⎟
 G( jω0 ) dB = −20 log10 ⎜⎜⎜⎜⎝ 1 + ⎟ ≈ −3 dB (8.24)
ω0 ⎟⎠

So the actual curve deviates from the asymptotes by −3 dB at the corner frequency, as illustrated
in Fig. 8.7. Similar arguments show that the actual curve deviates from the asymptotes by −1 dB
at f = f0 /2 and at f = 2 f0 .
The phase of G( jω) is  
−1 Im(G( jω))
∠G( jω) = tan (8.25)
Re(G( jω))
Insertion of the real and imaginary parts of Eq. (8.14) into Eq. (8.25) leads to
 
−1 ω
∠G( jω) = − tan (8.26)
ω0
This function is plotted in Fig. 8.8. It tends to 0◦ at low frequency and to −90◦ at high frequency.
At the corner frequency f = f0 , the phase is −45◦ .

0 0 asymptote
G(j )

Fig. 8.8 Exact phase plot,

real pole f0

asymptote

0.01f0 0.1f0 f0 10f0 100f0

f
 8.1 Review of Bode Plots 285

fa = f0 / 4.81
0
G(j )

Fig. 8.9 One choice for

the mid-frequency phase
asymptote, which correctly
predicts the actual slope at f0
f = f0

0.01f0 0.1f0 f0 fb = 4.81 f0 100f0

Since the high-frequency and low-frequency phase asymptotes do not intersect, we need a
third asymptote to approximate the phase in the vicinity of the corner frequency f0 . One way
to do this is illustrated in Fig. 8.9, where the slope of the asymptote is chosen to be identical to
the slope of the actual curve at f = f0 . It can be shown that, with this choice, the asymptote
intersection frequencies fa and fb are given by
f0
fa = f0 e−π/2 ≈ (8.27)
4.81
fb = f0 eπ/2 ≈ 4.81 f0

A simpler choice, which better approximates the actual curve, is

f0
fa = (8.28)
10
fb = 10 f0

This asymptote is compared to the actual curve in Fig. 8.10. The pole causes the phase to change
over a frequency span of approximately two decades, centered at the corner frequency. The slope
of the asymptote in this frequency span is −45◦ per decade. At the break frequencies fa and fb ,
the actual phase deviates from the asymptotes by tan−1 (0.1) = 5.7◦ .
The magnitude and phase asymptotes for the single-pole response are summarized in
Fig. 8.11. It is good practice to consistently express single-pole transfer functions in the nor-
malized form of Eq. (8.12). Both terms in the denominator of Eq. (8.12) are dimensionless, and
the coefficient of s0 is unity. Equation (8.12) is easy to interpret, because of its normalized form.
At low frequencies, where the (s/ω0 ) term is small in magnitude, the transfer function is ap-
proximately equal to 1. At high frequencies, where the (s/ω0 ) term has magnitude much greater
than 1, the transfer function is approximately (s/ω0 )−1 . This leads to a magnitude of ( f / f0 )−1 .
The corner frequency is f0 = ω0 /2π. So the transfer function is written directly in terms of its
salient features, that is, its asymptotes and its corner frequency.
286 8 Converter Transfer Functions

fa = f0/10
0
G(j )

f0

0.01f0 0.1f0 f0 fb = 10f0 100f0

Fig. 8.10 A simpler choice for the mid-frequency phase asymptote, which better approximates the curve
over the entire frequency range

0 dB
|| G(j )|| dB 3 dB
1 dB
0.5f0
1 dB
f0

2f0

–20 dB/decade

0˚ f0/10
G(j ) 5.7˚

–45˚/decade
–45˚
f0

–90˚
5.7˚
10f0

Fig. 8.11 Summary of the magnitude and phase Bode plot for the single real pole
 8.1 Review of Bode Plots 287

8.1.2 Single Zero Response

A single zero response contains a root in the numerator of the transfer function, and can be
written in the following normalized form:
 
s
G(s) = 1 + (8.29)
ω0

This transfer function has magnitude


 2
ω
 G( jω)  = 1+ (8.30)
ω0

At low frequency, f f0 = ω0 /2π, the transfer function magnitude tends to 1 ⇒ 0 dB. At high
frequency, f f0 , the transfer function magnitude tends to ( f / f0 ). As illustrated in Fig. 8.12,
the high-frequency asymptote has slope +20 dB/decade. The phase is given by
 
ω
∠G( jω) = tan−1 (8.31)
ω0

With the exception of a minus sign, the phase is identical to Eq. (8.26). Hence, suitable asymp-
totes are as illustrated in Fig. 8.12. The phase tends to 0◦ at low frequency and to +90◦ at high
frequency. Over the interval f0 /10 < f < 10 f0 , the phase asymptote has a slope of +45◦ /decade.

+20 dB/decade

2f0

f0
0.5f0 1 dB

0 dB 1 dB 3 dB
|| G(j ) || dB

10f0 +90˚
5.7˚

f0
45˚
+45˚/decade

G(j ) 0˚
5.7˚
f0 /10

Fig. 8.12 Summary of the magnitude and phase Bode plot for the single real zero
288 8 Converter Transfer Functions

8.1.3 Right Half-Plane Zero

Right half-plane zeroes are often encountered in the small-signal transfer functions of switching
converters. These terms have the following normalized form:
 
s
G(s) = 1 − (8.32)
ω0
The root of Eq. (8.32) is positive, and hence lies in the right half of the complex s-plane. The
right half-plane zero is also sometimes called a nonminimum phase zero. Its normalized form,
Eq. (8.32), resembles the normalized form of the (left half-plane) zero of Eq. (8.29), with the
exception of a minus sign in the coefficient of s. The minus sign causes a phase reversal at high
frequency.
The transfer function has magnitude

 2
ω
 G( jω)  = 1 + (8.33)
ω0
This expression is identical to Eq. (8.30). Hence, it is impossible to distinguish a right half-plane
zero from a left half-plane zero by the magnitude alone. The phase is given by
 
−1 ω
∠G( jω) = − tan (8.34)
ω0
This coincides with the expression for the phase of the single pole, Eq. (8.26). So the right half-
plane zero exhibits the magnitude response of the left half-plane zero, but the phase response of
the pole. Magnitude and phase asymptotes are summarized in Fig. 8.13.

+20 dB/decade

2f0

f0
0.5f0 1 dB
0 dB 1 dB 3 dB
|| G(j ) || dB

0˚ f0 /10
G(j ) 5.7˚

–45˚/decade
–45˚
f0

–90˚
5.7˚
10f0

Fig. 8.13 Summary of the magnitude and phase Bode plot for the single real RHP zero
 8.1 Review of Bode Plots 289

8.1.4 Frequency Inversion

Two other forms arise, from inversion of the frequency axis. The inverted pole has the transfer
function
1
G(s) =  ω0  (8.35)
1+
s
As illustrated in Fig. 8.14, the inverted pole has a high-frequency gain of 1, and a low-frequency
asymptote having a + 20 dB/decade slope. This form is useful for describing the gain of high-
pass filters, and of other transfer functions where it is desired to emphasize the high-frequency
gain, with attenuation of low frequencies. Equation (8.35) is equivalent to
 
s
ω0
G(s) =   (8.36)
s
1+
ω0
However, Eq. (8.35) more directly emphasizes that the high-frequency gain is 1.
The inverted zero has the form
 ω0 
G(s) = 1 + (8.37)
s
As illustrated in Fig. 8.15, the inverted zero has a high-frequency gain asymptote equal to 1, and
a low-frequency asymptote having a slope equal to −20 dB/decade. An example of the use of

0 dB
3 dB 1 dB
1 dB 2f0
f0

0.5f0

|| G(j ) || dB

+20 dB/decade

+90˚ f0 /10
G(j ) 5.7˚

–45˚/decade
+45˚
f0

0˚
5.7˚
10f0

Fig. 8.14 Inversion of the frequency axis: summary of the magnitude and phase Bode plots for the
inverted real pole
290 8 Converter Transfer Functions

–20 dB/decade
|| G(j ) || dB

0.5f0

f0
1 dB 2f0
3 dB 1 dB 0 dB

10f0 0˚
5.7˚

f0
–45˚
+45˚/decade

G(j ) –90˚ 5.7˚

f0 /10

Fig. 8.15 Inversion of the frequency axis: summary of the magnitude and phase Bode plot for the inverted
real zero

this type of transfer function is the proportional-plus-integral controller, discussed in connection

with feedback loop design in the next chapter. Equation (8.37) is equivalent to
 
s
1+
ω0
G(s) =   (8.38)
s
ω0
However, Eq. (8.37) is the preferred form when it is desired to emphasize the value of the high-
frequency gain asymptote.
The use of frequency inversion is illustrated by example in the next section.

8.1.5 Combinations

The Bode diagram of a transfer function containing several pole, zero, and gain terms can be
constructed by simple addition. At any given frequency, the magnitude (in decibels) of the
composite transfer function is equal to the sum of the decibel magnitudes of the individual
terms. Likewise, at a given frequency the phase of the composite transfer function is equal to
the sum of the phases of the individual terms.
For example, suppose that we have already constructed the Bode diagrams of two complex-
valued functions of ω, G1 (ω) and G2 (ω). These functions have magnitudes R1 (ω) and R2 (ω),
and phases θ1 (ω) and θ2 (ω), respectively. It is desired to construct the Bode diagram of the
product G3 (ω) = G1 (ω) G2 (ω). Let G3 (ω) have magnitude R3 (ω), and phase θ3 (ω). To find this
magnitude and phase, we can express G1 (ω), G2 (ω), and G3 (ω) in polar form:
 8.1 Review of Bode Plots 291

G1 (ω) = R1 (ω)e jθ1 (ω)

G2 (ω) = R2 (ω)e jθ2 (ω) (8.39)
G3 (ω) = R3 (ω)e jθ3 (ω)

The product G3 (ω) can then be expressed as

G3 (ω) = G1 (ω)G2 (ω) = R1 (ω)e jθ1 (ω) R2 (ω)e jθ2 (ω) (8.40)

Simplification leads to
G3 (ω) = (R1 (ω)R2 (ω)) e j(θ1 (ω)+θ2 (ω)) (8.41)
Hence, the composite phase is
θ3 (ω) = θ1 (ω) + θ2 (ω) (8.42)
The total magnitude is
R3 (ω) = R1 (ω)R2 (ω) (8.43)
When expressed in decibels, Eq. (8.43) becomes
     
R3 (ω)dB = R1 (ω)dB + R2 (ω)dB (8.44)

So the composite phase is the sum of the individual phases, and when expressed in decibels, the
composite magnitude is the sum of the individual magnitudes. The composite magnitude slope,
in dB per decade, is therefore also the sum of the individual slopes in dB per decade.
For example, consider construction of the Bode plot of the following transfer function:
G0
G(s) =    (8.45)
s s
1+ 1+
ω1 ω2

where G0 = 40 ⇒ 32 dB, f1 = ω1 /2π = 100 Hz, f2 = ω2 /2π = 2 kHz. This transfer function
contains three terms: the gain G0 , and the poles at frequencies f1 and f2 . The asymptotes for each
of these terms are illustrated in Fig. 8.16. The gain G0 is a positive real number, and therefore
contributes zero phase shift with the gain 32 dB. The poles at 100 Hz and 2 kHz each contribute
asymptotes as in Fig. 8.11.
At frequencies less than 100 Hz, the G0 term contributes a gain magnitude of 32 dB, while
the two poles each contribute magnitude asymptotes of 0 dB. So the low-frequency composite
magnitude asymptote is 32 dB + 0 dB + 0 dB = 32 dB. For frequencies between 100 Hz and
2 kHz, the G0 gain again contributes 32 dB, and the pole at 2 kHz continues to contribute a
0 dB magnitude asymptote. However, the pole at 100 Hz now contributes a magnitude asymp-
tote that decreases with a −20 dB per decade slope. The composite magnitude asymptote there-
fore also decreases with a −20 dB per decade slope, as illustrated in Fig. 8.16. For frequencies
greater than 2 kHz, the poles at 100 Hz and 2 kHz each contribute decreasing asymptotes hav-
ing slopes of −20 dB/decade. The composite asymptote therefore decreases with a slope of
−20 dB/decade − 20 dB/decade = −40 dB/decade, as illustrated.
The composite phase asymptote is also constructed in Fig. 8.16. Below 10 Hz, all terms
contribute 0◦ asymptotes. For frequencies between f1 /10 = 10 Hz and f2 /10 = 200 Hz, the pole
at f1 contributes a decreasing phase asymptote having a slope of −45◦ /decade. Between 200 Hz
and 10 f1 = 1 kHz, both poles contribute decreasing asymptotes with −45◦ /decade slopes; the
292 8 Converter Transfer Functions

40 dB G0 = 40 32 dB
|| G || G
|| G || f1 –20 dB/decade
20 dB
100 Hz
0 dB
0 dB
f2
0˚ 2 kHz –40 dB/decade
–20 dB 0˚
G f1/10 f2/10
–40 dB 10 Hz 200 Hz –45˚
–45˚/decade

–60 dB –90˚
–90˚/decade 10f2
10f1 20 kHz –135˚
1 kHz –45˚/decade
–180˚
1 Hz 10 Hz 100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz
f

Fig. 8.16 Construction of magnitude and phase asymptotes for the transfer function of Eq. (8.45). Dashed
lines: asymptotes for individual terms. Solid lines: composite asymptotes

composite slope is therefore −90◦ /decade. Between 1 kHz and 10 f2 = 20 kHz, the pole at
f1 contributes a constant −90◦ phase asymptote, while the pole at f2 contributes a decreasing
asymptote with −45◦ /decade slope. The composite slope is then −45◦ /decade. For frequencies
greater than 20 kHz, both poles contribute constant −90◦ asymptotes, leading to a composite
phase asymptote of −180◦ .
As a second example, consider the transfer function A(s) represented by the magnitude
and phase asymptotes of Fig. 8.17. Let us write the transfer function that corresponds to these
asymptotes. The dc asymptote is A0 . At corner frequency f1 , the asymptote slope increases
from 0 dB/decade to +20 dB/decade. Hence, there must be a zero at frequency f1 . At frequency
f2 , the asymptote slope decreases from +20 dB/decade to 0 dB/decade. Therefore the transfer
function contains a pole at frequency f2 . So we can express the transfer function as
 
s
1+
ω1
A(s) = A0   (8.46)
s
1+
ω2
where ω1 and ω2 are equal to 2π f1 and 2π f2 , respectively.

