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Chapter 2.
Presenting Data in Tables and Charts

Objectives
After completing this lesson, you should be able to:

Present data using tables: simple frequency distribution, grouped

frequency distribution and cross‐table

Draw different types of charts: bar charts, pie charts, dot plot,
histogram, polygon, ogive, side‐by‐side bar chart, scatterplots, time‐
series plot

Outline
• Organizing data

• Tables and graphs for categorical data

• Tables and graphs for numerical data

• Presenting relationship between two variables

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Organizing data

Organizing data
 Data collected through surveys are called ‘raw’ data. Data in raw form are
usually not easy to use for decision making
 Some type of organization is needed
 Table
 Graph
 The type of table/graph used depends on the variable being summarized

It is important to choose the appropriate tables or graphs to make statistical

information coherent.

Organizing data

Tables and graphs are used to

• Convey a message;

• Stimulate thinking; and

• Portray trends, relationships, and comparisons.

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Organizing data
 Tables
• Simplest way to summarize data
• Including rows and columns containing data
• Data is presented as absolute numbers or percentages, or both
• Tables can be good for side‐by‐side comparisons but can lack visual impact
when used on a slide in a presentation.

Organizing data
 Charts and graphs
• Visual representation of data
• They should be designed so that they convey at a single look the
general patterns of the data
• Usually data is presented using percentages
• The most informative graphs are simple and self‐explanatory.
• Graphs are easier to read than tables, they provide less detail.

Effective presentation
 Regardless what communication formats you use, the information should be
presented in a clear, concise way with key findings and recommendation that are
actionable.
 For all communication formats it is important to ensure that there is:
• Consistency: Font, Colors, Punctuation, Terminology, Line/ Paragraph Spacing
• An appropriate amount of information: Less is more
• Appropriate content and format for audience: Scientific community,
Journalist, Politicians

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Tables and graphs for categorical data

Categorical
data

Tabulating Graphing
data data

Frequency
Bar charts Pie charts
distribution

Frequency distribution

• A frequency distribution is a tabular summary of data showing the

number (frequency) of items in each of several nonoverlapping classes.
• The objective is to provide insights about the data that cannot be
quickly obtained by looking only at the original data.

Frequency distribution
• E.g. Guests staying at Victory hotel were asked to rate the quality of their
accommodations as being excellent, above average, average, below average, or
poor. The ratings provided by a sample of 20 guests are:

Below Average Average Above Average

Above Average Above Average Above Average
Above Average Below Average Below Average
Average Poor Poor
Above Average Excellent Above Average
Average Above Average Average
Above Average Average Average

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Frequency distribution

Rating Frequency
Poor 2
Below Average 3
Average 5
Above Average 9
Excellent 1
Total 20

Relative frequency distribution

• The relative frequency of a class is the fraction or proportion of the total number
of data items belonging to the class.
• For a data set with n observations:

𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠

𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑛

• A relative frequency distribution is a tabular summary of a set of data showing

the relative frequency for each class.

Percent frequency distribution

• The percent frequency of a class is the relative frequency multiplied by 100.
• A percent frequency distribution is a tabular summary of a set of data showing
the percent frequency for each class.

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Relative frequency and Percent frequency table

Relative Percent
Frequency
Rating Frequency
Poor 0.10 10
Below Average 0.15 15
Average 0.25 25 0.10x100 = 10
Above Average 0.45 45
Excellent 0.05 5
Total 1.00 100

1/20 = 0.05

Bar graph
 A bar graph (or bar chart) is a graphical device for depicting qualitative data.
 On one axis (usually the horizontal axis), we specify the labels that are used for
each of the classes.
 A frequency, relative frequency, or percent frequency scale can be used for the
other axis (usually the vertical axis).
 Using a bar of fixed width drawn above each class label, we extend the height
appropriately.
 The bars are separated to emphasize the fact that each class is a separate
category.

