PG SW/PS S4-04 (DSE)

TWO YEAR MASTER’S DEGREE COURSE

(CBCS in Accordance with NEP 2020)

SEMESTER IV

WOMEN AND POLITICS

Surya Kumar Bhuyan School of Social Sciences

KRISHNA KANTA HANDIQUI STATE OPEN UNIVERSITY
Subject Experts
Professor Dhruba Pratim Sharma, Gauhati University
Professor Jyotiraj Pathak, Bodoland University
Dr. Shantanu Chakravorty (Rtd.), Cotton University
Course Co-ordinator: Dr. Jahnabi Devi, KKHSOU

SLM Preparation Team

UNITS CONTRIBUTORS
1&3 Dr. Barsha Kalita, Jagiroad College, Morigaon
2 Dr. Pankaj Kumar Sarmah, Kumar Bhaskar Varma Sanskrit and Ancient Studies
University, Nalbari
4 Dr. Dronali Talukdar, Bhatta Dev University, Bajali
5 Dr. Bhigu Kalita, Ratnapith College, Dhubri
6, 7, 9 &13 Dr. Amreen Razzaq, Former Research Scholar, NEHU, Meghalya
8 Dr. Navanita Medhi, J.B. Law College, Guwahati
10, 11 Dr. Tutumani Bhuyan, Cinamara College, Jorhat
12 Dr. Tutumani Bhuyan, Cinamara College, Jorhat &
Dr. Dipankar Malakar, Krishna Kanta Handiqui State Open University, Guwahati
14 Parismita Bhagawati, Cotton University, Guwahati
Editorial Team
Content : Dr. Barnalee Choudhury, IDOL, GU
Language : Dr. Sayanika Roy (Units 3,4,8)
Dr. Pallavi Gogoi (Units 1,2,5,6,7, 9,10, 11, 12, 13, 14)
Structure, Format & Graphics : Dr. Jahnabi Devi, KKHSOU

March, 2025

ISBN : 978-93-89955-50-78-93-89559-05-7
This Self Learning Material (SLM) of the Krishna Kanta Handiqui State Open University
is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-Share Alike 4.0 License
(international): [Link]
Printed and published by Registrar on behalf of the Krishna Kanta Handiqui State Open University
Headquarter : Patgaon, Rani Gate, Guwahati - 781017
City Office : Resham Nagar, Khanapara, Guwahati-781022; Website: [Link]

The University acknowledges with thanks the financial support provided by the
Distance Education Bureau, UGC for the preparation of this study material.
 CONTENTS

Pages
UNIT 1: Concepts of Gender and Patriarchy 7–18
Gender: Meaning and Nature; Patriarchy: Meaning and Nature : Forms of
Patriarchy

UNIT 2: History of Feminism 19–26

Waves of Feminism : First Wave of Feminism, Second Wave of Feminism,
Third Wave of Feminism

UNIT 3: Theories of Feminism 27–42

Concept of Feminism; Theories of Feminism: Theory of Liberal
Feminism,Theory of Marxist Feminism, Theory of Socialist Feminism,
Theory of Radical Feminism, Theory of Cultural Feminism, Theory of Eco
Feminism, Theory of Postmodern Feminism, Theory of Multicultural
Feminism, Theory of Global Feminism

UNIT 4: Gender Mainstreaming and Gender Budgeting 43–56

Concept of Gender Mainstreaming, Importance of Gender Mainstreaming;
Concept of Gender Budgeting, Importance of Gender Budgeting

UNIT 5: Women's Movements 57–70

Meaning of Women’s Movements; Women’s Movement: Historical
Perspectives; Women’s Movements In India; Contemporary Movements;
Women’s Issues in South Asia

UNIT 6: Women and Family 71–80

Structure of Family; Power Structure in Family; Position of Women in Family

UNIT 7: Violence Against Women 81–92

Causes of Violence against Women; Forms of Violence; Sexual Harassment
at Workplace; Female Trafficking

UNIT 8: Political Empowerment of Women: Global Perspective 93–104

Concept of Empowerment; Concept of Gender Empowerment; Political
Empowerment of Women; Role and Position of Women in Electoral Politics:
Global Perspective
UNIT 9: Political Empowerment of Women in India With Special Reference to Assam 105–116
Factors that affect Political Participation of Women; Measures adopted in
India for Political Empowerment of Women; Role and Position of Women
in the Indian Parliament; Role and Position of Women in Assam Legislature

UNIT 10: Economic Participation of Women in India: Issues and Challenges 117–130
Empowerment of Women in India; Stridhan; Personal Law and Women;
Initiative taken by SAFP for Women Empowerment

UNIT 11: Economic Empowerment of Women and Skill Development 131–146

Importance of Economic Empowerment; Importance of Skill Development;
Economic Issues and Challenges Experienced by Women; National Policy
for the Empowerment of Women, 2001

UNIT 12: Women and Self-Help Groups with Special Reference to Assam 147–158
Development of Self Help Groups in India; Aims, Objectives and Features
of Self Help Groups; Development of Self Help Groups in Assam; Role
played by the Self-Help Groups in Enhancing Capacity of Women

UNIT 13: Environment and Women 159–168

Impact of Environmental Issues on Women

UNIT 14: Participation of Women in various Socio-Political Movements in Assam 169–182

Participation of Women in the Assam Movement; Participation of Women
in the Bodoland Movement
References 183-185

4 Women and Politics

COURSE INTRODUCTION

This is discipline specific elective course of Fourth Semester of M A in Political Science of KKHSOU
which is entitled as Women and Politics. The course 'Women and Politics' is designed to help the
learners to have an understanding of various important issues associated with the role of women in
society and politics. The first unit of the Course makes the learners familiar with the basic concepts of
gender and patriarchy. This unit discusses the meaning and nature of gender and patriarchy and forms
of patriarchy. Feminism as a movement has assumed its present shape by way of its evolution through
various phases. The second unit of the course has described the history and development of feminism
with reference to the first, second, third and fourth waves of feminism. A number of theories have been
formulated whereby the concept of feminism is sought to be explained through particular standpoints.
Accordingly, various theories of feminism, such as theory of Liberal Feminism, theory of Marxist Feminism,
theory of Socialist Feminism, theory of Radical Feminism, theory of Cultural Feminism, theory of Eco
Feminism, theory of Postmodern Feminism, theory of Multicultural Feminism, theory of Global Feminism
are discussed in the third unit. The fourth unit highlights two very important concepts associated with
feminists movement, such as gender mainstreaming and gender budgeting. The fifth unit discusses the
history of women's movement, contemporary women's movement, women's movement in India, various
issues concerning women in South Asia. Family is the primary unit of the society. Position of women in
the family reflects the position of women in the society. Relationship between family and women, power
structure of family, position of women in the family have been discussed in the sixth unit of the course.
One major problem faced by women across the world is violence of various forms. Violence against
women is a serious crime which violates basic dignity of human being. The seventh unit of the course
examines various causes of violence against women, forms of gender based violence more particularly
sexual harassement of women at the workplace and female trafficking. Empowerment is one of the
important ways through which the position of women can be uplifted to a great extent. The concept of
empowerment refers to the process of strengthening oneself to be more potential and powerful to guide
himself or herself for a good life and to claim his or her rights to lead a good life. The concept of
empowerment of women is related to gender equality. To ensure women empowerment, equality must
be established between men and women. Accordingly the eight unit focuses on the concept of gender
empowerment, political empowerment of women and the present scenerio of politcal empowerment of
women across the world. The ninth unit discusses the issue of political empowerment of women in India
and in Assam. In India a number of measures, both constitutional and legislative, have been adopted to
ensure political participation of women. But at the same time there also exists various obstacles in the

Women and Politics 5

way of political empowerment of women in our country. The ninth unit discusses the various measures
adopted for women empowerment and obstacles in the way of political participation of women. This unit
also analyses the position of women in the Indian Parliament and in the Assam Legislative Assembly.
The tenth unit deals with the process of economic empowerment of women. This unit also examines
various issues and challenges faced by women in the path of economic empowerment. In the eleventh
unit importance of economic empowerment and skill development has been discussed. In this context,
discussion has been made regarding the National Policy for the Empowerment of Women, 2001. In
India Self Help Groups (SHGs) have provided significant contribution towards economic empowerment
of women. Self Help Groups are voluntary association of people to attain certain collective goals, both
economic and social goals. Self Help Groups are normally formed by the economically weaker section
of the society, coming from rural or semi-urban areas. Accordingly the twelft unit discusses the role of
SHGs in the economic empowerment of women in India and in Assam. The thirteenth unit deals with the
impact of various environmental issues on women. The last unit of this course discusses the participation
of women in two very important socio-political movements of Assam, such as- the Assam Movement
and the Bodoland Movement.