f2 || A ||dB
|| A ||
f1
|| A0 ||dB +20 dB/decade
Fig. 8.17 Magnitude and
phase asymptotes of example
transfer function A(s)
10f1 f2 /10

A +45˚/dec –90˚ –45˚/decade

0˚ 0˚
f1 /10 10f2
 8.1 Review of Bode Plots 293

We can use Eq. (8.46) to derive analytical expressions for the asymptotes. For f < f1 , and
letting s = jω, we can see that the (s/ω1 ) and (s/ω2 ) terms each have magnitude less than 1. The
asymptote is derived by neglecting these terms. Hence, the low-frequency magnitude asymptote
is
++ ⎛ ⎞ ++
++ ⎜⎜⎜ s
 ⎟⎟⎟⎟ ++
⎜
++ ⎝⎜1 +
⎠⎟ ++
++
ω1 ++ 1
++A0 ⎛ ⎞+ = A0 = A0 (8.47)
++ ⎜⎜⎜⎜ +
s
 ⎟⎟⎟⎟ ++ 1
++ ⎜⎝1 + ω
⎟⎠ ++

2 s= jω

For f1 < f < f2 , the numerator term (s/ω1 ) has magnitude greater than 1, while the denominator
term (s/ω2 ) has magnitude less than 1. The asymptote is derived by neglecting the smaller
terms:
++   ++ ++ ++
++ s ++ ++ s ++
++ 



1 + + + ω1 +
++ ω1 +++ s= jω ω f
++A0 ⎛ ⎞+ = A0 = A0 = A0 (8.48)
++ ⎜⎜⎜⎜ +
s
 ⎟⎟⎟⎟ ++ 1 ω1 f1
++ ⎜⎝1 + ω
⎟⎠ ++

2 s= jω

This is the expression for the mid-frequency magnitude asymptote of A(s). For f > f2 , the
(s/ω1 ) and (s/ω2 ) terms each have magnitude greater than 1. The expression for the high-
frequency asymptote is therefore:
++  + ++ ++
++ s ++ ++ s ++
++ 



1 + +
++ + ω1 +
++A0  ω 1 + s= jω ω2 f2
+ = A0 ++ ++ = A0 = A0 (8.49)
++ s ++ ++ s ++ ω1 f1
++ 



1 + + + ω2 +
ω2 + s= jω s= jω

We can conclude that the high-frequency gain is

f2
A∞ = A0 (8.50)
f1
Thus, we can derive analytical expressions for the asymptotes.
The transfer function A(s) can also be written in a second form, using inverted poles and
zeroes. Suppose that A(s) represents the transfer function of a high-frequency amplifier, whose
dc gain is not important. We are then interested in expressing A(s) directly in terms of the high-
frequency gain A∞ . We can view the transfer function as having an inverted pole at frequency
f2 , which introduces attenuation at frequencies less than f2 . In addition, there is an inverted zero
at f = f1 . So A(s) could also be written as
 ω1 
1+
A(s) = A∞  s
ω2  (8.51)
1+
s
It can be verified that Eqs. (8.51) and (8.46) are equivalent.
294 8 Converter Transfer Functions

8.1.6 Quadratic Pole Response: Resonance

Consider next the transfer function L

G(s) of the two-pole low-pass filter of +
Fig. 8.18. The buck converter contains
a filter of this type. When manipulated +
v1(s) C R v2(s)
into canonical form, the models of the
boost and buck–boost also contain simi-
lar filters. One can show that the transfer
function of this network is
v2 (s) 1 Fig. 8.18 Two-pole low-pass filter example
G(s) = =
v1 (s) L
1+s+ s2 LC
R
(8.52)
This transfer function contains a second-order denominator polynomial, and is of the form
1
G(s) = (8.53)
1 + a1 s + a2 s2
with a1 = L/R and a2 = LC.
To construct the Bode plot of this transfer function, we might try to factor the denominator
into its two roots:
1
G(s) =    (8.54)
s s
1− 1−
s1 s2
Use of the quadratic formula leads to the following expressions for the roots:
⎡  ⎤
a1 ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 4a2 ⎥⎥⎥⎥
s1 = − ⎢⎢1 − 1 − 2 ⎥⎦⎥ (8.55)
2a2 ⎣ a1
⎡  ⎤
a1 ⎢⎢⎢⎢ 4a2 ⎥⎥⎥⎥
s2 = − ⎢⎢1 + 1 − 2 ⎥⎥⎦ (8.56)
2a2 ⎣ a1

If 4a2 ≤ a21 , then the roots are real. Each real pole then exhibits a Bode diagram as derived in
Sect. 8.1.1, and the composite Bode diagram can be constructed as described in Sect. 8.1.5 (but
a better approach is described in Sect. 8.1.7).
If 4a2 > a21 , then the roots (8.55) and (8.56) are complex. In Sect. 8.1.1, the assumption was
made that ω0 is real; hence, the results of that section cannot be applied to this case. We need to
do some additional work, to determine the magnitude and phase for the case when the roots are
complex.
The transfer functions of Eqs. (8.52) and (8.53) can be written in the following standard
normalized form:
1
G(s) =  2 (8.57)
s s
1 + 2ζ +
ω0 ω0
 8.1 Review of Bode Plots 295

If the coefficients a1 and a2 are real and positive, then the parameters ζ and ω0 are also real and
positive. The parameter ω0 is again the angular corner frequency, and we can define f0 = ω0 /2π.
The parameter ζ is called the damping factor: ζ controls the shape of the transfer function in the
vicinity of f = f0 . An alternative standard normalized form is
1
G(s) =  2 (8.58)
s s
1+ +
Qω0 ω0
where
1
Q= (8.59)
2ζ
The parameter Q is called the quality factor of the circuit, and is a measure of the dissipation
in the system. A more general definition of Q, for sinusoidal excitation of a passive element or
network, is
(peak stored energy)
Q = 2π (8.60)
(energy dissipated per cycle)
For a second-order passive system, Eqs. (8.59) and (8.60) are equivalent. We will see that the Q-
factor has a very simple interpretation in the magnitude Bode diagrams of second-order transfer
functions.
Analytical expressions for the parameters Q and ω0 can be found by equating like powers of
s in the original transfer function, Eq. (8.52), and in the normalized form, Eq. (8.58). The result
is
ω0 1
f0 = = √ (8.61)
2π 2π LC

C
Q=R
L
The roots s1 and s2 of Eqs. (8.55) and (8.56) are real when Q ≤ 0.5, and are complex when
Q > 0.5.
The magnitude of G is
++ +
+G ( jω) ++ = -
1
.⎛ (8.62)
 2 ⎞ 2  2
⎜⎜⎜ ⎟
⎜⎜⎝1 − ω ⎟⎟⎟⎟⎠ + 1 ω
ω0 Q2 ω0
Asymptotes of  G  are illustrated in Fig. 8.19. At low frequencies, (ω/ω0 ) 1, and hence

|| G(j ) ||dB
0 dB
0 dB
Fig. 8.19 Magni-
–2
tude asymptotes for –20 dB f
the two-pole transfer f0
function –40 dB
–40 dB/decade
–60 dB
0.1f0 f0 10f0
f
296 8 Converter Transfer Functions
++ ++
+G+ → 1 for ω ω0 (8.63)

At high frequencies where (ω/ω0 ) 1, the (ω/ω0 )4 term dominates the expression inside the
radical of Eq. (8.62). Hence, the high-frequency asymptote is
 −2
++ ++ f
+G+ → for ω ω0 (8.64)
f0

This expression coincides with Eq. (8.5), with n = −2. Therefore, the high-frequency asymptote
has slope −40 dB/decade. The asymptotes intersect at f = f0 , and are independent of Q.
The parameter Q affects the deviation of
the actual curve from the asymptotes, in the || G ||
neighborhood of the corner frequency f0 . The | Q |dB
0 dB
exact magnitude at f = f0 is found by substi-
tution of ω = ω0 into Eq. (8.62): f0
++ +
+G ( jω0 ) ++ = Q (8.65)
–40 dB/decade
So the exact transfer function has magnitude
Q at the corner frequency f0 . In decibels,
Eq. (8.65) is
++ +   Fig. 8.20 Important features of the magnitude Bode
+G ( jω0 ) ++dB = QdB (8.66) plot, for the two-pole transfer function

So if, for example, Q = 2 ⇒ 6 dB, then the

actual curve deviates from the asymptotes by 6 dB at the corner frequency f = f0 . Salient
features of the magnitude Bode plot of the second-order transfer function are summarized in
Fig. 8.20.
The phase of G is
⎡   ⎤
⎢⎢⎢ 1 ω ⎥⎥⎥
⎢⎢⎢⎢ ⎥⎥
⎢ Q ω0 ⎥⎥⎥⎥⎥
∠G ( jω) = − tan−1 ⎢⎢⎢⎢  2 ⎥⎥⎥ (8.67)
⎢⎢⎢
⎢⎣ 1 − ω ⎥⎥⎥⎦
ω0

The phase tends to 0◦ at low frequency and to −180◦ at high frequency. At f = f0 , the phase
is −90◦ . As illustrated in Fig. 8.21, increasing the value of Q causes a sharper phase change be-
tween the 0◦ and −180◦ asymptotes. We again need a mid-frequency asymptote, to approximate
the phase transition in the vicinity of the corner frequency f0 , as illustrated in Fig. 8.22. As in
the case of the real single pole, we could choose the slope of this asymptote to be identical to
the slope of the actual curve at f = f0 . It can be shown that this choice leads to the following
asymptote break frequencies:
 − 1
fa = eπ/2 2Q f0
 1 (8.68)
fb = eπ/2 2Q f0
 8.1 Review of Bode Plots 297

0º

Increasing Q

Fig. 8.21 Phase plot, second- G –90º

order poles. Increasing Q
causes a sharper phase change

–180º
0.1 1 10
f / f0

fa
0º
0º

G
Fig. 8.22 One choice for the
mid-frequency phase asymptote
of the two-pole response, which –90º –90º
correctly predicts the actual f0
slope at f = f0

–180º
–180º
0.1 1 fb 10
f / f0

A better choice, which is consistent with the approximation (8.28) used for the real single pole,
is
fa = 10−1/2Q f0
(8.69)
fb = 101/2Q f0

With this choice, the mid-frequency asymptote has slope −180 Q degrees per decade. The phase
asymptotes are summarized in Fig. 8.23. With Q = 0.5, the phase changes from 0◦ to −180◦ over
a frequency span of approximately two decades, centered at the corner frequency f0 . Increasing
the Q causes this frequency span to decrease rapidly.
Second-order response magnitude and phase curves are plotted in Figs. 8.24 and 8.25.
298 8 Converter Transfer Functions

fa
0º
0º

Fig. 8.23 A simpler choice G

for the mid-frequency phase
asymptote, which better approx-
imates the curve over the entire –90º –90º
frequency range and is consis- f0
tent with the asymptote used for
real poles

–180º –180º
0.1 1 fb 10
f / f0

Q=

Q=5
10 dB
Q=2

Q=1
Q = 0.7

0 dB
Fig. 8.24 Exact
magnitude curves,
two-pole response, || G ||dB Q = 0.5
for several values of
Q
–10 dB
Q = 0.2

Q = 0.1

–20 dB
0.3 0.5 0.7 1 2 3
f / f0

8.1.7 The Low-Q Approximation

As mentioned in Sect. 8.1.6, when the roots of second-order denominator polynomial of

Eq. (8.53) are real, then we can factor the denominator, and construct the Bode diagram using
the asymptotes for real poles. We would then use the following normalized form:
1
G(s) =    (8.70)
s s
1+ 1+
ω1 ω2
 8.1 Review of Bode Plots 299

0º
Q=
Q = 10
Q =5
Q=2
Q=1
–45º
Q = 0.7
Q = 0.5

Q = 0.2
Q = 0.1
Fig. 8.25 Exact
phase curves, two- G –90º
pole response, for
several values of Q

–135º

–180º
0.1 1 10
f / f0

This is a particularly desirable approach when the corner frequencies ω1 and ω2 are well sepa-
rated in value.
The difficulty in this procedure lies in the complexity of the quadratic formula used to find
the corner frequencies. Expressing the corner frequencies ω1 and ω2 in terms of the circuit ele-
ments R, L, C, etc., invariably leads to complicated and unilluminating expressions, especially
when the circuit contains many elements. Even in the case of the simple circuit of Fig. 8.18,
whose transfer function is given by Eq. (8.52), the conventional quadratic formula leads to the
following complicated formula for the corner frequencies:

L  L 2
± − 4LC
R R
ω1 , ω 2 = (8.71)
2LC
This equation yields essentially no insight regarding how the corner frequencies depend on
the element values. For example, it can be shown that when the corner frequencies are well
separated in value, they can be expressed with high accuracy by the much simpler relations
R 1
ω1 ≈ , ω2 ≈ (8.72)
L RC
In this case, ω1 is essentially independent of the value of C, and ω2 is essentially independent of
L, yet Eq. (8.71) apparently predicts that both corner frequencies are dependent on all element
values. The simple expressions of Eq. (8.72) are far preferable to Eq. (8.71), and can be easily
derived using the low-Q approximation [79].
300 8 Converter Transfer Functions

Let us assume that the transfer function has been expressed in the standard normalized form
of Eq. (8.58), reproduced below:
1
G(s) =  2 (8.73)
s s
1+ +
Qω0 ω0
For Q ≤ 0.5, let us use the quadratic formula to write the real roots of the denominator polyno-
mial of Eq. (8.73) as