Bar graph
Victory Quality Ratings
10
9
8
7
Frequency

6
5
4
3
2
1
Rating
Poor Below Average Above Excellent
Average Average

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Pie chart
 The pie chart is a commonly used graphical device for presenting relative
frequency distributions for qualitative data.
 Draw a circle; then use the relative frequencies to subdivide the circle into sectors
that correspond to the relative frequency for each class.

Pie chart
Victory Quality Ratings
Excellent
5%
Poor
10%
Below
Average
Above 15%
Average
45%
Average
25%

Tables and graphs for numerical data

Numerical data

Tabulating data Graphing data

Simple Grouped
Frequency
frequency frequency Dot plot Histogram Ogive
polygon
distribution distribution

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Simple frequency distribution

 Applications with discrete variables with few values.
• E.g. You are given a raw data of midterm marks of 20 students as follows:

7, 7, 10, 8, 5, 4, 5, 6, 4, 9, 8, 7, 6, 4, 8, 5, 7, 10, 10, 9

Create a simple frequency table manually.

Simple frequency distribution

 Sort raw data in ascending order
 Define classes and count the number of students in each class
Midterm mark Number of students
4 3
5 3 Frequency
6 2
7 4
8 3
9 2
10 3
Total 20

Grouped frequency distribution

 Application
• Discrete variable with many values
• Continuous variable
 Steps to construct a grouped frequency table
• Sort raw data in ascending order
• Identify the maximum and minimum value and determine the range of the data
Range = maximum value – minimum value
• Determine the number of classes
• Determine the width (size) of classes or class interval
• Determine the first lower class limit
• Construct the grouped frequency table

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Grouped frequency distribution

 Guidelines for Selecting Number of classes
• Use between 5 and 20 classes.
• Data sets with a larger number of elements usually require a larger number of
classes.
• Smaller data sets usually require fewer classes.
• Round number for lower and/or upper value

Grouped frequency distribution

 Terminology:
• Lower value (lower class limit): the lowest value of one class
• Upper value (upper class limit): the highest value of one class
• Class interval (class width): range from lower to upper value
• Open‐ended class: the first or last classes in the range may be open‐ended.
That means they have no lower or upper values
• Open‐ended class is designed for uncommon value: too low or too high

Grouped frequency distribution: equal class

interval
 E.g. The manager of KFC restaurant would like to get a better picture of the
distribution of costs for meal purchase. A sample of 50 customer invoices has
been taken and the costs are listed below (in thousand dong).

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Grouped frequency distribution: equal class

interval
 Selecting width of classes
 Use classes of equal width
 Approximate class width =

Grouped frequency distribution: equal class

interval
 For KFC, if we choose six classes
 Approximate Class Width = (109 ‐ 52)/6 = 9.5 ≈ 10

Cost (000d) Frequency

Class width 50-<60 2
=60‐50=10 60-<70 Upper 13
70-<80 value 16
80-<90 7
90-<100 7
Lower
100-110 5
value
Total 50

Relative, percent and cumulative frequency

distribution
 Cumulative frequency distribution ‐ shows the number of items with values less
than or equal to the upper limit of each class, is the sum of the frequency for that
class and all previous classes
 Cumulative relative frequency distribution – shows the proportion of items with
values less than or equal to the upper limit of each class, is the sum of the
relative frequency for that class and all previous classes
 Cumulative percent frequency distribution – shows the percentage of items with
values less than or equal to the upper limit of each class, is the sum of the
percent frequency of that class and all previous classes

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Relative, percent and cumulative frequency

distribution
Cost (000d) Frequency Relative Percent Cumulative Cumulative Cumulative
frequency frequency frequency relative percent
frequency frequency
50-<60 2 0.04 4 2 0.04 4