While going through the units of the block, you will find that unit is further divided into certain
sections and sub-sections, wherever necessary, for your better understanding. The units carry certain
activities after a particular section where needed. These “ACTIVITIES” will provide you the opportunity to
practically apply your own thoughts based on the knowledge gained from reading the text in a particular
section. Besides, in order to give you additional information on certain relevant topics, you will find a
category called “LET US KNOW” after the sections in each unit. Another category that has been included
at the end of each section of a particular unit is “CHECK YOUR PROGRESS”. The purpose of this
category is to help you to asses for yourself as to how thoroughly you have understood a particular
section. You may then match your answers with “ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS” given at
the end of each unit. The section “FURTHER READING” in each unit contains the names of a few books
which you might want to consult if you are intereted in learning more elaborately about the concepts
discussed in a particular unit. Furthermore, the category called “POSSIBLE QUESTIONS” is intended to
give you a hint of the type of questions you are likely to get in the examination.

6 Women and Politics

UNIT 1: CONCEPTS OF GENDER AND
PATRIARCHY
UNIT STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Gender: Meaning and Nature
1.4 Patriarchy: Meaning and Nature
1.4.1 Forms of Patriarchy
1.5 Let Us Sum Up
1.6 Further Reading
1.7 Answers to Check Your Progress
1.8 Possible Questions

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to-

 explain the meaning and nature of gender
 examine the differences between sex and gender
 describe the meaning of pa triarchy
 explain the nature of patriarchy
 discuss the various forms of patriarchy.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

This unit introduces you to one of the widely discussed topics in our
society i.e. gender. Gender is an important concept of our society that defines
and imposes specific roles and behaviours to women and men. Patriarchy is
another important concept associated with the concept of Gender. In this unit
we shall discuss meaning and nature of the concepts of Gender and
Patriarchy. Various forms of patriarchy shall also be highlighted in the Unit.

1.3 GENDER : MEANING AND NATURE

In this section we shall discuss the meaning and nature of Gender.

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Unit 1 Concepts of Gender and Patriarchy

 Meaning of Gender
Gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behavioural aspects,
activities and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men
and women. It implies social construction of male and female identity. It is a
social recognition of biological differences. In Social Sciences, the term
gender is used to indicate the differences in social status of man and
woman. In a patriarchal society, the concept of gender is understood as an
ideological mechanism in the subordination of woman. Gender identity is
not fixed at birth rather it gains a core identity with the physiological and
social factors. It is developed by means of social reinforcement and language.
Here we may refer to Simone de Beauvoir's opinion that "One is not born a
woman; one becomes a woman." The formation of gender differs from one
culture to the other as it is a culture specific aspect. Ann Oakley regards
gender as a matter of culture. It refers to the social classification of men
and women into 'masculine' and 'feminine'.
The term gender has been increasingly used to identify gender role
since 1950's. The World Survey 1999 on the 'Role of Women in Development'
defined gender as 'the social meanings given to biological sex differences'. It
is an ideological and cultural construct. It affects the distribution of resources,
wealth, work, decision making power, rights etc. both in public as well as
private life. It stratifies the society between the sexes assigning different roles
with other stratifiers like race, class, caste etc.
Gender is not static rather dynamic. It changes from time to time,
culture to culture and even family to family. Thus, there are different features
within the definition of gender that include ideology, cultural construct, identity,
entitlements, along with other social divisions such as race, class, identity,
sexuality, age etc. The word gender is now used sociologically or as a
conceptual category. It is used as an analytical tool to understand social
realities with regard to women and men. Every culture has its own way of
valuing and assigning different roles, responses and attributes to girls and
boys. Every society gradually transforms a male or female into a man or a
woman with different qualities, responsibilities, rights and expectations.
Infact, gender has no biological origin, and the connections between sex
and gender are not really natural at all.
8 Women and Politics
Concepts of Gender and Patriarchy Unit 1

 Nature of Gender

In common parlance, the terms 'sex' and 'gender' are used

synonymously. However, technically there is a distinction between these
two terms. Gender is 'social classification' of people. On the other hand
sex is 'biological classification' of people. The distinction between the two
can be summed up as follows.

1. Gender is a social and cultural construct of images and expectations

of both males and females. Whereas, sex is biological differences
between men and women such as reproductive function and
secondary characteristics like body hair and breast development.

2. Gender is made whereas sex is born. A child is born as a baby boy or

baby girl, but develops into a man or a woman when assigned a
particular role in the society.

3. 'Masculine' and 'Feminine' are gender categories whereas 'Male' and

'Female' are sex categories.

4. Gender reflects nurture whereas sex reflects nature. In other words,

gender develops as a result of nurture while the development of sex
is the result of nature.

5. Gender discrimination is a social discrimination whereas sexual

inequality is an inborn phenomenon.

6. The task of feminism is to abolish gender inequality and not of the

sexual one. The ideology of feminism advocates gender equality within
the framework of sexual inequalities.

Kishore and Gupta (2006) has identified three dimensions of gender

which can be mentioned as follows:

(a) Gender tends not to be value neutral. The roles, rights and
obligations assigned to each sex are not just different, but also
unequal with male roles and rights generally valued more than
female roles and rights.

(b) Gender is not static or immutable. Being socially constructed,

gender roles, rights and expectations can change over time and

Women and Politics 9

Unit 1 Concepts of Gender and Patriarchy

across geographical space as societal needs, opportunities and

customs change.
(c) Gender involves differences in power. Generally men tend to have
greater power than women.
From the above analysis, we can summerise the nature of gender as
follows:
a) Gender is socio-cultural and it is manmade.
b) Gender refers to masculine and feminine qualities, behaviour
patterns, roles and responsibilities.
c) Gender is variable. It changes from time to time, culture to culture
and family to family.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.1: State the meaning of gender.

...............................................................................................
.................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
Q.2: Gender is ……………………………… not static. (Fill in the blank)
Q.3: Sex is biological, where as gender is ………………………………
(Fill in the blank)
Q.4: Mention any two differences between gender and sex.
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................

1.4 PATRIARCHY : MEANING AND NATURE

In the following section we shall discuss the meaning and nature of

patriarchy.

 Meaning of Patriarchy :
The word patriarchy has been derived from the Greek word
‘‘patriarkhes’ which means “father of a race” or “chief of a race”. Patriarchy
thus literally means the rule of the head of the family or in short, of man.
Originally it was used to describe a specific type of ‘male dominated family’

10 Women and Politics

Concepts of Gender and Patriarchy Unit 1

which included women, junior men, children, slaves and domestic servants
all under the rule of the dominant male. Today it is generally used to refer to
the power relationships in which men dominate women and to characterise
a system where women are kept subordinate in a number of ways. It may
be described as a political structure which favours man and propagates
women’s subordination as natural and inevitable. Patriarchy thus represents
male chauvinism and hence results in the oppression of women. Patriarchy
is associated with male sex, and therefore, with male gender. Sylbia Walby
in her book Theorising Patriarchy describes Patriarchy as “a system of
social structures and practices in which men dominate, oppress and exploit
women.” So patriarchy is associated with the rule of men over women
where men are the ruler and women are the ruled. For example, in some
South Asian languages, the words used for husband are swami, shauhar,
pati, malik all words means ‘lord’ or ‘owner’.

The nature of patriarchy is different in different classes in the same

society, in different societies and in different periods of history. However,
the broad principles remain the same that is, men are in control, but the
nature of this control may differ. For example, the nature of patriarchy is
different for tribal women and for upper caste Hindu women, for women in
the USA and women in India. It is mainly because each social system throws
up its own variations on how patriarchy functions and how social and cultural
practices differ.

The feminist’s sociologist has given three types of account of

patriarchy. Firstly the French psychoanalysts and structuralists have argued
that a society’s culture is dominated by the symbols of male origin. The
second account argues that patriarchy is essentially based on the household
in which men dominate women economically, sexually and culturally. This
view regards marriage as a labour contract through which women exchange
unpaid domestic services for their upkeep. And thirdly, the Marxist feminists
argue that patriarchy and capitalism support each other. Within the
household, men take benefit of women’s unpaid domestic work and thus
relieve their employer. Outside the home, women are segregated to perform

Women and Politics 11

Unit 1 Concepts of Gender and Patriarchy

some specific jobs for which very low wages are paid. Thus, all these
accounts focus on different aspects of women’s exploitation in our society.
Man’s domination and woman’s subordination are the two sides of the same
coin and both relate themselves to the term patriarchy. Patriarchy thus
represents male chauvinism and hence results in the oppression of women.
The literature on patriarchy and feminism overlaps. Notable readings include,
Shulamith Firestone’s The Dialectic of Sex (1970), Germaine Greer’s The
Female Eunuch (1970), Eva Figes ‘Patriarchal Attitudes (1970), Robin
Morgan’s Sisterhood is Powerful (1970). However Kate Millett’s Sexual
Politics (1985) is important in so far as it provides a theoretical frame to the
concept of patriarchy.
 Nature of Patriarchy:
Patriarchy is based on a system of power relations which are
hierarchical and unequal where men control women. The nature of control
and subjugation of women varies from one society to another due to the
differences in caste, class, religion, race and various socio cultural practices.
However, the broad principles remain the same i.e men controls but the
nature of this control may differ. For example, Indian women face a different
experience of patriarchy than a woman in USA. Similarly, it is different for a
upper caste Hindu woman and a tribal woman. Each social system or
historic period throws up its own variations on how patriarchy functions,
and how social and cultural practices differ. However, inspite of these
variations following are some of the common characteristics that can be
found in every patriarchal society.
a) Male Dominance: In a Patriarchal system, it is the male who
dominates in every sphere and all aspects of life. Men make all
decisions in both society and in their family, hold all positions of power
and authority and are thereby, considered superior in all aspects.
b) Male Identification: Men are concerned with identification that
includes qualities of control, strength, forcefulness, rationality, strong
work and competitiveness. Each of these qualities contribute to male
identification in a patriarchal system.