ω0 1 − 1 − 4Q2
ω1 = (8.74)
Q 2

ω0 1 + 1 − 4Q2
ω2 = (8.75)
Q 2
The corner frequency ω2 can be expressed as
ω0
ω2 = F(Q) (8.76)
Q
where F(Q) is defined as [79]:
1  
F(Q) = 1 + 1 − 4Q2 (8.77)
2
Note that, when Q 0.5, then 4Q2 1 and F(Q) is approximately equal to 1. We then obtain
ω0 1
ω2 ≈ for Q (8.78)
Q 2
The function F(Q) is plotted in Fig. 8.26. It can be seen that F(Q) approaches 1 very rapidly as
Q decreases below 0.5.
To derive a similar approximation for ω1 , we can multiply and divide Eq. (8.74) by F(Q),
Eq. (8.77). Upon simplification of the numerator, we obtain
Qω0
ω1 = (8.79)
F(Q)

1
F(Q)
0.75
Fig. 8.26 F(Q) vs. Q, as
given by Eq. (8.77). The 0.5
approximation F(Q) = 1
is within 10% of the exact
value for Q < 3 0.25

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Q
 8.1 Review of Bode Plots 301

|| G ||dB Q f0
f1 =
F(Q)
f0 f0F(Q)
Fig. 8.27 Magnitude asymptotes pre- 0 dB Q f0
f2 =
Q
dicted by the low-Q approximation. f0
Real poles occur at frequencies Q f0 and Q
f0 /Q –20 dB/decade

–40 dB/decade

Again, F(Q) tends to 1 for small Q. Hence, ω1 can be approximated as

1
ω1 ≈ Qω0 for Q (8.80)
2
Magnitude asymptotes for the low-Q case are summarized in Fig. 8.27. For Q < 0.5, the
two poles at ω0 split into real poles. One real pole occurs at corner frequency ω1 < ω0 , while
the other occurs at corner frequency ω2 > ω0 . The corner frequencies are easily approximated,
using Eqs. (8.78) and (8.80).
For the filter circuit of Fig. 8.18, the parameters Q and ω0 are given by Eq. (8.61). For
the case when Q 0.5, we can derive the following analytical expressions for the corner
frequencies, using Eqs. (8.78) and (8.80):

C 1 R
ω1 ≈ Qω0 = R √ =
L LC L
ω0 1 1 1 (8.81)
ω2 ≈ = √  =
Q LC C RC
R
L
So the low-Q approximation allows us to derive simple design-oriented analytical expressions
for the corner frequencies.

8.1.8 The High-Q Approximation

Another case of interest is the determination of the Q-factor of a high-Q resonant circuit con-
taining multiple resistive elements. Consider, for example, the resonant L–C circuit illustrated
in Fig. 8.28, which contains load resistor R and an additional resistor RC in series with the ca-
pacitor. In the case of large R and small RC , the circuit approaches an undamped L–C network
having resonant frequency

L
+
Fig. 8.28 Two-pole low-pass filter with RC
two resistive elements +
v1(s) R v2(s)
C
302 8 Converter Transfer Functions

1
ω0 = √ (8.82)
LC
When RC is negligibly small but R is significant, then the circuit previously considered in
Sect. 8.1.6 (Fig. 8.18) is obtained. We previously found that this circuit exhibits a Q-factor
given by
R
Qload = (8.83)
R0
with 
L
R0 =
C
leading to the transfer function
1
G(s) =  2 (8.84)
s s
1+ +
Qload ω0 ω0

Conversely, in the case where the load resistor R is very large but RC is significant, we can
analyze the circuit to find the following transfer function:
 
s
1+
ωz
G(s) =  2 (8.85)
s s
1+ +
QC ω0 ω0

The corner frequency ω0 is again given by Eq. (8.82), but the Q-factor is
R0
QC = (8.86)
RC
So individually, the two damping cases lead to similar second-order denominators, whose Q
factors depend on the individual resistor values.
For the case when R and RC simultaneously cause significant damping, we can analyze the
circuit of Fig. 8.28 to show that the transfer function is
1 + sRC C
G(s) = L   RC 
(8.87)
1+s + RC C + s2 LC 1 +
R R
This equation can be expressed in the following normalized form:
 
s
1+
ωz
G(s) =     2   (8.88)
s 1 1 s 1
1+ + + 1+
ω0 Qload QC ω0 Qload QC
 8.1 Review of Bode Plots 303

where
1
ω0 = √
LC
R
Qload =
R0
(8.89)
R0
QC =
RC

L
R0 =
C
If Qload 1 and QC 1, then
1
1+ ≈1 (8.90)
Qload QC
Equation (8.88) can then be simplified as follows:
 
s
1+
ωz
G(s) ≈  ⎛ ⎞  2 (8.91)
s ⎜⎜⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟⎟
⎟⎟⎠ + s
1+ ⎜⎝ ++
ω0 Qload + QC ω0

Thus, for the case when R and RC simultaneously cause significant damping, the composite
Q-factor can be estimated from Qload and QC by use of the High-Q Approximation:
+
Q ≈ Qload ++ QC =
1
(8.92)
1 1
+
Qload QC
The notation x  y denotes inverse addition as shown above. This approximation for the Q-factor
of the denominator poles is accurate provided that

Qload 1 and QC 1 (8.93)

The two damping terms Qload and QC affect both the exact frequency and the exact Q-factor.
We can express Eq. (8.88) in the following standard normalized form:
 
s
1+
ωz
G(s) =      2 (8.94)
s 1 s
1+ +
ωe Qe ωe

where the exact corner frequency ωe and exact Q-factor Qe are given by
ω0  + 
ωe = , Qe = Qload ++ QC F H (Qload QC ) (8.95)
F H (Qload QC )
304 8 Converter Transfer Functions

1.7
FH(Q1Q2)
1.6

1.5

1.4

1.3

1.2

1.1

1
0.5 1 2 5 10 20 50
Q1Q2

Fig. 8.29 F H (Q1 Q2 ) vs. Q1 Q2 , as given by Eq. (8.96). The approximation F H (Q1 Q2 ) ≈ 1 is within 10%
of the correct value for Q1 Q2 > 5

and with

1
F H (Q1 Q2 ) = 1+ (8.96)
Q1 Q2

The factor F H (Q1 Q2 ) is plotted in Fig. 8.29. It can be seen that this factor converges to 1 as the
product of the two Q factors is increased above 1.
In summary, the high-Q approximation states that in a resonant circuit damped by two ele-
ments that individually induce Q-factors of Q1 and Q2 , the composite Q-factor is approximately
Q1 Q2 . This approximation facilitates derivation of simple design-oriented expressions for res-
onant circuits having multiple damping elements. An example of its use is given in Sect. 9.5.4,
where the high-Q approximation substantially simplifies the equations of a buck converter in
which inductor and capacitor resistances are modeled.

8.1.9 Approximate Roots of an Arbitrary-Degree Polynomial

The low-Q approximation can be generalized, to find approximate analytical expressions for the
roots of the nth-order polynomial

P(s) = 1 + a1 s + a2 s2 + · · · + an sn (8.97)

It is desired to factor the polynomial P(s) into the form

P(s) = (1 + τ1 s)(1 + τ2 s) · · · (1 + τn s) (8.98)

 8.1 Review of Bode Plots 305

In a real circuit, the coefficients a1 , . . . , an are real, while the time constants τ1 , . . . , τn may
be either real or complex. Very often, some or all of the time constants are well separated in
value, and depend in a very simple way on the circuit element values. In such cases, simple
approximate analytical expressions for the time constants can be derived.
The time constants τ1 , . . . , τn can be related to the original coefficients a1 , . . . , an by
multiplying out Eq. (8.98). The result is

a1 = τ1 + τ2 + · · · + τn
a2 = τ1 (τ2 + · · · + τn ) + τ2 (τ3 + · · · + τn ) + · · ·
a3 = τ1 τ2 (τ3 + · · · + τn ) + τ2 τ3 (τ4 + · · · + τn ) + · · · (8.99)
..
.
an = τ1 τ2 τ3 · · · τn

General solution of this system of equations amounts to exact factoring of the arbitrary-degree
polynomial, a hopeless task. Nonetheless, Eq. (8.99) does suggest a way to approximate the
roots.
Suppose that all of the time constants τ1 , . . . , τn are real and well separated in value. We
can further assume, without loss of generality, that the time constants are arranged in decreasing
order of magnitude:
|τ1 | |τ2 | · · · |τn | (8.100)
When the inequalities of Eq. (8.100) are satisfied, then the expressions for a1 , . . . , an of Eq.
(8.99) are each dominated by their first terms:

a1 ≈ τ1
a2 ≈ τ1 τ2
a3 ≈ τ1 τ2 τ3
..
.
an = τ1 τ2 τ3 · · · τn (8.101)

These expressions can now be solved for the time constants, with the result

τ1 ≈ a1
a2
τ2 ≈
a1
a3
τ3 ≈ (8.102)
a2
..
.
a1
τn ≈
an−1
Hence, if
       
a1   a2   a3  ···  an  (8.103)
 a1   a2   an−1 
306 8 Converter Transfer Functions

then the polynomial P(s) given by Eq. (8.97) has the approximate factorization
    
a2 a3 an
P(s) ≈ (1 + a1 s) 1 + s 1 + s · · · 1 + s (8.104)
a1 a2 an−1
Note that if the original coefficients in Eq. (8.97) are simple functions of the circuit elements,
then the approximate roots given by Eq. (8.104) are similar simple functions of the circuit ele-
ments. So approximate analytical expressions for the roots can be obtained. Numerical values
are substituted into Eq. (8.103) to justify the approximation.
In the case where two of the roots are not well separated, then one of the inequalities of
Eq. (8.103) is violated. We can then leave the corresponding terms in quadratic form. For exam-
ple, suppose that inequality k is not satisfied:
   a2    
a  a 
 
a 

a1    · · ·  k  /  k+1  · · ·  n  (8.105)
a1 ak−1 ak an−1
Then an approximate factorization is
     
a2 ak ak+1 2 an
P(s) ≈ (1 + a1 s) 1 + s · · · 1 + s+ s ··· 1 + s (8.106)
a1 ak−1 ak−1 an−1
The conditions for accuracy of this approximation are
   a2         
 ak   ak−2 ak+1   ak+2   an 
a1    · · ·     ··· (8.107)
a1 ak−1   a2k−1   ak+1   an−1 

Complex conjugate roots can be approximated in this manner.

When the first inequality of Eq. (8.103) is violated, that is,
     
an 
|a1 | /     · · · 
a2 a3
 (8.108)
a1 a2 an−1 
then the first two roots should be left in quadratic form:
  a3
 
an

P(s) ≈ 1 + a1 s + a2 s2 1 + s · · · 1 + s (8.109)
a2 an−1
This approximation is justified provided that
 2       
 a2   a3   a4   an 
  |a1 |    a3  ···  an−1  (8.110)
a3 a2
If none of the above approximations is justified, then there are three or more roots that are close
in magnitude. One must then resort to cubic or higher-order forms.
As an example, consider the damped EMI filter illustrated in Fig. 8.30. Filters such as this
are typically placed at the power input of a converter, to attenuate the switching harmonics
present in the converter input current. By circuit analysis, one can show that this filter exhibits
the following transfer function:
L1 + L2
ig (s) 1+s
G(s) = = R (8.111)
ic (s) L1 + L2 L1 L2C
1+s + s2 L1C + s3
R R
 8.1 Review of Bode Plots 307

L1

ig ic
L2 R Converter
vg + C

Fig. 8.30 Input EMI filter example

This transfer function contains a third-order denominator, with the following coefficients:
L1 + L2
a1 =
R
a2 = L1C
L1 L2C
a3 = (8.112)
R
It is desired to factor the denominator, to obtain analytical expressions for the poles. The correct
way to do this depends on the numerical values of R, L1 , L2 , and C. When the roots are real
and well separated, then Eq. (8.104) predicts that the denominator can be factored as follows:
  
L1 + L2  L1 L2 
1+s 1 + sRC 1+s (8.113)
R L1 + L2 R

According to Eq. (8.103), this approximation is justified provided that

L1 + L2 L1 L2
RC (8.114)
R L1 + L2 R
These inequalities cannot be satisfied unless L1 L2 . When L1 L2 , then Eq. (8.114) can be
further simplified to
L1 L2
RC (8.115)
R R
The approximate factorization, Eq. (8.113), can then be further simplified to
 L1   L2 
1+s (1 + sRC) 1 + s (8.116)
R R
Thus, in this case the transfer function contains three well- separated real poles. Equations (8.113)
and (8.116) represent approximate analytical factorizations of the denominator of Eq. (8.111).
Although numerical values must be substituted into Eqs. (8.114) or (8.115) to justify the ap-
proximation, we can nonetheless express Eqs. (8.113) and (8.116) as analytical functions of
L1 , L2 , R, and C. Equations (8.113) and (8.116) are design-oriented, because they yield in-
sight into how the element values can be chosen such that given specified pole frequencies are
obtained.
308 8 Converter Transfer Functions

When the second inequality of Eq. (8.114) is violated,

L1 + L2 L1 L2
RC / (8.117)
R L1 + L2 R
then the second and third roots should be left in quadratic form:
  
L1 + L2  L1
1+s 1 + sRC + s L1 L2C
2
(8.118)
R L1 + L2
This expression follows from Eq. (8.106), with k = 2. Equation (8.107) predicts that this ap-
proximation is justified provided that
L1 + L2 L1 L1 L2
RC RC (8.119)
R L1 + L2 L1 + L2
In application of Eq. (8.107), we take a0 to be equal to 1. The inequalities of Eq. (8.119) can be
simplified to obtain
L1
L1 L2 , and RC (8.120)
R
Note that it is no longer required that RC L2 /R. Equation (8.120) implies that factoriza-
tion (8.118) can be further simplified to
 L1   
1+s 1 + sRC + s2 L2C (8.121)
R
Thus, for this case, the transfer function contains a low-frequency pole that is well separated
from a high-frequency quadratic pole pair. Again, the factored result (8.121) is expressed as an
analytical function of the element values, and consequently is design-oriented.
In the case where the first inequality of Eq. (8.114) is violated:
L1 + L2 L1 L2
/ RC (8.122)
R L1 + L2 R
then the first and second roots should be left in quadratic form:
 L1 + L2  L2 
1+s + s2 L1C 1 + s (8.123)
R R
This expression follows directly from Eq. (8.109). Equation (8.110) predicts that this approxi-
mation is justified provided that
L1 RC L1 + L2 L2
(8.124)
L2 R R
that is,
L2
L1 L2 , and RC (8.125)
R
For this case, the transfer function contains a low-frequency quadratic pole pair that is well
separated from a high-frequency real pole. If none of the above approximations are justified,
then all three of the roots are similar in magnitude. We must then find other means of dealing
with the original cubic polynomial. Design of input filters, including the filter of Fig. 8.30, is
covered in Chap. 17.
 8.2 Analysis of Converter Transfer Functions 309

8.2 Analysis of Converter Transfer Functions

Let us next derive analytical expressions for the poles, zeroes, and asymptote gains in the trans-
fer functions of the basic converters.