60-<70 13 0.26 26 15 0.30 30

70-<80 16 0.32 32 31 0.62 62

80-<90 7 0.14 14 38 0.76 76

90-<100 7 0.14 14 45 0.90 90

100-110 5 0.10 10 50 1.00 100

Total 50 1.00 100

7/50 0.14x100 38+7 0.76+0.14 76+14

Relative, percent and cumulative frequency

distribution
• Insights gained from the above frequency distribution:
• Only 4% of the meal costs are in the 50‐<60 thousand dong
• 30% of the meal costs are under 70 thousand dong
• The greatest percentage (32%) of the meal costs are in the 70‐<80 thousand
dong
• 10% of the meal costs are 100 thousand dong or more

Grouped frequency distribution: unequal class

intervals
• E.g: the weekly wages of employees of Salt Lake Ltd are presented as
in the frequency table below
Wages per employee ($) Number of employee
40 - 60 4
> 60 - ≤ 80 6
> 80 - ≤ 90 6
> 90 - ≤ 120 6
> 120 - 150 3
Total 25

Why unequal class intervals: Each class reflects differences in the nature of data

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Grouped frequency distribution: open‐ended

class
• Application with continuous variables.
• E.g. Draw a frequency table of wages (in USD) paid to 30 people in
Alvin ltd as follows:
202 277 654 145 361
457 67 44 240 144
310 391 362 437 429
176 325 221 374 216
480 120 274 398 282
153 470 303 338 209

Grouped frequency distribution: open‐ended

class
Wages ($) # of people
(class interval) (Frequency)
<100 2
100 - <200 5
Open-ended
class, no lower 200 - <300 8
value
300 - <400 9
400 - <500 5
≥500 1
Total Open-ended 30
class, no upper
value

Grouped frequency distribution: open‐ended

class
• How to calculate class intervals of open‐ended classes: by convention, the
width of an open‐ended class is the same as that of the adjoining class.
• In example of wages in Alvin ltd, class intervals of the 1st and last class are
$100.

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Frequency distribution: summary

• Simple frequency distribution: easy task and can either do manually or
rely on statistical software
• Grouped frequency distribution: more difficult. The hardest task is to
decide the number of classes and class width or class intervals. Ideal: each
class reflects differences in the nature of data.
• The upper value of the previous class should not coincide with the lower
value of the following class to make sure each value should only be in one
class.

Frequency distribution: Activity

• The average wages ($) of 20 people have been recorded as follows:

221 254 83 367 450 292 161 216 410 380

355 502 144 362 112 387 324 576 156 320

• Draw a frequency table, relative, percentage and cumulative

frequency

Dot plot
• One of the simplest graphical summaries of data is a dot plot.
• A horizontal axis shows the range of data values.
• Then each data value is represented by a dot placed above the axis.

KFC restaurant
.
. .. . . .
. .. .. .. .. . .
. . . ..... .......... .. . .. . . ... . .. .
50 60 70 80 90 100 110

Cost (000d)

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Histogram
 Another common graphical presentation of quantitative data is a histogram
 The variable of interest is placed on the horizontal axis.
 A rectangle is drawn above each class interval with its height corresponding to the
interval’s frequency, relative frequency, or percent frequency.
 A histogram looks like a bar charts except that the bars are joined together
 Two types of histograms:
• Equal‐width histogram
• Unequal‐width histogram

Equal‐width histogram
KFC restaurant
18
16
14
Frequency

12
10
8
6
4
2

Cost (000d)
50 60 70 8090 90 100-110

All bars have the same width (same class intervals)

Unequal‐width histogram
• The width of each bar must be proportional to the corresponding
class interval
• Frequency = area of the rectangular, or
• Height of bar = frequency/class width
• Note: it is not necessary for the horizontal and vertical axis to have
the same unit in length

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Unequal‐width histogram
• From Ex. of Salt Lake Ltd

Wages per Class Frequency Height of bar

employee ($) interval
40 - 60 20 4 0.2
> 60 - ≤ 80 20 6 0.3 4/20
> 80 - ≤ 90 10 6 0.6
> 90 - ≤ 120 30 6 0.2
> 120 - 150 30 3 0.1
Total 25