12 Women and Politics

Concepts of Gender and Patriarchy Unit 1

c) Male Centredness: In a Patriarchal society, the center of activity is

focused on men and what they do to move the society forward, in any
patriarchal system. Man will be the focus and developer of all events
and inventions. Men will be the heroes in all situations.
d) Obsession with Control: In a Patriarchal society it is the male who
controls or takes charge at all the times. They have a desire to control
all social and family situations and make all decisions within and
outside the household.
Thus, patriarchy implies a measure of power. It is the power of man
over woman.

1.4.1 Forms of Patriarchy

Patriarchy is an ideology based on the assertion of male

superiority over women. Today it dominates social organisation and
thereby exerts control over all spheres of human life such as political,
social, cultural, religious and economic. Sylbia Walby in her noted
contribution 'Theorising Patriarchy' argues that patriarchy is an
indispensable concept for an analysis of gender inequality. Walby
also distinguishes between two forms of patriarchy i.e., private
patriarchy and public patriarchy. Private patriarchy appears inside
the household with a patriarch controlling women directly in the private
sphere of home. Infact, the institution of family is probably the most
patriarchal. A man is considered as the head of the family who
controls women's sexuality, labour, reproduction and mobility. Within
the household women extend all kinds of activities and selfless service
to their children, husband and other members of the family,
throughout their lives. Sylbia Walby calls this a 'patriarchal mode of
production' where women's labour is expropriated by their husbands
and others who live there. It is the male who takes all decision within
the family. A woman is not allowed to take even those decisions that
affects them. Men also control women's reproductive power. In many
societies, women do not have the power to decide how many children
they should have, when to have them or whether they can use
contraception or terminate pregnancy. According to the radical

Women and Politics 13

Unit 1 Concepts of Gender and Patriarchy

feminists women are mainly subjugated because of this burden of

child bearing and rearing. There is a hierarchy in which man is
considered superior and dominant and woman as inferior and
subordinate. Infact family plays an important role towards socialising
the next generation in patriarchal values. It is within the family that
one learns the lesson of domination, humiliation, subordination and
discrimination.
Public patriarchy, on the other hand, is based on structures other
than the household i.e. in the public sphere. Men control women's
labour both within and outside the household. They force their women
to sell their labour or they may even prevent them from working. Infact
many women are forced to sell their labour at very low wages. Thus
through this control and exploitation of women's labour men benefit
materially from patriarchy. Men also control women's mobility. The
restrictions or limitations on interaction between the sexes and so on
are all imposed to control women's freedom and mobility. Religions
also plays an important role in defining male authority as supreme.
Almost all major religions consider women as inferior, impure, sinful.
They have been created, interpreted and controlled by upper class
and upper class men. They have defined morality, ethics and even
laid down the duties between men and women.
The legal system in most countries is patriarchal. Laws
pertaining to marriage, divorce and inheritance are closely linked to
the patriarchal control over property. For example, in South Asia, all
legal systems consider men as the head of the household, the natural
guardian of the children and the inheritor of property. Men also controls
the economic institutions, own most property and determine the value
of different productive activities in a patriarchal society. Women though
constitute half of the world's labour force; their contribution is hardly
recognised and valued. Similarly, the political institutions in our society
at all levels form Parliament to Panchayats are all male dominated.
Women are mostly used for vote bank politics. One could see only a
handful of women in political parties or organisation who determine

14 Women and Politics

Concepts of Gender and Patriarchy Unit 1

the fate of ourtheir countries. Ever since education became formal

and institutionalised, men have assumed control over vast areas of
knowledge, philosophy, law, literature, arts, science. This male
hegemony has marginalised women's knowledge and experiences,
their expertise and aspirations.

Thus the characteristic values of patriarchy are ingrained in the

socialisation process that starts form childhood and is reinforced
through education, literature, religion, and the like. Men possess
greater position in all domains of life. The gender relations are so
structured that a woman has to depend on a man to satisfy her
basic needs and thus in the process accept her servitude. Thus
patriarchy is not only the rule of male over the society, but the rule of
man over woman. And thus gender discrimination occurs due to the
presence of these patriarchal values in our society.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.5: The word patriarchy has been derived from

……………………….. word. (Fill in the blank)
Q.6: State the meaning of Patriarchy.
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
Q.7: Who is the author of the book “Theorising Patriarchy”?
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
Q.8: What are the two forms of patriarchy?
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
Q.9: What do you mean by patriarchal mode of production?
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................

Women and Politics 15

Unit 1 Concepts of Gender and Patriarchy

1.5 LET US SUM UP

 Gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behavioural aspects,

activities and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for
men and women. It implies social construction of male and female
identity. It is a social recognition of biological differences. In Social
Sciences, the term 'gender' is used to indicate the differences in social
status of man and woman.
 Gender is not static rather dynamic. It changes from time to time,
culture to culture and even family to family.
 There are differences between sex and gender. Sex refers to biological
classification of people and gender refers to social classification of
people.
 Regarding the nature of gender, we can say that gender is socio-cultural
and it is manmade. Gender refers to masculine and feminine qualities,
behavioural patterns, roles and responsibilities. Gender is variable. It
changes from time to time, culture to culture and family to family.
 The word patriarchy has been derived from the Greek word 'patriarchies'.
Patriarchy literally means the rule of the father. It is an ideology through
which men dominate women.
 The nature of patriarchy differs from on the basis of culture, religion,
community and region, though its principles remain the same i.e. man
is the ruler and woman is the ruled. The patriarchal values are
transmitted from one generation to the other through the process of
socialisation. Gender discrimination occurs in our society because of
the presence of patriarchal values.
 There are two forms of patriarchy, i.e. private patriarchy that occurs in
private sphere and public patriarchy that occurs in public domains.

16 Women and Politics

Concepts of Gender and Patriarchy Unit 1

1.6 FURTHER READING

1) Arora, N.D.& Awasthy, S.S. (2004). Political Theory. New Delhi: Har
Anand Publications Pvt. Ltd.
2) Bhasin, Kamla. (2003). Understanding Gender. New Delhi: Kali for
Women.
3) Bhasin, Kamla. (1993). What is Patriarchy? New Delhi: Kali for
Women.

1.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: Gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behavioural

aspects, activities and attributes that a given society considers
appropriates for men and women. It implies social construction
of male and female identity. It is a social recognition of biological
differences. In Social Sciences, the term gender is used to
indicate the differences in social status of man and woman. In a
Patriarchal society, the concept of gender is understood as an
ideological mechanism in the subordination of women.
Ans to Q No 2: dynamic.
Ans to Q No 3: social classification of people.
Ans to Q No 4: (i) Gender is a social and cultural construct of images and
expectations of both males and females. Whereas, sex is
biological differences between men and women such as
reproductive function and secondary characteristics like body
hair and breast development.
(ii) Gender is made whereas sex is born. A child is born as a baby
boy or baby girl, but develops into a man or a woman when
assigned a particular role in the society.
Ans to Q No 5: Greek word.

Women and Politics 17

Unit 1 Concepts of Gender and Patriarchy

Ans to Q No 6: Patriarchy literally means the rule of the head of the family
or in short, of man. Originally it was used to describe a specific
type of 'male dominated family' which included women, junior
men, children, slaves and domestic servants all under the rule
of the dominant male. Today it is generally used to refer to the
power relationships in which men dominate women and to
characterise a system where women are kept subordinate in a
number of ways. It may be described as a political structure which
favours men and propagates women's subordination as natural
and inevitable. Patriarchy thus represents male chauvinism and
hence results in the oppression of women.
Ans to Q No 7: Sylbia Walby.
Ans to Q No 8: The two forms of patriarchy are- Public Patriarchy and
Private Patriarchy.
Ans to Q No 9: Within the household women extend all kinds of duties and
selfless services to their children, husband and other members
of the family, throughout their lives. Sylbia Walby calls this a
'patriarchal mode of production' where women's labour is
expropriated by their husbands and others who live there.