8.2.1 Example: Transfer Functions of the Buck–Boost Converter

The small-signal equivalent circuit model of the buck–boost converter is derived in Sect. 7.2,
with the result (Fig. 7.16b) repeated in Fig. 8.31. Let us derive and plot the control-to-output
and line-to-output transfer functions for this circuit.
The converter contains two independent ac inputs: the control input d̂(s) and the line input
v̂g (s). The ac output voltage variations v̂(s) can be expressed as the superposition of terms arising
from these two inputs:
v̂(s) = Gvd (s)d̂(s) + Gvg (s)v̂g (s) (8.126)
Hence, the transfer functions Gvd (s) and Gvg (s) can be defined as
 
v̂(s)  v̂(s) 
Gvd (s) =  and Gvg (s) =  (8.127)
d̂(s) v̂g (s)=0 v̂g (s) d̂(s)=0

To find the line-to-output transfer function Gvg (s), we set the d̂ sources to zero as in
Fig. 8.32a. We can then push the vg (s) source and the inductor through the transformers, to
obtain the circuit of Fig. 8.32b. The transfer function Gvg (s) is found using the voltage divider
formula:
 
++ 1
 R+
v̂(s)  D sC
Gvg (s) =  = −   (8.128)
v̂g (s) d̂(s)=0 D sL ++ 1
+ R+
D2 sC
We next expand the parallel combination, and express as a rational fraction:
 R 
 D
Gvg (s) = −  1 + sRC
 R 
D sL
+
D2 1 + sRC (8.129)
 D R
= − 
D sL s2 RLC
R + 2 +
D D2

L
1:D D' : 1
+
–

ˆi (s) +
(Vg – V) dˆ (s)
vˆ g (s) + I dˆ (s) I dˆ(s) C vˆ (s) R
–

Fig. 8.31 Buck–boost converter equivalent circuit derived in Sect. 7.2

310 8 Converter Transfer Functions

(a) 1:D D' : 1

+
L

vˆg (s) + ˆ
– C v(s) R

(b) +
L
D' 2
ˆvg(s) – D + ˆ
D' – C v(s) R

Fig. 8.32 Manipulation of buck–boost equivalent circuit to find the line-to-output transfer function
Gvg (s): (a) set d̂ sources to zero; (b) push inductor and v̂g source through transformers

We are not done yet—the next step is to manipulate the expression into normalized form, such
that the coefficients of s0 in the numerator and denominator polynomials are equal to one. This
can be accomplished by dividing the numerator and denominator by R:
  D
v̂(s)  1
Gvg (s) =  = −  (8.130)
v̂g (s) d̂(s)=0 D L LC
1 + s 2 + s2 2
D R D
Thus, the line-to-output transfer function contains a dc gain Gg0 and a quadratic pole pair:
1
Gvg (s) = Gg0  2 (8.131)
s s
1+ +
Qω0 ω0
Analytical expressions for the salient features of the line-to-output transfer function are
found by equating like terms in Eqs. (8.130) and (8.131). The dc gain is
D
Gg0 = − (8.132)
D
By equating the coefficients of s2 in the denominators of Eqs. (8.130) and (8.131), we obtain
1 LC
= 2 (8.133)
ω0
2 D

Hence, the angular corner frequency is

D
ω0 = √ (8.134)
LC
By equating coefficients of s in the denominators of Eqs. (8.130) and (8.131), we obtain
 8.2 Analysis of Converter Transfer Functions 311

1 L
= 2 (8.135)
Qω0 D R
Elimination of ω0 using Eq. (8.134) and solution for Q leads to

 C
Q=DR (8.136)
L
Equations (8.132), (8.134), and (8.136) are the desired results in the analysis of the line-to-
output transfer function. These expressions are useful not only in analysis situations, where it
is desired to find numerical values of the salient features Gg0 , ω0 , and Q, but also in design
situations, where it is desired to select numerical values for R, L, and C such that given values
of the salient features are obtained.
Derivation of the control-to-output transfer function Gvd (s) is complicated by the presence in
Fig. 8.31 of three generators that depend on d̂(s). One good way to find Gvd (s) is to manipulate
the circuit model as in the derivation of the canonical model, Fig. 7.36. Another approach, used
here, employs the principle of superposition. First, we set the v̂g source to zero. This shorts the
input to the 1:D transformer, and we are left with the circuit illustrated in Fig. 8.33a. Next, we
push the inductor and d̂ voltage source through the D’:1 transformer, as in Fig. 8.33b.
Figure 8.33b contains a d̂-dependent voltage source and a d̂-dependent current source. The
transfer function Gvd (s) can therefore be expressed as a superposition of terms arising from
these two sources. When the current source is set to zero (i.e., open-circuited), the circuit of
Fig. 8.34a is obtained. The output v̂(s) can then be expressed as
 
+ 1
  R ++
v̂(s) Vg − V sC
= −   (8.137)
d̂(s) D  sL ++ 1
+ R +
D2 sC

(a) L
D' : 1
+
–

+
(Vg – V) dˆ(s)
I dˆ (s) ˆ
C v(s) R

(b) +
L
Vg – V ˆ – D' 2
d (s) + I dˆ(s) C ˆ
v(s) R
D'

Fig. 8.33 Manipulation of buck–boost equivalent circuit to find the control-to-output transfer function
Gvd (s): (a) set v̂g source to zero; (b) push inductor and voltage source through transformer
312 8 Converter Transfer Functions

(a) +
L
Vg – V ˆ – D' 2
d (s) + C ˆv (s) R
D'
Fig. 8.34 Solution of the model of –
Fig. 8.33b by superposition: (a) cur-
rent source set to zero; (b) voltage
source set to zero
(b) +

I dˆ(s) L C ˆv (s) R
D' 2

When the voltage source is set to zero (i.e., short-circuited), Fig. 8.33b reduces to the circuit
illustrated in Fig. 8.34b. The output v̂(s) can then be expressed as
 
v̂(s) sL ++ ++ 1
= I 2 R + + (8.138)
d̂(s) D sC

The transfer function Gvd (s) is the sum of Eqs. (8.137) and (8.138):
 
++ 1
  R +  
Vg − V sC sL ++ ++ 1
Gvd (s) = −   + I + R + (8.139)
D sL ++ 1 D2 sC
+ R +
D2 sC

By algebraic manipulation, one can reduce this expression to

⎛ ⎞
⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎜⎜1 − s  LI  ⎟⎟⎟
   ⎝  V −V ⎠
v̂(s)  Vg − V D g
Gvd (s) = = − 
 LC 

(8.140)
d̂(s) v̂g (s)=0 D L
1 + s 2 + s2 2
D R D
This equation is of the form
 
s
1−
ωz
Gvd (s) = Gd0 ⎛  2 ⎞ (8.141)
⎜⎜⎜ s s ⎟⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎜⎝1 + + ⎟
Qω0 ω0 ⎠

The denominators of Eq. (8.140) and (8.130) are identical, and hence Gvd (s) and Gvg (s)
share the same ω0 and Q, given by Eqs. (8.134) and (8.136). The dc gain is
Vg − V Vg V
Gd0 = − 
= − 2 = (8.142)
D D DD
 8.2 Analysis of Converter Transfer Functions 313

The angular frequency of the zero is found by equating coefficients of s in the numerators of
Eqs. (8.140) and (8.141). One obtains

D (Vg − V) D2 R
ωz = = (RHP) (8.143)
LI DL
This zero lies in the right half-plane. Equations (8.142) and (8.143) have been simplified by use
of the dc relationships
D
V=− Vg (8.144)
D
V
I=− 1
DR
Equations (8.134), (8.136), (8.142), and (8.143) constitute the results of the analysis of the
control-to-output transfer function: analytical expressions for the salient features ω0 , Q, Gd0 ,
and ωz . These expressions can be used to choose the element values such that given desired
values of the salient features are obtained.
Having found analytical expressions for the salient features of the transfer functions, we
can now plug in numerical values and construct the Bode plot. Suppose that we are given the
following values:

D = 0.6
R = 10 Ω
Vg = 30 V (8.145)
L = 160 μH
C = 160 μF

We can evaluate Eqs. (8.132), (8.134), (8.136), (8.142), and (8.143), to determine numerical
values of the salient features of the transfer functions. The results are:
  D
Gg0  =  = 1.5 ⇒ 3.5 dB
D
|V|
|Gd0 | = = 187.5 V ⇒ 45.5 dB V
DD
ω0 D
f0 = = √ = 400 Hz (8.146)
2π 2π LC

C
Q = D R = 4 ⇒ 12 dB
L
ωz D2 R
fz = = = 2.65 kHz
2π 2πDL
The Bode plot of the magnitude and phase of Gvd is constructed in Fig. 8.35. The transfer
function contains a dc gain of 45.5 dBV, resonant poles at 400 Hz having a Q of 4 ⇒ 12dB, and
a right half-plane zero at 2.65 kHz. the resonant poles contribute −180◦ to the high-frequency
phase asymptote, while the right half-plane zero contributes −90◦ . In addition, the inverting
characteristic of the buck–boost converter leads to a 18◦ phase reversal, not included in Fig. 8.35.
314 8 Converter Transfer Functions

80 dBV || Gvd ||
|| Gvd || Gvd
60 dBV Gd0 = 187 V
45.5 dBV Q=4 12 dB
40 dBV f0 –40 dB/decade
400 Hz
20 dBV
10 -1/2Q f0
0˚ 300 Hz
0 dBV fz 0˚
Gvd fz /10 2.6 kHz
RHP –20 dB/decade
–20 dBV 260 Hz –90˚

–40 dBV –180˚

10fz
10 1/2Q f0
533 Hz 26 kHz –270˚
–270˚
10 Hz 100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz

Fig. 8.35 Bode plot of the control-to-output transfer function Gvd , buck–boost converter example. Phase
reversal owing to output voltage inversion is not included

20 dB
|| Gvg || Gg0 = 1.5 Gvg
3.5 dB Q=4 12 dB
0 dB
!!Gvg !! f0
400 Hz –40 dB/decade
–20 dB

–40 dB
10 –1/2Q 0 f0
0˚ 300 Hz
–60 dB 0˚
Gvg
–80 dB –90˚

–180˚
–180˚
10 1/2Q 0 f0
533 Hz
–270˚
10 Hz 100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz

Fig. 8.36 Bode plot of the line-to-output transfer function Gvg , buck–boost converter example. Phase
reversal owing to output voltage inversion is not included

The Bode plot of the magnitude and phase of the line-to-output transfer function Gvg is
constructed in Fig. 8.36. This transfer function contains the same resonant poles at 400 Hz, but
is missing the right half-plane zero. The dc gain Gg0 is equal to the conversion ratio M(D)
of the converter. Again, the 180◦ phase reversal, caused by the inverting characteristic of the
buck–boost converter, is not included in Fig. 8.36.
 8.2 Analysis of Converter Transfer Functions 315

Table 8.2 Salient features of the small-signal CCM transfer functions of some basic dc–dc converters

Converter Gg0 Gd0 ω0 Q ωz


V 1 C
Buck D √ R ∞
D LC L

1 V D C D2 R
Boost √ D R
D D LC L L

D V D C D2 R
Buck–boost − √ D R
D DD LC L DL

8.2.2 Transfer Functions of Some Basic CCM Converters

The salient features of the line-to-output and control-to-output transfer functions of the basic
buck, boost, and buck–boost converters are summarized in Table 8.2. In each case, the control-
to-output transfer function is of the form
 
s
1−
ωz
Gvd (s) = Gd0 ⎛  2 ⎞ (8.147)
⎜⎜⎜ s s ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎜⎝1 + + ⎟⎟
Qω0 ω0 ⎠

and the line-to-output transfer function is of the form

1
Gvg (s) = Gg0 ⎛  2 ⎞ (8.148)
⎜⎜⎜ s s ⎟⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎜⎝1 + + ⎟
Qω0 ω0 ⎠

The boost and buck–boost converters exhibit control-to-output transfer functions containing
two poles and a right half-plane zero. The buck converter Gvd (s) exhibits two poles but no
zero. The line-to-output transfer functions of all three ideal converters contain two poles and no
zeroes.
These results can be easily adapted to transformer-isolated versions of the buck, boost, and
buck–boost converters. The transformer has negligible effect on the transfer functions Gvg (s)
and Gvd (s), other than introduction of a turns ratio. For example, when the transformer of the
bridge topology is driven symmetrically, its magnetizing inductance does not contribute dynam-
ics to the converter small-signal transfer functions. Likewise, when the transformer magnetiz-
ing inductance of the forward converter is reset by the input voltage vg , as in Figs. 6.24 or 6.29,
then it also contributes negligible dynamics. In all transformer-isolated converters based on the
buck, boost, and buck–boost converters, the line-to-output transfer function Gvg (s) should be
multiplied by the transformer turns ratio; the transfer functions (8.147) and (8.148) and the
parameters listed in Table 8.2 can otherwise be directly applied.
316 8 Converter Transfer Functions

8.2.3 Physical Origins of the Right Half-Plane Zero in Converters

Figure 8.37 contains a block diagram that il-

lustrates the behavior of the right half-plane
1
zero. At low frequencies, the gain (s/ωz ) has
negligible magnitude, and hence uout ≈ uin . uin(s) + uout(s)
At high frequencies, where the magnitude
of the gain (s/ωz ) is much greater than 1,
uout ≈ −(s/ωz )uin . The negative sign causes
s
a phase reversal at high frequency. The im- z
plication for the transient response is that the
output initially tends in the opposite direction
of the final value. Fig. 8.37 Block diagram having a right half-plane
We have seen that the control-to-output zero transfer function, as in Eq. (8.32), with ω0 = ωz
transfer functions of the boost and buck–
boost converters, Fig. 8.38, exhibit RHP ze-
roes. Typical transient response waveforms for a step change in duty cycle are illustrated in
Fig. 8.39. For this example, the converter initially operates in equilibrium, at d = 0.4 and
d = 0.6. Equilibrium inductor current iL (t), diode current iD (t), and output voltage v(t) wave-
forms are illustrated. The average diode current is

iD T s = d iL T s (8.149)

By capacitor charge balance, this average diode current is equal to the dc load current when
the converter operates in equilibrium. At time t = t1 , the duty cycle is increased to 0.6. In
consequence, d decreases to 0.4. The average diode current, given by Eq. (8.149), therefore
decreases, and the output capacitor begins to discharge. The output voltage magnitude initially
decreases as illustrated.