Unequal‐width histogram
Frequency
density

0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3

0.2
0.1

40 60 80 90 120 150 Earnings ($)

Shape of Histogram
 Symmetric
 Left tail is the mirror image of the right tail
 Examples: heights and weights of people (normal distribution)
.35
.30
Relative Frequency

.25
.20
.15
.10
.05
0

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Shape of Histogram
 Moderately Skewed Left
 A longer tail to the left
 Example: exam scores
.35
.30
Relative Frequency

.25
.20
.15
.10
.05
0

Shape of Histogram
 Moderately Skewed Right
 A longer tail to the right
 Example: housing values
.35
.30
Relative Frequency

.25
.20
.15
.10
.05
0

Shape of Histogram
 High Skewed Right
 A very long tail to the right
 Example: executive salaries
.35
.30
Relative Frequency

.25
.20
.15
.10
.05
0

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Important uses of a Histogram

• Visually displays the shape of the distribution of the data

• Shows the location of the center of the data

• Shows the spread of the data

• Identifies outliers

Frequency polygon

• The frequency polygon is a graph that displays the data by using lines
that connect point plotted for the frequencies at the midpoints of the
classes. The frequencies are represented by the heights of the points

𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑈𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
2

Frequency polygon
KFC restaurant
18
75, 16
16
14 65, 13
12
Frequency

10
8 85, 7 95, 7
6 105, 5
4
55, 2
2
45, 0
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Cost (000d)

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Ogive
 An ogive is a graph of a cumulative distribution
 How to draw an ogive
 The data values are shown on the horizontal axis
 Shown on the vertical axis are the
 cumulative frequencies, or
 cumulative relative frequencies, or
 cumulative percent frequencies
 The frequency (one of the above) of each class is plotted as a point against the upper
class limit of the interval
 The plotted points are connected by straight lines

Ogive

100
Cumulative Percent Frequency

80

60 (90, 76)

40

20

Cost (000d)
50 60 70 80 90 100 110

Ogive

• Activity: draw a histogram and an ogive for data in wages of 20

people and give your comments.

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Presenting relationship between two variables

 The relationship between two variables can be display by:

 Tables:

 Cross‐tabulation

 Charts:

 Side‐by‐side bar charts

 Scatterplots (considered in regression analysis)

 Time‐series plot

Cross‐tabulation: the contingency table

 A contingency (cross‐classification) table presents the results of two categorical
or numerical variables.
 The joint responses are classified so that the categories of one variable are
located in the rows and the categories of the other variable are located in the
columns.
 The cell is the intersection of the row and column and the value in the cell
represents the data corresponding to that specific pairing of row and column
categories.
 The cells for each row‐column combination contain in frequency, the percentage
of the overall total, the percentage of the row total, or the percentage of the
column total.

Cross‐tabulation: the contingency table

 E.g. Crosstabulation of quality rating and meal price for 300 restaurants in Hanoi.

Quality Meal Price (thousand dong)

Total
Rating 50‐60 60‐70 70‐80 80‐90
Good 42 40 2 0 84
Very Good 34 64 46 6 150
Excellent 2 14 28 22 66
Total 78 118 76 28 300

A review of the crosstabulation in this table reveals that restaurants with higher
meal prices received higher quality ratings than restaurants with lower meal prices

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Cross‐tabulation: the contingency table

 E.g. Summarize in percentages of the overall total.

Quality Meal Price (thousand dong)

Total
Rating 50‐60 60‐70 70‐80 80‐90
Good 14.00 13.33 0.67 0.00 28.00
Very Good 11.33 21.33 15.33 2.00 50.00
Excellent 0.67 4.67 9.33 7.33 22.00
Total 26.00 39.33 25.33 9.33 100.00

Cross‐tabulation: the contingency table

 E.g. Summarize in percentages of the row total.