1.8 POSSIBLE QUESTIONS

Q. 1 : Mention the Greek word from which the word Patriarchy is derived.
Q. 2 : Who had famously stated "one is not born a woman; one becomes
a woman"?
Q. 3 : Write briefly about the meaning of Gender.
Q. 4 : Explain the differences between sex and gender.
Q. 5 : Discuss the meaning of Patriarchy.
Q. 6 : Write a note on the nature of gender.
Q. 7 : What are the two forms of Patriarchy? Explain.
Q. 8 : Discuss the nature of Patriarchy.

*** ***** ***

18 Women and Politics
UNIT 2: HISTORY OF FEMINISM
UNIT STRUCTURE

2.1 Learning Objectives

2.2 Introduction
2.3 Waves of Feminism
2.3.1 First Wave of Feminism
2.3.2 Second Wave of Feminism
2.3.3 Third Wave of Feminism
2.4 Let Us Sum Up
2.5 Further Reading
2.6 Answers To Check Your Progress
2.7 Possible Questions

2.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to-

 explain the history of feminism with reference to the first wave of
feminism
 discuss the second and third waves of feminism.

2.2 INTRODUCTION

Feminism is an ideology that seeks to achieve equality and justice for

women. It is a revolt against the patriarchal values of the society. Feminism
aims at eradicating discrimination against women in all aspects of life. It
argues that women must have equal share of resources and opportunities
so that they can equally participate in the society. The ideology of feminism
has assumed its present shape by passing through a long history. In this
unit, we shall discuss history of feminism with reference to the first, second
and third waves of feminism.

2.3 WAVES OF FEMINISM

Feminism is a movement that seeks to establish equality between

women and men. It aims at defining, establishing equalities in all spheres

Women and Politics 19

Unit 2 History of Feminism

of life including social, political, economic, cultural, legal spheres. In many

societies, women have to face discrimination and subordination because of
their sex. Feminism always argues that there can be no difference between
men and women only on the ground of sex. Both women and men must be
provided equal opportunities to develop themselves. Regarding definition of
feminism many scholars have pointed out many things. Prominent feminist
Kamala Bhasin has put forward two definitions of feminism, such as-
 Feminism is an awareness of women’s oppression and exploitation
in society, at the place of work and within the family, and conscious
action to change this situation.
 Feminism is an awareness regarding patriarchal control, exploitation,
and oppression at the material and ideological levels of women’s
labour, fertility and sexuality in the family, at the place of work and in
society in general and conscious action by women and men to
transform the present situation.
According to the first definition, anyone (men or women) who
recognises the existence of sexism (discrimination on the basis of sex),
male domination and patriarchy and who takes some action against it is a
feminist (a person whose beliefs and behavior are based on feminism).
Feminist recognises that, all over the world women are subjected to all
forms of discrimination and unequal treatment in all spheres such as-
education, political, social, cultural, health, religious etc. Feminism as a
concept is very broad. The feminist movement advocates for changes in
the social, economic, political, cultural, religious systems which are
discriminatory against women. By changing all these structures
discrimination against women can be eliminated and gender justice can be
achieved. It indicates a movement for rightful and democratic position of
women in the society.
The feminist movement has assumed the present shape by passing
through various phases. The origin of feminist movement can be found in
the western world. The feminist movement started in the late 18th century.
In the west, various social and democratic movements of the 18th and 19th
centuries revealed the position of women in the societal, political, economic

20 Women and Politics

History of Feminism Unit 2

spheres. The Industrial Revolution (1760 – 1840) also raised several

questions about the rights of women. Several noteworthy scholars made
significant contribution to the feminist movement during this period. For
example, we can refer to Mary Wollstonecraft who through her work
Vindication on the Rights of Women (1792) contributed significantly. We
can discuss the evolution of feminism in three waves. These three waves
are- first wave of feminism, second wave of feminism and third wave of
feminism. In this section, we shall discuss these three waves of feminism.

2.3.1 First Wave of Feminism

The First Wave of feminism refers to the feminist movement

that started from the 19th century and continued till early 20th century.
During this phase feminist movement focused on voting rights of
women and political equality between women and men. Apart from
political rights of women during this period, emphasis was also given
on working condition, educational rights, reproductive rights as well
as marriage and property rights of women. The first women’s rights
Convention was held at New York in 1848. At this Convention a
Declaration of Sentiment was signed which outlined the grievances
of women and set the agenda for women’s rights movement. At this
Convention a set of 12 resolutions was adopted calling for equal
treatment of both women and men under laws and regulations.
Scholars like Virginia Woolf was associated with the first wave of
feminism. In her book A Room of One’s Own, Woolf described how
Men dominated women socially, physically as well as psychologically.
She recognised the social construct that restricted women in society
and prepared literature to contextualise it for other women.

2.3.2 Second Wave of Feminism

The period between 1960s – 1980s is considered as the second

wave of feminism. The second wave of feminism began in the United
States of America and spread to the other western countries. During
the second wave of feminism the feminist movement emphasised

Women and Politics 21

Unit 2 History of Feminism

on gender equality in laws and culture. Feminist movement during

this period raised awareness about sexism and patriarchy, gender
based violence, domestic abuse and marital rape. During this period
distinction was made gender and sex. It also stressed on legalising
abortion and birth control. The feminists associated with the second
wave explored various dimensions of female subordination. They
emphasised on various factors which are associated with female
subordination, such as- control of men over reproductive
technologies, social practices that always keep women in the private
sphere. One very famous feminist associated with this wave of
feminism was Simone de Beauvoir. Simone de Beauvoir’s famous
book The Second Sex is considered as one of the foundational texts
for the feminist thought. During this period the feminists argued that
women must realise that their lives are deeply politicised and this
reflects sexist power structure. In this context, another famous
feminist Carol Hanisch coined the slogan “The Personal is Politics”
which was related to liberation of women.

2.3.3 Third Wave of Feminism

The failure of the second wave of feminism led to the emergence

of third wave of feminism in the early 1990s. It emphasised upon the
post structural interpretation of gender and sexuality with focus on
micro-politics. During this wave debate arose regarding the
distinction between sex and gender. It was argued that sex is
biological and gender is social construction. During this wave,
feminist analysed various issues from the perspective of
intersectionality. Intersectionality refers to the interconnected nature
of various social categories, such as- race, class, caste, gender
etc. which may lead to advantage or disadvantage of a particular
group of people. This wave of feminism also focused on stereotype
concerning women, media portrayal representation of women and
the use of language to define women. In fact this wave of feminism
emphasised on discussing women’s issues by encompassing all
diversities in different socio-cultural political and economic situations.

22 Women and Politics

History of Feminism Unit 2

Apart from these three waves, the fourth wave of feminism

began from 2012 and still continues. During this period the feminist
movement has focused upon the empowerment of women in social,
economic, cultural, political, technological and all other spheres.
The feminists have emphasised upon the empowerment of women
through the use of information technology. Like the third wave, the
fourth wave of feminism has also raised the issue of intersectionality
of various factors that lead to marginalisation of women of different
categories. The feminists, during this period, have strongly
demanded adequate representation of women in politics and
business, justice for women against assault and harassment, equal
pay for equal work for both men and women, freedom and autonomy
for women over their own body and spirit.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.1: Who is the author of the book Vindication on

the Rights of Women?
........................................................................................
Q.2: Who coined the slogan "The Personal is Politics"?
..................................................................................................................
Q.3: What are the areas on which the first wave of feminism
emphasises?
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
Q.4: Write briefly about the second wave of feminism.
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................

Women and Politics 23

Unit 2 History of Feminism

2.4 LET US SUM UP

 Feminism is an ideology that seeks to achieve equality and justice for

women. It is revolt against the patriarchal values of the society. Feminism
aims at eradicating discrimination against women in all aspects of life. It
argues that women must have equal share of resources and
opportunities so that they can equally participate in the society.
 Feminism is a movement that seeks to establish equality between
women and men. It aims at defining, establishing equalities in all spheres
of life including social, political, economic, cultural, legal spheres. In
many societies women have to face discrimination and subordination
because of their sex. Feminism always argues that there can be no
difference between men and women only on the ground of sex.
 The feminist movement has assumed the present shape by passing
through various phases. The origin of feminist movement can be found
in the western world. Feminist movement started in the late 18th
century. The evolution of feminism can be divided into three waves.
These three waves are- first wave of feminism, second wave of
feminism and third wave of feminism.
 The First Wave of feminism refers to the feminist movement that started
from the 19th century and continued till early 20th century. During this
phase feminist movement focused on voting rights of women and
political equality between women and men. Apart from political rights
of women, during this period emphasis was also given on working
condition, educational rights, reproductive rights and marriage and
property rights of women.
 The period between 1960s - 1980s is considered as second wave of
feminism. The second wave of feminism began in the United States of
America and spread to the other western countries. During the second
wave of feminism the feminist movement emphasised on gender
equality in laws and culture. Feminist movement during this period
raised awareness about sexism and patriarchy, gender based violence,

24 Women and Politics

History of Feminism Unit 2

domestic abuse and marital rape. The feminists associated with the
second wave explored various dimensions of female subordination.
 The failure of the second wave of feminism led to the emergence of
third wave of feminism in the early 1990s. It emphasised upon the post
structural interpretation of gender and sexuality with focus on micro-
politics. During this wave, the feminist analysed various issues from
the perspective of intersectionality.
 The fourth wave of feminism began from 2012 and still continues. During
this period the feminist movement has focused upon the empowerment
of women in social, economic, cultural, political, technological and all
other spheres. The feminists, during this period, have strongly
demanded adequate representation of women in politics and business,
justice for women against assault and harassment, equal pay for equal
work for both men and women, freedom and autonomy for women
over their own body and spirit.