(a) L 2 iD(t)
+
iL(t)
1
vg + C R v

(b) iD(t)
1 2 +

iL(t)
vg + C R v
L

Fig. 8.38 Two basic converters whose CCM control-to-output transfer functions exhibit RHP zeroes: (a)
boost, (b) buck–boost
 8.3 Graphical Construction of Impedances and Transfer Functions 317

iL(t)

t
Fig. 8.39 Waveforms of the con-
iD(t)
verters of Fig. 8.38, for a step re-
sponse in duty cycle. The average iD(t) Ts
diode current and output voltage
initially decrease, as predicted by
the RHP zero. Eventually, the in-
ductor current increases, causing
the average diode current and the t
output voltage to increase
| v(t) |

t
d = 0.4 d = 0.6

The increased duty cycle causes the inductor current to slowly increase, and hence the aver-
age diode current eventually exceeds its original d = 0.4 equilibrium value. The output voltage
eventually increases in magnitude, to the new equilibrium value corresponding to d = 0.6.
The presence of a right half-plane zero tends to destabilize wide-bandwidth feedback loops,
because during a transient the output initially changes in the wrong direction. The phase margin
test for feedback loop stability is discussed in the next chapter; when a RHP zero is present,
it is difficult to obtain an adequate phase margin in conventional single-loop feedback systems
having wide bandwidth. Prediction of the right half-plane zero, and the consequent explanation
of why the feedback loops controlling CCM boost and buck–boost converters tend to oscillate,
was one of the early successes of averaged converter modeling.

8.3 Graphical Construction of Impedances and Transfer Functions

Often, we can draw approximate Bode diagrams by inspection, without large amounts of messy
algebra and the inevitable associated algebra mistakes. A great deal of insight can be gained into
the operation of the circuit using this method. It becomes clear which components dominate
the circuit response at various frequencies, and so suitable approximations become obvious.
Analytical expressions for the approximate corner frequencies and asymptotes can be obtained
directly. Impedances and transfer functions of quite complicated networks can be constructed.
Thus insight can be gained, so that the design engineer can modify the circuit to obtain a desired
frequency response.
318 8 Converter Transfer Functions

The graphical construction method, also known as “doing algebra on the graph,” involves
use of a few simple rules for combining the magnitude Bode plots of impedances and transfer
functions.

8.3.1 Series Impedances: Addition of Asymptotes

A series connection represents the addition of

R
impedances. If the Bode diagrams of the individual 10
impedance magnitudes are known, then the asymptotes
of the series combination are found by simply taking
the largest of the individual impedance asymptotes. In Z(s) C
many cases, the result is exact. In other cases, such as 1 μF
when the individual asymptotes have the same slope,
then the result is an approximation; nonetheless, the
accuracy of the approximation can be quite good.
Consider the series-connected R–C network of Fig. 8.40 Series R–C network example
Fig. 8.40. It is desired to construct the magnitude
asymptotes of the total series impedance Z(s), where
1
Z(s) = R + (8.150)
sC
Let us first sketch the magnitudes of the individual impedances. The 10 Ω resistor has an
impedance magnitude of 10 Ω ⇒ 20 dBΩ. This value is independent of frequency, and is given
in Fig. 8.41. The capacitor has an impedance magnitude of 1/ωC. This quantity varies inversely
with ω, and hence its magnitude Bode plot is a line with slope −20 dB/decade. The line passes
through 1 Ω ⇒ 0 dBΩ at the angular frequency ω where
1
= 1Ω (8.151)
ωC
that is, at
1 1
ω= = = 106 rad/sec (8.152)
(1 Ω)C (1 Ω)(10−6 F)

80 dB 10 k
1
60 dB C 1k
Fig. 8.41
Impedance
40 dB 100
magnitudes of the
individual elements
20 dB 10
in the network of R = 10 20 dB
Fig. 8.40
0 dB 1
1 =1 at 159 kHz
C
0.1
100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz
 8.3 Graphical Construction of Impedances and Transfer Functions 319

In terms of frequency f , this occurs at

ω 106
f = = = 159 kHz (8.153)
2π 2π
So the capacitor impedance magnitude is a line with slope −20 dB/dec, and which passes
through 0 dB Ω at 159 kHz, as shown in Fig. 8.41. It should be noted that, for simplicity, the
asymptotes in Fig. 8.41 have been labeled R and 1/ωC. But to draw the Bode plot, we must
actually plot dB Ω; for example, 20 log10 (R/1 Ω) and 20 log10 ((1/ωC)/1 Ω).
Let us now construct the magnitude of Z(s), given by Eq. (8.150). The magnitude of Z can
be approximated as follows:
⎧
++ ++ +++ + ⎪R
1 ++ ⎪ ⎪
⎨ for R 1/ωC
+Z ( jω) + = ++R + ++ ≈ ⎪
⎪ 1 (8.154)
jωC ⎪
⎩ for R 1/ωC
ωC
The asymptotes of the series combination are simply the larger of the individual resistor and
capacitor asymptotes, as illustrated by the heavy lines in Fig. 8.42. For this example, these
are in fact the exact asymptotes of Z. In the limiting case as frequency tends to zero (dc),
then the capacitor tends to an open circuit. The series combination is then dominated by the
capacitor, and the exact function tends asymptotically to the capacitor impedance magnitude. In
the limiting case as frequency tends to infinity, then the capacitor tends to a short circuit, and
the total impedance becomes simply R. So the R and 1/ωC lines are the exact asymptotes for
this example.
The corner frequency f0 , where the asymptotes intersect, can now be easily deduced. At
angular frequency ω0 = 2π f0 , the two asymptotes are equal in value:
1
=R (8.155)
ω0 C
Solution for ω0 and f0 leads to:
1 1
ω0 = = = 105 rad/sec
RC (10 Ω)(10−6 F)
ω0 1
f0 = = = 16 kHz (8.156)
2π 2πRC

80 dB 10 k
|| Z ||
60 dB 1k

40 dB 100

20 dB R 10
f0
0 dB
1 = 16 kHz 1
2 RC C 1

0.1
100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz

Fig. 8.42 Construction of the composite asymptotes of  Z . The asymptotes of the series combination
can be approximated by simply selecting the larger of the individual resistor and capacitor asymptotes
320 8 Converter Transfer Functions

So if we can write analytical expressions for the asymptotes, then we can equate the expressions
to find analytical expressions for the corner frequencies where the asymptotes intersect.
The deviation of the exact curve from the asymptotes follows all of the usual rules. The
slope of the asymptotes changes by +20 dB/decade at the corner frequency f0 (i.e., from
−20 dBΩ/decade to 0 dBΩ/decade), and hence there is a zero at f = f0 . So the exact curve
deviates from the asymptotes by +3 dBΩ at f = f0 , and by +1 dBΩ at f = 2 f0 and at f = f0 /2.

8.3.2 Series Resonant Circuit Example

As a second example, let us construct the

magnitude asymptotes for the series R–L–
C circuit of Fig. 8.43. The series impedance
R
Z(s) is
1 Z(s)
Z(s) = R + sL + (8.157)
sC L
The magnitudes of the individual resistor, in-
ductor, and capacitor asymptotes are plotted
C
in Fig. 8.44, for the values

R = 1 kΩ
L = 1 mH (8.158)
Fig. 8.43 Series R–L–C network example
C = 0.1 μF

The series impedance Z(s) is dominated by the capacitor at low frequency, by the resistor at mid
frequencies, and by the inductor at high frequencies, as illustrated by the bold line in Fig. 8.44.
The impedance Z(s) contains a zero at angular frequency ω1 , where the capacitor and resistor
asymptotes intersect. By equating the expressions for the resistor and capacitor asymptotes, we
can find ω1 :
1 1
R= ⇒ ω1 = (8.159)
ω1 C RC
A second zero occurs at angular frequency ω2 , where the inductor and resistor asymptotes inter-
sect. Upon equating the expressions for the resistor and inductor asymptotes at ω2 , we obtain
the following:

100 dB || Z || 100 k

80 dB 10 k
Fig. 8.44 Graphical
construction of  Z 
60 dB 1k
of the series R–L–C R f1 f2
network of Fig. 8.43,
40 dB 100
for the element values
specified by Eq. (8.158) 1
20 dB L C 10

0 dB 1
100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz
 8.3 Graphical Construction of Impedances and Transfer Functions 321

100 dB || Z || 100 k

80 dB 10 k
Fig. 8.45 Graphical con-
struction of impedance 60 dB 1k
asymptotes for the series f0
R–L–C network example, 40 dB R0 100
with R decreased to 10 Ω
R
20 dB 10
1
L C
0 dB 1
100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz

R
R = ω 2 L ⇒ ω2 = (8.160)
L
So simple expressions for all important features of the magnitude Bode plot of Z(s) can be
obtained directly. It should be noted that Eqs. (8.159) and (8.160) are approximate, rather than
exact, expressions for the corner frequencies ω1 and ω2 . Equations (8.159) and (8.160) coincide
with the results obtained via the low-Q approximation of Sect. 8.1.7.
Next, suppose that the value of R is decreased to 10 Ω. As R is reduced in value, the approx-
imate corner frequencies ω1 and ω2 move closer together until, at R = 100 Ω, they are both
100 krad/sec. Reducing R further in value causes the asymptotes to become independent of the
value of R, as illustrated in Fig. 8.45 for R = 10 ω. The  Z  asymptotes now switch directly
from ωL to 1/ωC.
So now there are two zeroes at ω = ω0 . At corner frequency ω0 , the inductor and capacitor
asymptotes are equal in value. Hence,
1
ω0 L = = R0 (8.161)
ω0 C
Solution for the angular corner frequency ω0 leads to
1
ω0 = √ (8.162)
LC
At ω = ω0 , the inductor and capacitor impedances both have magnitude R0 , called the charac-
teristic impedance.
Since there are two zeroes at ω = ω0 , there is a possibility that the two poles could be
complex conjugates, and that peaking could occur in the vicinity of ω = ω0 . So let us investigate
what the actual curve does at ω = ω0 . The actual value of the series impedance Z( jω0 ) is
1
Z( jω0 ) = R + jω0 L + (8.163)
jω0C
Substitution of Eq. (8.161) into Eq. (8.163) leads to
R0
Z( jω0 ) = R + jR0 + = R + jR0 − jR0 = R (8.164)
j
At ω = ω0 , the inductor and capacitor impedances are equal in magnitude but opposite in phase.
Hence, they exactly cancel out in the series impedance, and we are left with Z( jω0 ) = R, as
322 8 Converter Transfer Functions

100 dB || Z || 100 k
Fig. 8.46 Ac-
tual impedance
80 dB 10 k
magnitude (solid
line) for the series
60 dB 1k
resonant R–L–C
example. The induc- f0
40 dB Actual curve R0 100
tor and capacitor
Q = R0 /R
impedances cancel R
20 dB 10
out at f = f0 , and
1
hence Z( jω0 ) = R L C
0 dB 1
100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz

illustrated in Fig. 8.46. The actual curve in the vicinity of the resonance at ω = ω0 can deviate
significantly from the asymptotes, because its value is determined by R rather than ωL or 1/ωC.
We know from Sect. 8.1.6 that the deviation of the actual curve from the asymptotes at
ω = ω0 is equal to Q. From Fig. 8.46, one can see that
     
 Q  =  R 
dB
−  R 
0 dBΩ dBΩ
(8.165)
or,
R0
Q= (8.166)
R
Equations (8.161) to (8.166) are exact results for the series resonant circuit.
The practice of adding asymptotes by simply selecting the larger asymptote can be applied
to transfer functions as well as impedances. For example, suppose that we have already con-
structed the magnitude asymptotes of two transfer functions, G1 and G2 , and we wish to find
the asymptotes of G = G1 + G2 . At each frequency, the asymptote for G can be approximated
by simply selecting the larger of the asymptotes for G1 and G2 :
⎧ ++ ++ ++ ++
⎪
⎪
⎨G1 , ++G1 ++ ++G2 ++
G = G1 + G2 ≈ ⎪ (8.167)
⎩G2 , ++G2 ++ ++G1 ++
⎪

Corner frequencies can be found by equating expressions for asymptotes as illustrated in the
preceding examples. In the next chapter, we will see that this approach yields a simple and
powerful method for determining the closed-loop transfer functions of feedback systems.