Quality Meal Price (thousand dong)

Total
Rating 50‐60 60‐70 70‐80 80‐90
Good 50.00 47.62 2.38 0.00 100.00
Very Good 22.67 42.67 30.67 4.00 100.00
Excellent 3.03 21.21 42.42 33.33 100.00
Total 26.00 39.33 25.33 9.33 100.00

Cross‐tabulation: the contingency table

 E.g. Summarize in percentages of the column total.

Quality Meal Price (thousand dong)

Total
Rating 50‐60 60‐70 70‐80 80‐90
Good 53.85 33.90 2.63 0.00 28.00
Very Good 43.59 54.24 60.53 21.43 50.00
Excellent 2.56 11.86 36.84 78.57 22.00
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

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Cross‐tabulation: the contingency table

• E.g. Crosstabulation of Investment in Thousands of Dollars
Total
Investment Investor A Investor B Investor C
Category
Stocks 46.5 55 27.5 129
Bonds 32 44 19 95
CD 15.5 20 13.5 49
Savings 16 28 7 51
Total 110 147 67 324

Summarize data in the percentage of the overall total, the percentage of the
row total, or the percentage of the column total.

Side‐by‐side bar charts

• A useful way to visually display the results of cross‐classification data is by
constructing a side‐by‐side bar chart.
• Side‐by‐side bar charts are a very popular type of bar charts in which there are
multiple bars attached to form a group and this group of multiple bars is
repeated.
• Side‐by‐Side bar charts are used to compare multiple measures with each other.
So we can observe the change in those measures with time or across different
categories.

Side‐by‐side bar charts

• Side‐by‐side bar charts
Quality Rating

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
50‐60 60‐70 60‐80 80‐90
Meal Price (thousand dong)
Good Very Good Excellent

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Side‐by‐side bar charts

• Side‐by‐side bar charts
Comparing Investor

Savings

CD

Bonds

Stocks

0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Investor C Investor B Investor A

Scatterplots (Scatter Diagrams)

• Scatterplots may be the most common and most effective display for data.
• Scatterplots are the best way to examine possible relationship between two
quantitative variables (bivariate data).
• X axis – the explanatory (or predictor) variable.
• Y axis – the response variable.

Scatterplots (Scatter Diagrams)

Volume Cost Relationship between Volume per day and Cost per day
per day per day 250
23 120
200
26 144
Cost per day

29 146 150
33 160 100
38 167
42 50
180
50 190 0
55 195 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Volume per day
60 196

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Time‐series plot
• A time‐series plot is used to study patterns in the values of a numerical variable
over time.
• Each value is plotted as a point in two dimensions with the time period on the
horizontal X axis and the variable of interest on the Y axis.

Time‐series plot
• E.g. Attendance (in millions) at Hanoi zoo parks from 2014‐2019

Year Attendance
2014 3.17
2014 3.19
2015 3.24
2016 3.22
2017 3.28
2019 3.35

Time‐series plot
• E.g. Attendance (in millions) at Hanoi zoo parks from 2014‐2019

3.4
3.35
3.35
3.3 3.28
Attendance

3.24
3.25 3.22
3.19
3.2 3.17
3.15
3.1
3.05
2014 2014 2015 2016 2017 2019
Year

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Constructing tables: some guidelines

 A table should have a clear title

 All columns should be labelled
 Title and labels should reflect the information that the table and
columns contain
 Data sources should be clarified at the bottom of table
 When necessary, put a note at the bottom of table for more
explanations

Principles of Excellent Graphs

 The graph should not distort the data.
 The graph should not contain unnecessary adornments (sometimes
referred to as chart junk).
 The scale on the vertical axis should begin at zero.
 All axes should be properly labeled.
 The graph should contain a title.
 The simplest possible graph should be used for a given set of data.

Summary
In this chapter, we have
 Organized categorical data using the summary table, bar chart and pie chart.
 Organized numerical data using the frequency distribution, histogram,
polygon, and ogive.
 Examined cross tabulated data using the contingency table and side‐by‐side
bar chart.
 Developed scatter plots and time series graphs.

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