2.5 FURTHER READING

1) Bhasin, Kamla. (2003). Understanding Gender. New Delhi: Kali for

Women.
2) Menon, Nivedita. (2012). Seeing like a Feminist. New Delhi: Penguin
India.
3) Tandon, Neeru. (2012). Feminism A Paradigm Shift. Atlantic
Publication.

2.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: Mary Wollstonecraft

Ans to Q No 2: Carol Hanisch
Ans to Q No 3: The first wave of feminism emphasised upon voting rights
of women, political equality between women and men, working
condition, educational rights, reproductive rights and marriage
and property rights of women.

Women and Politics 25

Unit 2 History of Feminism

Ans to Q No 4: The period between 1960s - 1980s is considered as the

second wave of feminism. The second wave of feminism began
in the United States of America and spread to the other western
countries. During the second wave of feminism the feminist
movement emphasised on gender equality in laws and culture.
Feminist movement during this period raised awareness about
sexism and patriarchy, gender based violence, domestic abuse
and marital rape. During this period distinction was made gender
and sex. It also stressed on legalising abortion and birth control.
The feminists associated with the second wave explored various
dimensions of female subordination. They emphasised on various
factors which are associated with female subordination, such
as- control of men over reproductive technologies, social
practices that always keep women in the private sphere. One
very famous feminist associated with this wave of feminism was
Simone de Beauvoir. Simone de Beauvoir's famous book The
Second Sex is considered as one of the foundational texts for
the feminist thought. During this period the feminists argued that
women must realise that their lives are deeply politicised and
this reflects sexist power structure. In this context, another
famous feminist Carol Hanisch coined the slogan "The Personal
is Politics" which was related to liberation of women.

2.7 POSSIBLE QUESTIONS

Q. 1 : Write briefly about the meaning of feminism.

Q. 2 : Who is the author of the book “A Room of One's Own”?
Q. 3 : Write about the fourth wave of feminism.
Q. 4 : Discuss the development of feminism with reference to the three
waves of feminism.

*** ***** ***

26 Women and Politics

UNIT 3: THEORIES OF FEMINISM
UNIT STRUCTURE

3.1 Learning Objectives

3.2 Introduction
3.3 Concept of Feminism
3.4 Theories of Feminism
3.4.1 Theory of Liberal Feminism
3.4.2 Theory of Marxist Feminism
3.4.3 Theory of Socialist Feminism
3.4.4 Theory of Radical Feminism
3.4.5 Theory of Cultural Feminism
3.4.6 Theory of Ecofeminism
3.4.7 Theory of Postmodern Feminism
3.4.8 Theory of Multicultural Feminism
3.4.9 Theory of Global Feminism
3.5 Let Us Sum Up
3.6 Further Reading
3.7 Answers To Check Your Progress
3.8 Possible Questions

3.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to-

 explain the concept of feminism
 describe the development of the concept of feminism
 discuss the various theories of feminism.

3.2 INTRODUCTION

This unit introduces you to one of the most important concepts in

political theory, namely, Feminism. Feminism is an Ideology. Feminism is a
movement which advocates equality between men and women. It seeks to
achieve justice and equal rights for women as that of men. In this unit we
shall discuss the various theories of feminism.

Women and Politics 27

Unit 3 Theories of Feminism

3.3 CONCEPT OF FEMINISM

Feminism is a revolt against patriarchy. It is a political movement and

an ideology which stands for equal rights of women. It considers the
relationship between the sexes as one of inequality, subordination and
oppression. The term ‘Feminism’ is derived from the Latin word ‘femina’
meaning women ‘having the qualities of women’. It began to be used in the
1980s with reference to the theory of sexual inequality and the movement for
women’s rights. In a broader sense, feminism means advocacy of women’s
rights against inequality of sexes and in its narrower sense, the word refers
to everyone who is aware of, and seek an end to women’s subordination.
The feminist theory sees women and their situation as central to political
analysis. The feminists have highlighted the political relationship between
the sexes, the subordination of women and male supremacy in most, if not in
all, societies. The chief characteristic of feminism is that it regards gender
division as political rather than natural. It insists that politics is an activity
which takes place within all social groups including family. Thus, feminism
stands for equal female emancipation, freedom from sex-determined roles,
freedom to express opinion and freedom from oppressive restrictions. It is,
thereby, an ideology whose goal is to remove discriminations against women
and to break down the male dominance in society.

Although the term feminism belongs to the twentieth century, feminist

views were expressed as early as the ancient civilisations of Greece, China
and India. Respect for women had been a chief characteristic of the oriental
societies. In medieval Europe, the defenders of women’s nature included
Jean de Meung, Cristane de Pisan, Marie de Gournay, Aphra Behn and
Mary Astel. Infact, Christine de Pisan’s book Book of the City of Ladies
(1405) foreshadowed many of the ideas of modern feminism. However, it
was only in the 19th century that an organised women’s movement developed.
Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792) is a
noted contribution in this regard. The women’s movement acquired a central
point indicated by campaign for women suffrage in the mid 19th century.
This period is known as ‘First wave’ of feminism. The ‘second wave’ of

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Theories of Feminism Unit 3

feminism emerged since 1960s through Betty Friedan’s The Feminine

Mystique (1963), Kate Millet’s Sexual Politics (1985) and Germaine Greer’s
The Female Eunuch (1970). During this period political emancipation of
women and their liberation became the main objectives of feminism. The
third wave feminism developed in the 1990s with various new issues and
trends such as postmodern feminism, global feminism, black feminism,
etc.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.1: What is meant by the term Feminism?

...........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
Q.2: The term feminism has been derived from the
……………………….. word. (Fill in the blank)
Q.3: Who is the author of the book “A Vindication of the Rights of
Women”?
............................................................................................................

3.4 THEORIES OF FEMINISM

In this section we shall discuss various theories of feminism.

3.4.1 Theory of Liberal Feminism

Feminism has fragmented itself into a number of schools of

thought. One of such schools of thought is the theory of liberal
feminism. Liberal feminism is based on the principle of individualism.
It believes that all human beings are equally important, and therefore,
all are equal. There should be equal rights for all the people without
any discrimination. All the people should enjoy equal opportunities to
participate in the public sphere. Therefore, any form of discrimination
against women in this respect should be clearly prohibited. Mary

Women and Politics 29

Unit 3 Theories of Feminism

Wollstonecraft in her work A Vindication of the Rights of Women

(1792) argued that women should be entitled to same rights as on the
ground of being ‘human’. She advocated equal education for men and
women as that would lead to the cultivation of their rational and moral
qualities which would be beneficial for the welfare of the society. Other
liberal feminist scholars such as J.S. Mill, Harriet Taylor and Betty Friedan
also talks about equal rights of women as men and thereby combined
gender justice based on humanism. They strongly advocated equal
political rights and economic opportunities for men and women. The
first wave of feminism overlaps with liberal feminism roughly from the
period 1830-1930. During this period many developments took place
around the world such as American Declaration of Independence,
French Revolution which provided the basis for many liberal beliefs
such as individual rights, liberty, equality, government formation with
the consent of the people etc. Liberal feminism was also based on
these values. The central idea of liberal feminism is individualism. Every
person has the right to develop his/her personality.
However, liberal feminism is essentially reformist. They do not
wish to abolish the distinction between public and private spheres of
life. Rather they actually seek to open up public life so that each
individuals i.e., both men and women get equal chance to participate
in public life.