8.3.3 Parallel Impedances: Inverse Addition of Asymptotes

A parallel combination represents inverse addition of impedances:
+ +
 = Z1 ++ Z2 ++ · · ·
1
Z par =  (8.168)
1 1
+ + ···
Z1 Z2
If the asymptotes of the individual impedances Z1 , Z2 , . . ., are known, then the asymptotes
of the parallel combination Z par can be found by simply selecting the smallest individual
impedance asymptote. This is true because the smallest impedance will have the largest inverse,
and will dominate the inverse sum. As in the case of the series impedances, this procedure will
often yield the exact asymptotes of Z par .
 8.3 Graphical Construction of Impedances and Transfer Functions 323

Let us construct the magnitude asymp-

totes for the parallel R–L–C network of
Fig. 8.47, using the following element values: Z(s) R L C

R = 10 Ω
L = 1 mH (8.169)
C = 0.1 μF Fig. 8.47 Parallel R–L–C network example

Impedance magnitudes of the individual ele-

ments are illustrated in Fig. 8.48. The asymptotes for the total parallel impedance Z are approx-
imated by simply selecting the smallest individual element impedance, as shown by the heavy
line in Fig. 8.48. So the parallel impedance is dominated by the inductor at low frequency, by
the resistor at mid frequencies, and by the capacitor at high frequency. Approximate expressions
for the angular corner frequencies are again found by equating asymptotes:
R
at ω = ω1 , R = ω1 L ⇒ ω1 = (8.170)
L
1 1
at ω = ω2 , R = ⇒ ω2 =
ω2 C RC
These expressions could have been obtained by conventional analysis, combined with the low-Q
approximation of Sect. 8.1.7.

80 dB 10 k
1
60 dB C L 1k

40 dB 100

20 dB
R
10
f1 f2
0 dB 1
|| Z ||
0.1
100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz

Fig. 8.48 Construction of the composite asymptotes of  Z , for the parallel R–L–C example. The asymp-
totes of the parallel combination can be approximated by simply selecting the smallest of the individual
resistor, inductor, and capacitor asymptotes

8.3.4 Parallel Resonant Circuit Example

Figure 8.49 illustrates what happens when the value of R in the parallel R–L–C network is
increased to 1 kΩ. The asymptotes for  Z  then become independent of R, and change directly
from ωL to 1/ωC at angular frequency ω0 . The corner frequency ω0 is now the frequency where
the inductor and capacitor asymptotes have equal value:
324 8 Converter Transfer Functions

80 dB 1 10 k
C L
60 dB 1k
R
Fig. 8.49 Graphical con-
struction of impedance 40 dB R0 100
asymptotes for the parallel f0
R–L–C example, with R 20 dB 10
increased to 1 kΩ
0 dB || Z || 1

0.1
100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz

1
ω0 L = = R0 (8.171)
ω0 C
which implies that
1
ω0 = √ (8.172)
LC
At ω = ω0 , the slope of the asymptotes of  Z  changes from +20 dB/decade to −20 dB/decade,
and hence there are two poles. We should investigate whether peaking occurs, by determining
the exact value of  Z  at ω = ω0 , as follows:
 
++ ++ 1 1
Z ( jω0 ) = (R) + ( jω0 L) + =  (8.173)
jω0C 1 1
+ + jω0C
R jω0 L
Substitution of Eq. (8.171) into (8.173) yields
1 1
Z ( jω0 ) = = =R (8.174)
1 1 j 1 j j
+ + − +
R jR0 R0 R R0 R0
So at ω = ω0 , the impedances of the inductor and capacitor again cancel out, and we are left with
Z( jω0 ) = R. The values of L and C determine the values of the asymptotes, but R determines
the value of the actual curve at ω = ω0 .
The actual curve is illustrated in Fig. 8.50. The deviation of the actual curve from the asymp-
totes at ω = ω0 is
     
 Q dB =  R dBΩ −  R0 dBΩ (8.175)
or,
R
Q= (8.176)
R0
Equations (8.171) to (8.176) are exact results for the parallel resonant circuit.
The graphical construction method for impedance magnitudes is well known, and reac-
tance paper can be purchased commercially. As illustrated in Fig. 8.51, the magnitudes of
the impedances of various inductances, capacitances, and resistances are plotted on semi-
logarithmic axes. Asymptotes for the impedances of R–L–C networks can be sketched directly
on these axes, and numerical values of corner frequencies can then be graphically determined.
 8.3 Graphical Construction of Impedances and Transfer Functions 325

80 dB 10 k
Fig. 8.50 Actual
impedance magni- 60 dB 1k
R
tude (solid line) for Q = R /R0
the parallel resonant 40 dB Actual curve R0 100
R–L–C example. The f0
inductor and capacitor 20 dB 10
impedances cancel out
at f = f0 , and hence 0 dB || Z || 1 1
L C
Z( jω0 ) = R
0.1
100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz

80 dB 100 10 k
pF
H
60 dB 10 1k
1n
F

40 dB 1H 100
10
nF
mH
20 dB 100
100 10
nF
mH
0 dB 10 1
1!
F
H
1m 100 m
10
!F
0!
H
10 10 m
100
100 H 10 !F
1F mF 100 n mF 0 nH 1m
!H 1!
H F 1 nH
10 1
1m
10 Hz 100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz

Fig. 8.51 “Reactance paper”: an aid for graphical construction of impedances, with the magnitudes of
various inductive, capacitive, and resistive impedances preplotted

8.3.5 Voltage Divider Transfer Functions: Division of Asymptotes

Usually, we can express transfer functions in terms of impedances—for example, as the ratio
of two impedances. If we can construct these impedances as described in the previous sections,
then we can divide to construct the transfer function. In this section, construction of the transfer
function H(s) of the two-pole R–L–C low-pass filter (Fig. 8.52) is discussed in detail. A filter of
this form appears in the canonical model for two-pole converters, and the results of this section
are applied in the converter examples of the next section.
The familiar voltage divider formula shows that the transfer function of this circuit can be
expressed as the ratio of impedances Z2 /Zin , where Zin = Z1 +Z2 is the network input impedance:
v̂2 (s) Z2 Z2
= = (8.177)
v̂1 (s) Z1 + Z2 Zin
For this example, Z1 (s) = sL, and Z2 (s) is the parallel combination of R and 1/sC. Hence, we
can find the transfer function asymptotes by constructing the asymptotes of Z2 and of the series
326 8 Converter Transfer Functions

H(s)
(a)

+
L

+ Zin Zout
v1(s) C v2(s) R

{
{
Z1 Z2

(c)
(b) L
Zout Zin
L C R C R

{
{
{

{
Z1 Z2 Z1 Z2

Fig. 8.52 Two-pole low-pass filter based on voltage divider circuit: (a) transfer function H(s), (b) deter-
mination of Zout (s) by setting independent sources to zero, (c) determination of Zin (s)

combination represented by Zin , and then dividing. Another approach, which is easier to apply
in this example, is to multiply the numerator and denominator of Eq. (8.177) by Z1 :
v̂2 (s) Z2 Z1 1 Zout
= = (8.178)
v̂1 (s) Z1 + Z2 Z1 Z1
where Zout = Z1  Z2 is the output impedance of the voltage divider. So another way to construct
the voltage divider transfer function is to first construct the asymptotes for Z1 and for the par-
allel combination represented by Zout , and then divide. This method is useful when the parallel
combination Z1 Z2 is easier to construct than the series combination Z1 + Z2 . It often gives a
different approximate result, which may be more (or sometimes less) accurate than the result
obtained using Zin .
The output impedance Zout in Fig. 8.52b is
+ 1 ++
Zout (s) = R ++ + sL (8.179)
sC
The impedance of the parallel R–L–C network is constructed in Sect. 8.3.3, and is illustrated in
Fig. 8.51a for the high-Q case.
According to Eq. (8.178), the voltage divider transfer function magnitude is  H  =  Zout /
 Z1 . This quantity is constructed in Fig. 8.53b. For ω < ω0 , the asymptote of  Zout  co-
incides with Z1 : both are equal to ωL. Hence, the ratio is  Zout / Z1  = 1. For ω >
ω0 , the asymptote of  Zout  is 1/ωC, while  Z1  id equal to ωL. The ratio then becomes
 Zout / Z1  = 1/ω2 LC, and hence the high-frequency asymptote has a −40 dB/decade slope.
 8.4 Graphical Construction of Converter Transfer Functions 327

(a) 1 || Z1 || = L
C
R
Q = R /R0
R0
f0

Fig. 8.53 Graphical construction of

H and Zout of the voltage divider cir- || Zout ||
cuit: (a) output impedance Zout ; (b)
transfer function H

(b) L =1 Q = R /R0
L
f0 1/ C 1
= 2LC
L
Z out
H =
Z1

1
C Increasing L
L
Fig. 8.54 Effect of increasing L R
on the output impedance asymptotes, Q = R /R0
corner frequency, and Q-factor R0
f0

|| Zout ||

At ω = ω0 ,  Zout  has exact value R, while Z1  has exact value R0 . The ratio is then
 H( jω0 )  =  Zout ( jω0 ) / Z1 ( jω0 )  = R/R0 = Q. So the filter transfer function H has the
same ω0 and Q as the impedance Zout .
It now becomes obvious how variations in element values affect the salient features of the
transfer function and output impedance. For example, the effect of increasing L is illustrated in
Fig. 8.54. This causes the angular resonant frequency ω0 to be reduced, and also reduces the
Q-factor.

8.4 Graphical Construction of Converter Transfer Functions

The small-signal equivalent circuit model of the buck converter, derived in Chap. 7, is repro-
duced in Fig. 8.55. Let us construct the transfer functions and terminal impedances of this con-
verter, using the graphical approach of the previous section.
The output impedance Zout (s) is found with the d̂(s) and v̂g (s) sources set to zero; the circuit
of Fig. 8.56a is then obtained. This model coincides with the parallel R–L–C circuit analyzed
in Sects. 8.3.3 and 8.3.4. As illustrated in Fig. 8.56b, the output impedance is dominated by the
328 8 Converter Transfer Functions

L
1:D

+
–
ˆi(t) +
ˆ
Vg d(t)
+ ˆ ˆ
v(t)
vˆ g(t) – I d(t) C R

–
Zin(s) Zout(s)

Fig. 8.55 Small-signal model of the buck converter, with input impedance Zin (s) and output impedance
Zout (s) explicitly defined

L 1
(a) (b) C L

R
Q = R /R0
R0
C R
f0

Zout(s) || Zout ||

Fig. 8.56 Construction of buck converter output impedance Zout (s): (a) circuit model; (b) impedance
asymptotes

inductor at low frequency, and by the capacitor at high frequency. At the resonant frequency f0 ,
given by
1
f0 = √ (8.180)
2π LC
the output impedance is equal to the load resistance R. The Q-factor of the circuit is equal to
R
Q= (8.181)
R0
where 
1 L
R0 = ω0 L = = (8.182)
ω0 C C
Thus, the circuit is lightly damped (high Q) at light load, where the value of R is large.
The converter input impedance Zin (s) is also found with the d̂(s) and v̂g (s) sources set to
zero, as illustrated in Fig. 8.57a. The input impedance is referred to the primary side of the 1:D
transformer, and is equal to
1 ) *
Zin (s) = Z1 (s) + Z2 (s) (8.183)
D2
 8.4 Graphical Construction of Converter Transfer Functions 329

||

(a) L
1:D

Zin(s)
C R

{
{
Z1(s) Z2(s)

(b) 1 L
C 1
R (d) L
C
f1 R
1 R0 = L f1 Q = R /R0
2 RC C || Z1 ||
f0 R0
|| Z2 ||
1 f0
2 LC

|| Zout ||

(c) 1 L
C R L
R (e) D2
D2 1
f1 f1 CD 2
|| Z1 || f0
R0
|| Z2 || || Zin || D2
f0 Q = R /R0
2
1 R0
2 R
D

Fig. 8.57 Construction of the input impedance Zin (s) for the buck converter: (a) circuit model; (b) the
individual resistor, inductor, and capacitor impedance magnitudes; (c) construction of the impedance mag-
nitudes Z1  and Z2 ; (d) construction of Zout ; (e) final result Zin 

where

Z1 (s) = sL (8.184)

and
+ 1
Z2 (s) = R ++ (8.185)
sC
We begin construction of the impedance asymptotes corresponding to Eqs. (8.183) to (8.185)
by constructing the individual resistor, capacitor, and inductor impedances as in Fig. 8.57b. The
impedances in Fig. 8.57 are constructed for the case R > R0 . As illustrated in Fig. 8.57c, Z1 
coincides with the inductor reactance ωL. The impedance Z2  is asymptotic to resistance R
330 8 Converter Transfer Functions

at low frequencies and to the capacitor reactance 1/ωC at high frequency. The resistor and
capacitor asymptotes intersect at corner frequency f1 , given by
1
f1 = (8.186)
2πRC
According to Eq. (8.183), the input impedance Zin (s) is equal to the series combination of Z1 (s)
and Z2 (s), divided by the square of the turns ratio D. The asymptotes for the series combination
[Z1 (s) + Z2 (s)] are found by selecting the larger of the Z1  and Z2  asymptotes. The Z1  and
Z2  asymptotes intersect at frequency f0 , given by Eq. (8.180). It can be seen from Fig. 8.57c
that the series combination is dominated by Z2 for f < f0 and by Z1 for f > f0 . Upon scaling
the [Z1 (s) + Z2 (s)] asymptotes by the factor 1/D2 , the input impedance asymptotes of Fig. 8.57e
are obtained.
The zeroes of Zin (s), at frequency f0 , have the same Q-factor as the poles of Zout (s)
[Eq. (8.181)]. One way to see that this is true is to note that the output impedance can be ex-
pressed as
Z1 (s)Z2 (s) Z1 (s)Z2 (s)
Zout (s) = = (8.187)
Z1 (s) + Z2 (s) D2 Zin (s)
Hence, we can relate Zout (s) to Zin (s) as follows:
1 Z1 (s)Z2 (s)
Zin (s) = (8.188)
D2 Zout (s)
The impedances Z1 , Z2 , and  Zout  are illustrated in Fig. 8.57d. At the resonant frequency
f = f0 , impedance Z1 has magnitude R0 and impedance Z2 has magnitude approximately equal
to R0 . The output impedance Zout has magnitude R. Hence, Eq. (8.188) predicts that the input
impedance has the magnitude
1 R0 R0
 Zin  ≈ at f = f0 (8.189)
D2 R
At f = f0 , the asymptotes of the input impedance have magnitude R0 /D2 . The deviation from
the asymptotes is therefore equal to Q = R/R0 , as illustrated in Fig. 8.57e.
The control-to-output transfer function Gvd (s) is found with the v̂g (s) source set to zero, as in
Fig. 8.58a. This circuit coincides with the voltage divider analyzed in Sect. 8.3.5. Hence, Gvd (s)
can be expressed as
Zout (s)
Gvd (s) = Vg (8.190)
Z1 (s)
The quantities  Zout  and Z1  are constructed in Fig. 8.58b. According to Eq. (8.190), we can
construct Gvd (s) by finding the ratio of  Zout  and Z1 , and then scaling the result by Vg . For
f < f0 ,  Zout  and Z1  are both equal to ωL and hence  Zout /Z1  is equal to 1. As illustrated
in Fig. 8.58c, the low-frequency asymptote of Gvd (s) has value Vg . For f > f0 ,  Zout  has
asymptote 1/ωC, and Z1  is equal to ωL. Hence,  Zout /Z1  has asymptote 1/ω2 LC, and the
high-frequency asymptote of Gvd (s) is equal to Vg /ω2 LC. The Q-factor of the two poles at
f = f0 is again equal to R/R0 .
 8.4 Graphical Construction of Converter Transfer Functions 331

(b) 1 || Z1 || = L
C
(a) L R
+ Q = R /R0
R0
Vg dˆ(t) + C R v̂(t) f0

|| Zout ||

(c)
Vg L =V Q = R /R0
L g

f0 1/ C Vg
|| Gvd(s) || Vg
L
= 2LC

Fig. 8.58 Construction of the control-to-output transfer function Gvd (s) for the buck converter: (a) circuit
model; (b) relevant impedance asymptotes; (c) transfer function Gvd (s)

(a) L
1:D
+

v̂g(t) + v̂(t)
– C R

Fig. 8.59 The line-to-output trans- –

fer function Gvg (s) for the buck con-
verter: (a) circuit model; (b) magni-
tude asymptotes
(b) Q = R /R0
D

f0 D
|| Gvg(s) || 2LC

The line-to-output transfer function Gvg (s) is found with the d̂(s) sources set to zero, as
in Fig. 8.59a. This circuit contains the same voltage divider as in Fig. 8.58, and additionally
contains the 1:D transformer. The transfer function Gvg (s) can be expressed as
Zout (s)
Gvg (s) = D (8.191)
Z1 (s)
This expression is similar to Eq. (8.190), except for the scaling factor of D. Therefore, the line-
to-output transfer function of Fig. 8.59b has the same shape as the control-to-output transfer
function Gvd (s).
332 8 Converter Transfer Functions

8.5 Measurement of AC Transfer Functions and Impedances

It is good engineering practice to measure the transfer functions of prototype converters and
converter systems. Such an exercise can verify that the system has been correctly modeled and
designed. Also, it is often useful to characterize individual circuit elements through measure-
ment of their terminal impedances.
Small-signal ac magnitude and phase measurements can be made using an instrument
known as a network analyzer, or frequency response analyzer. The key inputs and outputs of
a basic network analyzer are illustrated in Fig. 8.60. The network analyzer provides a sinusoidal
output voltage v̂z of controllable amplitude and frequency. This signal can be injected into the
system to be measured, at any desired location. The network analyzer also has two (or more)
inputs, v̂ x and v̂y . The return electrodes of v̂z , v̂y , and v̂ x are internally connected to earth ground.
The network analyzer performs the function of a narrowband tracking voltmeter: it measures the
components of v̂ x and v̂y at the injection frequency, and displays the magnitude and phase of the
quantity v̂y /v̂ x . The narrowband tracking voltmeter feature is essential for switching converter
measurements; otherwise, switching ripple and noise corrupt the desired sinusoidal signals and
make accurate measurements impossible [80]. Modem network analyzers can automatically
sweep the frequency of the injection source v̂z to generate magnitude and phase Bode plots of
the transfer function v̂y /v̂ x .
A typical test setup for measuring the transfer function of an amplifier is illustrated in
Fig. 8.61. A potentiometer, connected between a dc supply voltage VCC and ground, is used
to bias the amplifier input to attain the correct quiescent operating point. The injection source
voltage v̂z is coupled to the amplifier input terminals via a dc blocking capacitor. This blocking
capacitor prevents the injection voltage source from upsetting the dc bias. The network ana-
lyzer inputs v̂ x and v̂y are connected to the input and output terminals of the amplifier. Hence,
the measured transfer function is

Network Analyzer
Injection source Measured inputs Data
vz vz Data bus
Magnitude Frequency vy to computer
17.3 dB
vx

vz vx vy
Output Input Input
+ – + – vy
– 134.7˚
+
–

vx

Fig. 8.60 Key features and functions of a network analyzer: sinusoidal source of controllable amplitude
and frequency, two inputs, and determination of relative magnitude and phase of the input components at
the injection frequency
 8.5 Measurement of AC Transfer Functions and Impedances 333

Network Analyzer
Injection source Measured inputs Data
vz vz Data bus
Magnitude Frequency vy to computer
–4.7 dB
vx

vz vx vy
Output Input Input
+ – + – vy
– 162.8˚

+
–
vx

DC
blocking
capacitor

VCC

DC
bias
adjust
Output
Input

G(s)

Device
under test

Fig. 8.61 Measurement of a transfer function

v̂y (s)
= G(s) (8.192)
v̂ x (s)
Note that the blocking capacitance, bias potentiometer, and v̂z amplitude have no effect on the
measured transfer function
An impedance
v̂(s)
Z(s) = (8.193)
î(s)
can be measured by treating the impedance as a transfer function from current to voltage. For
example, measurement of the output impedance of an amplifier is illustrated in Fig. 8.62. The
quiescent operating condition is again established by a potentiometer which biases the amplifier
input. The injection source v̂z is coupled to the amplifier output through a dc blocking capacitor.
The injection source voltage v̂z excites a current îout in impedance Zs . This current flows into the
output of the amplifier, and excites a voltage across the amplifier output impedance:

v̂y (s) 
Zout (s) =  (8.194)
îout (s)  amplifier = 0
ac input
334 8 Converter Transfer Functions

VCC Zs
Device

{
under test
DC blocking
DC i out capacitor Rsource
bias
adjust

Output
Current

Input
G(s) Zout + vz
probe –

Voltage
probe

+ – + –
vy vx

Fig. 8.62 Measurement of the output impedance of a circuit

A current probe is used to measure îout . The current probe produces a voltage proportional
to îout ; this voltage is connected to the network analyzer input v̂ x . A voltage probe is used to
measure the amplifier output voltage v̂y . The network analyzer displays the transfer function
v̂y /v̂ x , which is proportional to Zout . Note that the value of Z s and the amplitude of v̂z do not
affect the measurement of Zout .
In power applications, it is sometimes necessary to measure impedances that are very small
in magnitude. Grounding problems [4] cause the test setup of Fig. 8.62 to fail in such cases.
The reason is illustrated in Fig. 8.63a. Since there turn connections of the injection source v̂z
and the analyzer input v̂y are both connected to earth ground, the injected current îout can return
to the source through the return connections of either the injection source or the voltage probe.
In practice, îout divides between the two paths according to their relative impedances. Hence,
a significant current (1 − k)îout flows through the return connection of the voltage probe. If
the voltage probe return connection has some total contact and wiring impedance Z probe , then
the current induces a voltage drop (1 − k)îout Z probe in the voltage probe wiring, as illustrated
in Fig. 8.63a. Hence, the network analyzer does not correctly measure the voltage drop across
the impedance Z. If the internal ground connections of the network analyzer have negligible
impedance, then the network analyzer will display the following impedance:
+
Z + (1 − k)Z probe = Z + Z probe ++Zrz (8.195)

Here, Zrz is the impedance of the injection source return connection. So to obtain an accurate
measurement, the following condition must be satisfied:
++ ++ +++  +  ++
+Z + ++ Z probe ++Zrz +++ (8.196)

A typical lower limit on  Z  is a few tens or hundreds of milliohms.

An improved test setup for measurement of small impedances is illustrated in Fig. 8.63b. An
isolation transformer is inserted between the injection source and the dc blocking capacitor. The
return connections of the voltage probe and injection source are no longer in parallel, and the
injected current îout must now return entirely through the injection source return connection. An
 8.5 Measurement of AC Transfer Functions and Impedances 335

(a) Injection Network Analyzer

Impedance source
under test return Injection source
connection
i out Rsource

+ vz
Z(s) Zrz –
i out k i out

{
(1 – k) i out
Measured
inputs
Voltage
probe +
vx
Voltage –
probe
return Zprobe +
connection

+
{ –
(1 – k) i out Z probe
– vy

(b) Injection Network Analyzer

Impedance source
under test return Injection source
connection
i out 1:n Rsource

+ vz
Z(s) Zrz –
i out
{

0
Measured
inputs
Voltage
probe +
vx
Voltage –
probe
return Zprobe +
connection
{

– vy
+ –
0V

Fig. 8.63 Measurement of a small impedance Z(s): (a) current flowing in the return connection of the
voltage probe induces a voltage drop that corrupts the measurement; (b) an improved experiment, incor-
porating isolation of the injection source
336 8 Converter Transfer Functions

added benefit is that the transformer turns ratio n can be increased, to better match the injection
source impedance to the impedance under test. Note that the impedances of the transformer, of
the blocking capacitor, and of the probe and injection source return connections, do not affect
the measurement. Much smaller impedances can therefore be measured using this improved
approach.

8.6 Summary of Key Points

1. The magnitude Bode diagrams of functions which vary as ( f / f0 )n have slopes equal to
20n dB per decade, and pass through 0 dB at f = f0 .
2. It is good practice to express transfer functions in normalized pole-zero form; this form
directly exposes expressions for the salient features of the response, that is, the corner
frequencies, reference gain, etc.
3. The right half-plane zero exhibits the magnitude response of the left half-plane zero, but
the phase response of the pole.
4. Poles and zeroes can be expressed in frequency-inverted form when it is desirable to refer
the gain to a high-frequency asymptote.
5. A two-pole response can be written in the standard normalized form of Eq. (8.58). When
Q > 0.5, the poles are complex conjugates. The magnitude response then exhibits peaking
in the vicinity of the corner frequency, with an exact value of Q at f = f0 . High Q also
causes the phase to change sharply near the corner frequency.
6. When Q is less than 0.5, the two-pole response can be plotted as two real poles. The low-
Q approximation predicts that the two poles occur at frequencies f0 /Q and Q f0 . These
frequencies are within 10% of the exact values for Q ≤ 0.3.
7. When a circuit includes two damping elements, the composite Q-factor can be estimated
as the “parallel combination” (inverse addition) of the Q-factors determined by the two
elements individually. This estimation is within 10% of the exact value when the product
of the individual Q-factors is greater than 5.
8. The low-Q approximation can be extended to find approximate roots of an arbitrary-degree
polynomial. Approximate analytical expressions for the salient features can be derived.
Numerical values are used to justify the approximations.
9. Salient features of the transfer functions of the buck, boost, and buck–boost converters are
tabulated in Sect. 8.2.2. The line-to-output transfer functions of these converters contain
two poles. Their control-to-output transfer functions contain two poles, and may addition-
ally contain a right half-plane zero.
10. Approximate magnitude asymptotes of impedances and transfer functions can be easily
derived by graphical construction. This approach is a useful supplement to conventional
analysis, because it yields physical insight into the circuit behavior, and because it exposes
suitable approximations. Several examples, including the impedances of basic series and
parallel resonant circuits and the transfer function H(s) of the voltage divider circuit, are
worked in Sect. 8.3. The input impedance, output impedance, and transfer functions of the
buck converter are constructed in Sect. 8.4, and physical origins of the asymptotes, corner
frequencies, and Q-factor are found.
11. Measurement of transfer functions and impedances using a network analyzer is discussed
in Sect. 8.5. Careful attention to ground connections is important when measuring small
impedances.
 8.6 Summary of Key Points 337

Problems

8.1 Express the gains represented by the asymptotes of Fig. 8.64a–c in factored pole-zero form.
You may assume that all poles and zeroes have negative real parts.