3.4.2 Theory of Marxist Feminism

Influenced by Marxism, Marxist feminism believes that

empowerment and equality for women cannot be achieved within the
framework of capitalism. The Marxist feminists argue that working
class women are subjected to exploitation due to capitalism. Their
inequality is rooted not only in political and legal structure but also in
social and economic structure. Women are in a disadvantageous
position due to the emergence of private property and their lack of
ownership of means of production. Capitalism is based on private
property which leads to class exploitation. Women helped the

30 Women and Politics

Theories of Feminism Unit 3

sustenance of a capitalist society by reproducing and nurturing the

labour force through their unpaid domestic labour. They also socialise
the next generation of workers and provide service to the current
workers (their husbands). At the same time, they constitute a reserve
army of labour who are called upon to work at a very low wage when
there are insufficient male labourers. Thereby, they are taken
temporarily by the bourgeoise when necessary to make production
more flexible. Friedrich Engels noted contribution The Origin of the
Family, Private Property and the State looked at the conditions of
working class families , particularly women and thus says that both
capitalism and private property had led to the erosion of the ‘mother
right’ leading to the defeat of the female sex. Thus, Marxist feminists
regard class and gender inequalities as dual systems of oppression,
both of which reinforce each other and create group divisions that are
doubly oppressed. Thus, it believes that the end of capitalism would
lead to an end in class division which would eventually end all forms
of gender oppression from the society.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.4: What is meant by Liberal feminism?

....................................................................................................
.............................................................................................
Q.5: Write the names of two liberal feminist thinkers.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
Q.6: What, according to Marxist feminism, is the main cause of
women's oppression?
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
Q.7: Who wrote the book The Origin of the Family, Private Property
and the State?
..............................................................................................................

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Unit 3 Theories of Feminism

3.4.3 Theory of Socialist Feminism

The socialist feminist approach is partially influenced by Marxist

theory. However, there is difference between these two streams of
feminism on the ground that while Marxist feminism regards capitalism
and the class division behind women oppression, socialist feminism,
on the other hand, asserts that women are subjected to oppression
both by capitalist forces and patriarchal structure. Women are thus
seen as subjected to both classism and sexism. Socialist feminism
draws attention to issues such as reproduction, sexuality, gender
socialisation, class conflict etc. Marx, Engels, Juliet Mitchell, Hei
Hartman and Zillah Eisenstein are some of the eminent socialist
feminist writers. Socialist feminists consider that unequal position of
women in both the workplace and domestic areas has put them in a
disadvantageous position. They perceive that prostitution, domestic
work, marriage, child bearing and child rearing are ways through which
women are put in a secondary position. The patriarchal system
devaluates women and the work they do through institutionalised
mechanism and practices. Women have to be dependent on men for
opportunities and resources and thereby under the control of men.
Therefore, liberation of women is possible through overthrowing of
capitalism and also patriarchy and its institutions have to be rooted
out from our society.

3.4.4 Theory of Radical Feminism

Radical feminism is another branch of feminism that was formed

during the second wave feminism since 1960’s. The Radical feminists
opine that patriarchy is the main force behind women’s oppression.
They view society as fundamentally a patriarchy in which men
dominate, oppress and exploit women both within the public and
private sphere. In her famous essay “A Room of One’s Own” (1929),
Virginia Woolf dwelled on how men socially and psychologically
dominate women. The patriarchal structures prevent equal

32 Women and Politics

Theories of Feminism Unit 3

participation of women in the social, economic and political systems.

Simon de Beauvoir, a French novelist and author of the book The
Second Sex (1949) asserted that ‘A Woman is not born but made’.
She argued that the dependent and derivative status of woman ‘as
the other of man’ was the product of her upbringing in society.
Therefore, she argued that a change in the status and lifestyle will
uplift her position in the society. Kate Millet in her Sexual Politics argued
that patriarchal powers have military and financial means. The process
of domination and control is the result of socialisation process.
Similarly, Firestone in The Dialectic of Sex (1972) claimed that the
basis of women’s subordination is biological. Particularly, the child
bearing and child rearing role of women make them dependent on
men and also creates a division of labour in the society. Thus she
argues that women should be freed from this role of child bearing and
rearing through the use of modern technologies such as contraception,
abortion and artificial reproduction.

Thus, radical feminism sought to provide radical changes in the

society by overthrowing patriarchy. With their famous slogan ‘the
personal is political’, radical feminists vehemently opposed the
exclusion of women from the public space. At the same time they
tried to bring the personal experiences of women into the public sphere
by repudiating the public-private dichotomy.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.8: What is the main difference between Marxist

feminism and Socialist feminism?
......................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
Q.9: What is the main reason of women oppression according to
Radical feminism?

Women and Politics 33

Unit 3 Theories of Feminism

..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
Q.10: The Radical feminist raised the slogan of ………......………. .
(Fill in the blank)
Q.11: Who is the author of the book Sexual Politics?
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................

3.4.5 Theory of Cultural Feminism

Cultural feminism is developed from radical feminism. ‘The term

cultural feminism’ was propounded by Brooke Williams who
considered it as an offshoot of Radical feminism. The cultural feminists
argue that the main cause of women’s oppression is biological. The
sexuality of women is controlled by men through the institutions of
marriage and family. The cultural feminists had emphasised on the
‘sex roles’ which is rooted in the pattern of male and female behaviour.
They believe that the institutions of marriage, family, prostitution and
heterosexuality all exist to perpetuate the ‘sex role system’. Therefore,
they demand that women should be given freedom such as
reproduction freedom, child birth, abortion, sterilization or birth etc. In
short, women should be given free choices regarding her body. They
also revealed that male culture has changed women’s bodies into
objects of male desire. Thus the cultural feminists consider women
as individuals, not a class or race. The primary aim of cultural
relativism is to destroy this sex class system.
The cultural feminists also believe that women are more
evolved than men. They assert that women’s differences are not only
unique but also superior to men. Cultural feminism emphasises
differences between men and women, based on biological differences
in reproductive capacity and thereby attributes those differences
distinct and superior. Both men and women possess certain attributes

34 Women and Politics

Theories of Feminism Unit 3

which are different in its essence and are inherent. Thus, cultural
feminism commends the positive aspects of women. They believe in
equal partnership of men and women who have separate existence
and different basic function.

3.4.6 Theory of Ecofeminism

Ecofeminism, also known as ecological feminism, is a new form

of feminist thought. It emerged in the mid 1970’s along with second
wave of feminism and green movement. This movement gained
momentum in the recent decades in the form of innumerable protests
against the burning problem of environmental degradation. The
interconnectedness between woman and nature has its historical
roots from the organic to the mechanistic world. Both nature and
woman have some similar characteristics. Both can make a man
happy, unhappy or infatuated. Moreover both are reproductive and
creative in nature. Thus, Ecofeminism sees a connection between
the exploitation and degradation of natural environment on the one
hand and oppression and exploitation of women on the other.
Ecofeminism is an ideology that aims at the preservation and
protection of the earth and the mankind through sustainable means
of existence and development. The earth cannot be seen merely as a
source of raw materials but as the sole haven for animate and
inanimate forms of existence. According to Ecofeminism, there is a
similarity between man’s attitude towards nature and woman in a
patriarchal society. Like nature woman has also been objectified and
subordinated in patriarchy. Women are merely reduced to a
commodity to be acquired, possessed and exploited. The term was
coined by French Feminist Francoise d’Eaubonne in 1974. In her
controversial book Feminism or Death, she raised the issue of
ecofeminism. The earth was appropriated by male. This male society
took over the administration of the earth with competition, aggression
and sexual hierarchy as the basic features. Thus mother earth also
experienced the pangs of phallocracy (idea of male being superior).

Women and Politics 35

Unit 3 Theories of Feminism

Male superiority is continued in woman’s life through the institution of

family. Exploitation and subjugation of women in a patriarchal society
is closely connected with the domination and massive exploitation of
nature by human beings. Just as women’s domination is detrimental
to society, similarly exploitation of nature is detrimental to the biotic
community.
Thus Ecofeminism is seen as a solution for this patriarchal
society. It envisages an egalitarian world. The dignity of the human
being should be recognised irrespective of the person’s sex.
Therefore, Ecofeminism strives to rule out domination and exploitation
of women and nature and thereby helps to develop a caring, loving
and sympathetic attitude towards all forms of life.

3.4.7 Theory of Postmodern Feminism

Postmodern feminism is a combination of feminism and

postmodernism. It has emerged as a branch of feminism only in the
last few decades. Postmodernism rejects all feminist thoughts, ideas
and meanings which give a single explanation for women’s oppression
or suggest steps for women’s liberation. Thus, postmodern feminism
promotes the idea of plurality, multiplicity and difference. Its goal is to
destabilise the patriarchal norms entrenched in societies that have
led to gender inequality. It, therefore, embraces the differences that
exist amongst women as they believe that a universal truth cannot be
applied to all women in society. Postmodern feminism departs from
other branches of feminism on the argument that gender is
constructed through language. In her book, Gender Trouble (1990),
Judith Butler criticises the distinction drawn by previous feminists
between biological sex and socially constructed gender. For Butler
‘woman’ is a debatable category, complicated by class, ethnicity, and
other facets of identity. Thus, there is no single cause for women’s
subordination and no single approach to deal with the issue. The
postmodern feminism criticised mainstream feminism as being too
narrow and inattentive to related issues of race and class. It accepts
diversity, multiple truths, multiple roles and multiple realities.

36 Women and Politics

Theories of Feminism Unit 3

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.12: W ho propounded the term 'Cultural

Feminism'?
....................................................................................
Q.13: Who coined the term 'Ecofeminism'?
.............................................................................................................
Q.14: What is the main idea of postmodern feminism?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
Q.15: Who is the author of the book “Gender Trouble”?
.............................................................................................................

3.4.8 Theory of Multicultural Feminism

Multicultural feminism is a practice of feminism, developed by

Third World women. It mainly questions liberal feminism which is
largely a product of the West. Like liberal feminism, multicultural
feminism seeks the betterment of the lives of women but unlike the
former, it does not see that the path to it is the same for all women.
Multicultural feminism seeks to empower women within the context
of their particular societies and cultures. It takes an interdisciplinary
cross-cultural approach to the study of women from diverse racial,
ethnic, sexual and class background. Multicultural feminism
acknowledges the social construction of differently situated social
groups. Each person experiences gender, class, sexuality and race
unique to their environment, thus there is no single identity and entity.
Its main goal is to increase awareness among women of all races
about their commonalities and differences that they experience.
Women in different parts of the world experience different forms of
oppression and discrimination. For example, an African women
experience a complete different form of challenge than an Asian
woman. Race, class, gender, that is, the various issues of
Women and Politics 37
Unit 3 Theories of Feminism

oppression are all interconnected. Therefore, multiculturalism

recognises the different experiences of challenges faced by women
throughout the world. Thus, it is very important to examine the
structures of domination in order to understand the social construction
of gender.

3.4.9 Theory of Global Feminism

Global feminism, also known as International feminism, is an

inclusive feminist theory which seeks to ensure a better understanding
of gender inequality. It believes that women in every corner of the
society without any discrimination on the basis of race, religion,
culture, community should be entitled with equal rights and
opportunities. The movement of global feminism was started by Annie
Lennox.

Throughout the world women are treated as a secondary citizen.

Though women constitute half of the world’s population yet they are
worse positioned in social, political and economic hierarchies. She
has to suffer from numerous atrocities both in private and public sphere.
However, women experience different form of inequalities on the basis
of race, ethnicity, class, income, etc. Women remain affected by
poverty, discrimination and exploitation. Though they constitute half
of the work forces yet they are paid less than men. In terms of
education, job, resources, political activities, economic opportunities
women lack much behind her male counterpart. Moreover, she has
to suffer from sexual harassment, domestic violence, rape, trafficking
or other forms of gender based violence. Thus, global feminism has
been critical of the earlier notion of ‘global or universal sisterhood’ and
its uncritical attachment to commonalities of women’s oppression
around the world.

Apart from the above mentioned theories, there are also other
theories associated with feminism, such as –black feminism, post-
colonial and third world feminism etc. Black feminism argues that

38 Women and Politics

Theories of Feminism Unit 3

exploitation of women is interlinked with other factors too. According

to it sexism, class oppression and racism are interconnected. The
post-colonial feminism argues that women in post colonial societies
are subject to exploitation and oppression due to colonial experience,
such as racial, ethnic and class oppression. The post-colonial
feminists rejected portrayals of women of non western societies as
passive and voiceless victims of patriarchal oppression and western
women as modern, educated and empowered. The third world
feminism criticises the western notion of feminism which does not
take into account the unique experiences and factors of women of
third world countries.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.16: Multicultural feminism is developed by

…………………………. (Fill in the blank)

Q.17: What is the main goal of Multicultural feminism?

.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
Q.18: Global feminism was started by ……………………………....
(Fill in the blank)
Q.19: Global feminism is also known as ………………………………..
(Fill in the blank)

3.5 LET US SUM UP

 Derived from the Latin word 'femina', feminism is an ideology which

stands for equal rights for women. Feminism stands for equal female
emancipation, freedom from sex determined roles, freedom to express
opinion and freedom from oppressive restrictions.
 There are three waves of feminism. First wave developed in the 19th
century. The second wave developed in the late 1960's and the third
wave in 1990's.

Women and Politics 39

Unit 3 Theories of Feminism

 Liberal feminism argues that since all men and women are born equal
by nature, therefore, women should be entitled to the same rights and
opportunities like men. They do not wish to abolish the distinction
between public and private spheres of life.
 Marxist feminism believes that women face a disadvantageous position
due to capitalism and private property. End of capitalism would lead to
end of gender oppression.
 Socialist feminism, assert that women are subjected to oppression
both by capitalist forces and patriarchal structure. Women are thus
seen as subjected to both classism and sexism.
 The Radical feminists opine that patriarchy is the main force behind
women's oppression. They view society as fundamentally a patriarchy
in which men dominate, oppress and exploit women both within the
public and private sphere.
 The Cultural feminists argue that the main cause of women's oppression
is biological. The sexuality of women is controlled by men through the
institutions of marriage and family and had emphasised on the 'sex roles'
which is rooted in the pattern of male and female behavior.
 Ecofeminism is an ideology which establishes a relation between
environment and women. Both experience exploitation and degradation
caused by male.
 Postmodern feminism is a combination of feminism and
postmodernism and promotes the idea of plurality, multiplicity and
difference. Its goal is to destabilise the patriarchal norms entrenched
in societies that have led to gender inequality.
 Multicultural feminism seeks to empower women within the context of
their particular societies and cultures. It takes an interdisciplinary cross-
cultural approach to the study of women from diverse racial, ethnic,
sexual and class background.
 Global or international feminism rejects the notion of 'global sisterhood'
and thus tries to ensure equal rights for women understanding the
problem of gender intersecting with race, sexuality, class, income,
religion etc.
40 Women and Politics
Theories of Feminism Unit 3

3.6 FURTHER READING

1) Arora, N.D & Awasthy, S.S. (2004). Political Theory. New Delhi: Har
Anand Publications Pvt. Ltd.
2. Bhasin, Kamala. (2002). Understanding Gender. New Delhi: Kali for
Women.
3) Gauba, O.P. (2019). Political Ideas and Ideologies. Delhi: Macmillan
Publishers India Ltd.

3.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: Feminism is a revolt against patriarchy. It is a political

movement and ideology which stands for equal rights of women.
It sees the relationship between the sexes as one of inequality,
subordination and oppression. The term 'Feminism' is derived
from the Latin word 'femina' meaning women originally meant
'having the qualities of women'.
Ans to Q No 2: Latin.
Ans to Q No 3: Mary Wollstonecraft.
Ans to Q No 4: Liberal Feminism stands for equal chance of both men and
women to participate in public life.
Ans to Q No 5: J.S. Mill, Harriet Taylor.
Ans to Q No 6: Capitalism.
Ans to Q No 7: Friedrich Engels.
Ans to Q No 8: While Marxist feminism regards capitalism and the class
division behind women oppression, socialist feminism, on the
other hand, asserts that women are subjected to oppression
both by capitalist forces and patriarchal structure.
Ans to Q No 9: Patriarchy.
Ans to Q No 10: Personal is Political.

Women and Politics 41

Unit 3 Theories of Feminism

Ans to Q No 11: Kate Millet.

Ans to Q No 12: Brooke Williams.
Ans to Q No 13: Francoise d'Eaubonne
Ans to Q No 14: Postmodern Feminism rejects universal truth and accepts
diversity among women.
Ans to Q No 15: Judith Butler.
Ans to Q No 16: Third World Women.
Ans to Q No 17: The main goal of Multicultural feminism is to increase
awareness among women about their commonalities and
differences.
Ans to Q No 18: Annie Lenox.
Ans to Q No 19: International Feminism.

3.8 POSSIBLE QUESTIONS

Q. 1 : What is the Latin origin of the term 'Feminism'?

Q. 2 : Who is the author of “Book of the City of Ladies”?
Q. 3 : What are the three waves of Feminism?
Q. 4 : Write a brief note on Marxist feminism.
Q. 5 : What is the main difference between Radical feminism and Liberal
feminism?
Q. 6 : Write briefly about Socialist feminism.
Q. 7 : Write a short note on Ecofeminism.
Q. 8 : Discuss the theories of Liberal, Socialist and Marxist Feminism in
detail.
Q. 9 : Discuss in detail the theory of Cultural, Multicultural and Postmodern
Feminism.

*** ***** ***

42 Women and Politics

UNIT 4: GENDER MAINSTREAMING AND
GENDER BUDGETING
UNIT STRUCTURE

4.1 Learning Objectives

4.2 Introduction
4.3 Concept of Gender Mainstreaming
4.3.1 Importance of Gender Mainstreaming
4.4 Concept of Gender Budgeting
4.4.1 Importance of Gender Budgeting
4.5 Let Us Sum Up
4.6 Further Reading
4.7 Answers to Check Your Progress
4.8 Possible Questions

4.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to-

 explain the meaning of Gender Mainstreaming
 discuss the importance of Gender Mainstreaming
 explain the meaning of Gender Budgeting
 discuss the importance of Gender Budgeting.