(a) Gm

f0 f1

+20 dB/decade

(b)
f1
Gm

f2 f3

(c) Q
f1
G
+20 dB/decade
f2

Fig. 8.64 Gain asymptotes for Problem 8.1

8.2 Express the gains represented by the asymptotes of Fig. 8.65a–c in factored pole-zero form.
You may assume that all poles and zeroes have negative real parts.
8.3 Derive analytical expressions for the low-frequency asymptotes of the magnitude Bode
plots shown in Fig. 8.65a–c.
8.4 Derive analytical expressions for the three magnitude asymptotes of Fig. 8.16.
8.5 An experimentally measured transfer function. Figure 8.66 contains experimentally mea-
sured magnitude and phase data for the gain function A(s) of a certain amplifier. The object
of this problem is to find an expression for A(s). Overlay asymptotes as appropriate on the
magnitude and phase data, and hence deduce numerical values for the gain asymptotes
and corner frequencies of A(s). Your magnitude and phase asymptotes must, of course,
follow all of the rules: magnitude slopes must be multiples of ±20 dB per decade, phase
slopes for real poles must be multiples of ±45◦ per decade, etc. The phase and magnitude
asymptotes must be consistent with each other.
It is suggested that you start by guessing A(s) based on the magnitude data. Then construct
the phase asymptotes for your guess, and compare them with the given data. If there are
discrepancies, then modify your guess accordingly and redo your magnitude and phase
asymptotes. You should turn in: (1) your analytical expression for A(s), with numerical
values given, and (2) a copy of Fig. 8.66, with your magnitude and phase asymptotes
superimposed and with all break frequencies and slopes clearly labeled.
338 8 Converter Transfer Functions

(a) G (b) Q1
f1
f0

f2
+20 dB/decade G
Q2

(c) f1

f2

f3 G
Q

Fig. 8.65 Gain asymptotes for Problems 8.2 and 8.3

40 dB

30 dB
|| A ||

20 dB 90º

10 dB 45º

A
0 dB 0º

º
10 Hz 100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz

Fig. 8.66 Experimentally measured magnitude and phase data, Problem 8.5

8.6 An experimentally measured impedance. Figure 8.67 contains experimentally measured

magnitude and phase data for the driving-point impedance Z(s) of a passive network. The
object of this problem is the find an expression for Z(s). Overlay asymptotes as appropri-
ate on the magnitude and phase data, and hence deduce numerical values for the salient
features of the impedance function. You should turn in: (1) your analytical expression for
 8.6 Summary of Key Points 339

Z(s), with numerical values given, and (2) a copy of Fig. 8.67, with your magnitude and
phase asymptotes superimposed and with all salient features and asymptote slopes clearly
labeled.

30 dB

20 dB
|| Z ||

10 dB

0 dB

Fig. 8.67 Impedance mag-

nitude and phase data, Prob- 90º
lem 8.6
45º

0º
Z
º

º
10 Hz 100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz

8.7 For the nonideal flyback converter modeled in Sect. 7.2.10:

(a) Derive analytical expressions for the control-to-output and line-to-output transfer
functions Gvd (s) and Gvg (s). Express your results in standard normalized form.
(b) Derive analytical expressions for the salient features of these transfer functions.
(c) Construct the magnitude and phase Bode plots of the control-to-output transfer func-
tion, using the following values: n = 2, Vg = 48 V, D = 0.3, R = 5 Ω, L =
250 μH, C = 100 μF, Ron = 1.2 Ω. Label the numerical values of the constant asymp-
totes, all corner frequencies, the Q-factor, and asymptote slopes.
8.8 Magnitude Bode diagram of an R–L–C filter circuit. For the filter circuit of Fig. 8.68,
construct the Bode plots for the magnitudes of the Thevenin-equivalent output impedance
Zout and the transfer function H(s) = v2 /v1 . Plot your results on semi-log graph paper.
Give approximate analytical expressions and numerical values for the important corner
frequencies and asymptotes. Do all of the elements significantly affect Zout and H?
340 8 Converter Transfer Functions

R1 L1
10 10 mH

Fig. 8.68 Filter circuit of +

C2
Problem 8.8
220 μF R3 Zout
v1 + C1 v2
R2 47 nF 1k
100

8.9 Operational amplifier filter circuit. The op-amp circuit shown in Fig. 8.69 is a practical
realization of what is known as a PID controller, and is sometimes used to modify the
loop gain of feedback circuits to improve their performance. Using semi-log graph paper,
sketch the Bode diagram of the magnitude of the transfer function v2 (s)/v1 (s) of the circuit
shown. Label all corner frequencies, flat asymptote gains, and asymptote slopes, as appro-
priate, giving both analytical expressions and numerical values. You may assume that the
op-amp is ideal.

R4 C2
2k 1 μF

R3 20 k
R2
1k C3 800 pF

+ +
v1 + R1 C1
100 24 nF v2

Fig. 8.69 Op-amp PID controller circuit, Problem 8.9

8.10 Phase asymptotes. Construct the phase asymptotes for the transfer function v2 (s)/v1 (s) of
Problem 8.9. Label all break frequencies, flat asymptotes, and asymptote slopes.
8.11 Construct the Bode diagram for the magnitude of the output impedance Zout of the net-
work shown in Fig. 8.70. Give suitable analytical expressions for each asymptote, corner
frequency, and Q-factor, as appropriate. Justify any approximations that you use. The com-
ponent values are: L1 = 100 μH, L2 = 16 mH, C1 = 1000 μF, C2 = 10 μF, R1 = 5 Ω, R2 =
50 Ω
 8.6 Summary of Key Points 341

L1 R2 L2

Zout
v1 + C1 R1 C2

Fig. 8.70 Filter network of Problem 8.11

L1 L3

R1 L2 R2 L4

Zs
vg + C1 C2

Fig. 8.71 Input filter circuit of Problem 8.12

8.12 The two section input filter in the circuit of Fig. 8.71 should be designed such that its
output impedance Zout |vg = 0 meets certain input filter design criteria, and hence it is
desirable to construct the Bode plot for the magnitude of Z s . Although this filter contains
six reactive elements, Z s  can nonetheless be constructed in a relatively straightforward
manner using graphical construction techniques. The element values are:

L1 = 32mH C1 = 32 μF
L2 = 400 μH C2 = 6.8 μF
L3 = 800 μH R1 = 10 Ω
L4 = 1 μH R2 = 1 Ω

(a) Construct  Z s  using the“algebra on the graph” method. Give simple approximate
analytical expressions for all asymptotes and corner frequencies.
(b) It is desired that  Z s  be approximately equal to 5 Ω at 500 Hz and 2.5 Ω at 1 kHz.
Suggest a simple way to accomplish this by changing the value of one component.
8.13 Construct the Bode plot of the magnitude of the output impedance of the filter illustrated
in Fig. 8.72. Give approximate analytical expressions for each corner frequency. No credit
will be given for computer-generated plots.
342 8 Converter Transfer Functions

L2 L5
5 mH 10 μH

L1 R2 1 L3 100 μH R4 10 L6 1 mH
100 μH
L4 0.2 μH L7 0.1 μH
C1 C3 C5
28 V + Zout
– 100 μF C2 1000 μF 100 μF C4 100 μF 1 μF

R1
1 R3 0.2 R5 1

Fig. 8.72 Input filter circuit of Problem 8.13

8.14 A certain open-loop buck–boost converter contains an input filter. Its small-signal ac
model is shown in Fig. 8.73, and the element values are specified below. Construct the
Bode plot for the magnitude of the converter output impedance Zout (s). Label the values
of all important corner frequencies and asymptotes.
D = 0.6 L f = 150 μH
R = 6Ω C f = 16 μF
C = 0.33 μF Cb = 2200 μF
L = 25 μH R f = 1Ω

Vg – V d(s)
Lf L
1:D D' : 1
+
–

Rf
+ Zout(s)
vg(s) – Cf I d(s) I d(s) C R
Cb

Fig. 8.73 Small-signal model of a buck converter with input filter, Problem 8.14

8.15 In Sect. 7.2.10, the small-signal ac model of a nonideal flyback converter is derived, with
the result illustrated in Fig. 7.28. Construct a Bode plot of the magnitude and phase of
the converter output impedance Zout (s). Give both analytical expressions and numerical
values for all important features in your plot. Note: Zout (s) includes the load resistance R.
The element values are: D = 0.4, n = 0.2, R = 6 Ω, L = 600 μH, C = 100 μF, Ron = 5 Ω.
8.16 The small-signal equations of the Watkins–Johnson converter operating in continuous con-
duction mode are:
dî(t)
L = −Dv̂(t) + (2Vg − V)d̂(t) + (D − D )v̂g (t)
dt
dv̂(t) v̂(t)
C = Dî(t) −
dt R
îg (t) = (D − D )î(t) + 2I d̂(t)
 8.6 Summary of Key Points 343

(a) Derive analytical expressions for the line-to-output transfer function Gvg (s) and the
control-to-output transfer function Gvd (s).
(b) Derive analytical expressions for the salient features (dc gains, corner frequencies,
and Q-factors) of the transfer functions Gvg (s) and Gvd (s). Express your results as
functions of Vg , D, R, L, and C.
(c) The converter operates at Vg = 28 V, D = 0.25, R = 28 Ω, C = 100 μF, L = 400 μF.
Sketch the Bode diagram of the magnitude and phase of Gvd (s). Label salient features.
8.17 The element values in the buck converter of Fig. 7.55 are:

Vg = 120 V D = 0.6
R = 10 Ω Rg = 2 Ω
L = 550 μH C = 100 μF

(a) Determine an analytical expression for the control-to-output transfer function Gvg (s)
of this converter.
(b) Find analytical expressions for the salient features of Gvg (s).
(c) Construct magnitude and phase asymptotes for Gvg . Label the numerical values of all
slopes and other important features.
8.18 The LCC resonant inverter circuit contains the following transfer function:
sC1 R
H(s) =
1 + sR(C1 + C2 ) + s2 LC1 + s3 LC1C2 R
(a) When C1 is sufficiently large, this transfer function can be expressed as an inverted
pole and a quadratic pole pair. Derive analytical expressions for the corner frequen-
cies and Q-factor in this case, and sketch typical magnitude asymptotes. Determine
analytical conditions for validity of your approximation.
(b) When C2 is sufficiently large, the transfer function can be also expressed as an inverted
pole and a quadratic pole pair. Derive analytical expressions for the corner frequen-
cies and Q-factor in this case, and sketch typical magnitude asymptotes. Determine
analytical conditions for validity of your approximation in this case.
(c) When C1 = C2 and when the quadratic poles have sufficiently high Q, then the transfer
function can again be expressed as an inverted pole and a quadratic pole pair. Derive
analytical expressions for the corner frequencies and Q-factor in this case, and sketch
typical magnitude asymptotes. Determine analytical conditions for validity of your
approximation in this case.
8.19 A two-section L − C filter has the following transfer function:
1
G(s) = L + L    L L C   
1 2 1 2 1
1+s + s2 L1 (C1 + C2 ) + L2C2 + s3 + s4 L1 L2C1C2
R R
The element values are:
R = 50 mΩ
C1 = 680 μF C2 = 4.7 μF
L1 = 500 μH L2 = 50 μH
344 8 Converter Transfer Functions

(a) Use the above numerical values to determine how to factor G(s) into approximate real
and quadratic poles, as appropriate. Give approximate analytical expressions for the
salient features that are valid for the above numerical values.
(b) Construct the magnitude and phase asymptotes of G(s).
(c) It is desired to reduce the Q to 2, without significantly changing the corner frequencies
or other features of the response. It is possible to do this by changing only two element
values. Specify how to accomplish this.

Boost converter
L
+
100 μH

Fig. 8.74 Boost converter of vg + R

C v
Problem 8.20 48 V – 12
33 μF
–

d fs = 200 kHz

Controller

8.20 The boost converter of Fig. 8.74 operates in the continuous conduction mode, with quies-
cent duty cycle D = 0.6. On semi-log axes, construct the magnitude and phase Bode plots
of
(a) the control-to-output transfer function Gvd (s),
(b) the line-to-output transfer function Gvg (s),
(c) the output impedance Zout (s), and
(d) the input impedance Zin (s).
On each plot, label the corner frequencies and asymptotes.

n 1 : n1 : n 3 L

500 μH +

C R v(t)
10 μF 7
vg(t) +
– –
fs = 150 kHz

d
Controller

Fig. 8.75 Forward converter of Problem 8.21

 8.6 Summary of Key Points 345

8.21 The forward converter of Fig. 8.75 operates in the continuous conduction mode, with the
quiescent values Vg = 380 V and V = 28 V. The transformer turns ratio is n1 /n3 = 4.5. On
semi-log axes, construct the magnitude and phase Bode plots of
(a) the control-to-output transfer function Gvd (s), and
(b) the line-to-output transfer function Gvg (s).
On each plot, label the corner frequencies and asymptotes. Hint: other than introduction of
the turns ratio n1 /n3 , the transformer does not significantly affect the small-signal behavior
of the forward converter.
8.22 Loss mechanisms in capacitors, such as dielectric loss and contact and foil resistance, can
be modeled electrically using an equivalent series resistance (ESR). Capacitors whose
dielectric materials exhibit a high dielectric constant, such as electrolytic capacitors, tan-
talum capacitors, and some types of multi-layer ceramic capacitors, typically exhibit rela-
tively high ESR.
A buck converter contains a 1.6 mH inductor, and operates with a quiescent duty cycle of
0.5. Its output capacitor can be modeled as a 16 μF capacitor in series with a 0.2 Ω ESR.
The load resistance is 10 Ω. The converter operates in continuous conduction mode. The
quiescent input voltage is Vg = 120 V.
(a) Determine an analytical expression for the control-to-output transfer function Gvg (s)
of this converter.
(b) Find analytical expressions for the salient features of Gvg (s).
(c) Construct magnitude and phase asymptotes for Gvg . Label the numerical values of all
slopes and other important features.
8.23 The boost converter of Fig. 8.76 operates in the continuous conduction mode, with the
following quiescent values: Vg = 120 V, V = 300 V. It is desired to control the converter
input current waveform, and hence it is necessary to determine the small-signal transfer
function

îg (s) 
Gid (s) = 
d̂(s) v̂ (s)=0
g

(a) Derive an analytical expression for Gid (s). Express all poles and zeroes in normalized
standard form, and give analytical expressions for the corner frequencies, Q-factor,
and dc gain.
(b) On semi-log axes, construct the Bode plot for the magnitude and phase of Gid (s).

ig L

400 μH +

Fig. 8.76 Boost converter of vg + C v R

–
Problem 8.23 10 μF 120
–
d
fs = 100 kHz
Controller
346 8 Converter Transfer Functions

8.24 The buck–boost converter of Fig. 8.77 operates in the continuous conduction mode, with
the following quiescent values: Vg = 48 V, V = −24 V. On semi-log axes, construct the
magnitude and phase Bode plots of:
(a) the control-to-output transfer function Gvd (s), and
(b) the output impedance Zout (s).
On each plot, label the corner frequencies and asymptotes as appropriate.

Fig. 8.77 Buck–boost con- + L C R

vg d v
verter of Problem 8.24 – 50 mH 220 mF 5W
Controller
–
fs = 200 kHz