4.2 INTRODUCTION

The concepts of Gender Mainstreaming and Gender Budgeting

became prominent since the early 20th century. Gender Budgeting has
been considered a powerful element for achieving gender mainstreaming
ideas. Gender budgeting process helps in focusing gender dimensions of
government as well as non-governmental budget and proceedings. A
gender responsive budget can further eliminate gender inequalities with
significant enhancement of social and economic indicators across the
country. It has intrinsic and instrumental applicability. Gender
mainstreaming asks for equal representation and presence of both male

Women and Politics 43

Unit 4 Gender Mainstreaming and Gender Budgeting

and female while finalising any policy decisions. It further intensifies the
value of diversity in decision making.

4.3 CONCEPT OF GENDER MAINSTREAMING

The concept of gender mainstreaming is being generally used in

public policy. Gender mainstreaming asks for the assessment of different
policy actions including the legislation and other programmes in every
level of human life. Generally, gender mainstreaming is associated with
the pluralistic dimension. This pluralistic dimension tries to present and
value the mosaic culture and diversity among the people of different genders
around the globe. If we analyse the history of gender mainstreaming, then
it can be traced back to the third World Conference on Women at Nairobi,
Kenya in 1985 . The soul institution behind this initiate was United Nations
development community. Further, the idea was formerly structured at the
fourth World Conference on Women at Beijing, China in 1995 and the
action plan started from that period, known as Beijing platform for action.

The UN Economic and Social Council formally defined that gender

mainstreaming or mainstreaming a gender perspective is a process of
assessment of the implications of planned actions, policies, legislation,
etc. on both men and women. This tries to portray both the men and
women as the main subject matter of policy making and policy
implementation. It also tries to enhance strategies for making both the
sections as an integral dimension of the policy designing and implementing
at all spheres including political, economic and social. The UN Economic
and Social Council has mentioned that the ultimate goal of gender
mainstreaming is to achieve gender equality at all levels. Gender
mainstreaming takes into account the interests and concerns both women
and men. Again in 1998, the Council of Europe defined gender
mainstreaming as "the (re)organisation, improvement, development and
evaluation of policy process, so that a gender equality perspective is
incorporated in all policies and at all spheres." Women and men have
different needs, living conditions, different state of affairs, unequal access

44 Women and Politics

Gender Mainstreaming and Gender Budgeting Unit 4

to power structure, resources, etc.; the situations of women and men are
different and varies from country to country. Therefore, the aim of gender
mainstreaming is to take into account these pluralities while making and
implementing policies. It tries to benefit both the sections and to minimise
the gender inequality. Hence, it is a tool for achieving gender equality too.
Many a times the research works find that public policies have always
been based on the needs of the dominant group of the society and runs in
accordance with the traditional decision makers (the men).
Simultaneously, the women movements have also noticed that the main
root of absence of women in all spheres is a result of gendered policy
making and decisions. They are of the view that women's absence in
decision making, human rights' violation, have their origin in policy making
process only. The decisions in public policies and services do not allocate
funds in appropriate way and this ultimately lead to inappropriate solutions.
Therefore, gender mainstreaming is an inclusive strategy that aims to
integrate people. It says that women does not belong to the vulnerable
section and they bears the considerable position in society too.

Therefore, the supporters of gender mainstreaming are of the view

that gender equality issues need to be mainstreamed at all stages of policy
making. They believe that gender analysis and gender impact
assessments are the crucial tools in the process of gender mainstreaming.
Gender mainstreaming is a responsibility of all actors for proper
implementation of gender justice and quality. It is a long-term strategy
that goes along with gender justice. If it is implemented properly then
gender mainstreaming can be a transformative approach for social change
and development. Therefore, there is a requirement of gender
mainstreaming and specific measures for the development of women.
And accordingly such dual approach has been implemented in the UN
2030 Agenda for sustainable development. This agenda includes a
standalone goal on gender equality and the empowerment of women as
well as girls (SDG-5). The concept of gender mainstreaming has been
acclaimed as an international strategy for gender equality as it embraces

Women and Politics 45

Unit 4 Gender Mainstreaming and Gender Budgeting

the integration of a gender perspective into the preparation, implementation

and evaluation of policies. Gender mainstreaming has two dimensions
which are required to fulfil its goals. Firstly, inclusion of gender in the policy
making and policy implementation. And secondly, the issue of
representation of both men and women in the concerned area. The
supporters of gender mainstreaming have asked to take these two
dimensions seriously during policy making process.

For the proper implementation of gender mainstreaming, certain key

elements are needed. Firstly, there has to be a plan for the implementation
of gender mainstreaming and secondly, to execute such plan we need
sufficient resources. An effective gender mainstreaming requires
budgetary ordinances and time frame. And for such matter, resources
should be made available. Thirdly, the essential involvement of the
stakeholder, as they are the primary actors in the policy process. Fourthly,
there has to be some kind of monitoring and evaluation process to examine
such policies. Fifthly, building up a knowledge hub is essential to
understand the prospects of gender mainstreaming. And lastly, we need
gender expertise to evaluate such process. European Union has said
that gender mainstreaming is not a policy goal, but it is a means to achieve
gender equality. Therefore, since 1996, this institution has committed itself
to a "dual approach" for increasing gender equality. At the European level,
the EU institutions take the responsibility of gender mainstreaming. At the
national level, it is up to the governments of member states. Though it is
also the responsibility of every individuals working in that specific area,
yet at the governmental level, specific structures should be established
with the appointment of responsible person. Gender mainstreaming
requires a multi-stage cycle, including defining, planning, implementing,
monitoring, evaluating, etc. This multi stage cycle can be presented into
various public policy process. In each stage specific gender
mainstreaming methods and cycles should be taken under consideration.
This cycle may start from defining, planning, acting and checking. The
concept of gender mainstreaming got prominence with the signing of
Treaty of Rome in 1957. The treaty incorporated the principle of equal pay

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Gender Mainstreaming and Gender Budgeting Unit 4

for equal work. In 1996, the European Commission's communication

specified on incorporating equal opportunities for women and men in all
policies. In 1999, with the treaty of Amsterdam the legal basis got
empowered. It substantially strengthened the legal foundation for
community policies. Article 2 and 3 of the treaty dealt with the commitment
of the community to gender mainstreaming. In 2003, the European
Parliament took a resolution on gender mainstreaming. It adhered to timely
adoption and implementation of policy plan for gender mainstreaming.
During 2006-2010, European Union made a roadmap for equality between
men and women. For example, they gave importance on equal
representation in decision making, gender violence, stereotypes beliefs
etc. In 2006, the first European pact for gender equality was made. In
2007, treaty on the functioning of the European Union presented the legal
base on sex, racial discrimination, etc. In 2009, under the treaty of Lisbon,
non-discrimination principle and equality between women and men were
given preference. Under the strategy for equality between women and
men (2010-2015) priorities had been given for equal economic
independence, equal pay for equal work, etc. The charter of fundamental
rights adhered to the principle of non-discrimination based on any ground.
The European pact for gender equality (2011-2020) adopted the equality
between women and men as the fundamental value of the European Union.
In Article 23 of the Charter, it said about gender equality. The strategic
engagement for gender equality (2016-2019) has identified five priority
areas. These includes equality in decision making process, equal pay for
equal work, promoting gender equality, etc. For a successful gender
mainstreaming strategy, a concise political commitment, a legal framework
and an action plan are required.
Five Principles of Gender Mainstreaming:

There are some principles of gender mainstreaming. Broadly it has

been divided into five categories:

1) Use of gender sensitive language: The first and foremost principle

of gender mainstreaming is gender sensitive language. Every text

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Unit 4 Gender Mainstreaming and Gender Budgeting

should refer both women and men and should make both categories
equally important.

2) Proper gender specific data collection and its analysis: All the
data collection processes should be gender specific and a neutral
phenomenon should be adopted. From collecting the data to the
analysis of those data, it should be presented by both the sections of
the society.

3) Equal access and utilisation of services: All services and products

should be properly assessed so that we can receive the different
effects of these services over both men and women.

4) Decision making process: In all decision making processes men

and women should give equal importance. A balanced gender ration
should be taken at all the levels of decision making process.

5) Equal treatment: Strategies should be made in each government

policies to include quality management and equal treatment of each
sections of the society.

Again, there can be three steps for Gender Mainstreaming-

1) Gender analysis: Any institution or government / nongovernmental

process must always proceed with analysing gender at its core.

2) How to achieve the goal: All institutions should work on some

relevant areas and must adhere to achieve those goals.

3) Main steps: Integrating with everyday policy, targeting the specific

groups and engage in dialogue with every group or institution.

4.3.1 Importance of Gender Mainstreaming

Gender Mainstreaming is not a goal but a process that deals

with the equal representation of both men and women in policy making.
It ensures that every policy making and legislative work carries a higher
value and relevance in the society. These policies aim to fulfil the
needs of every citizen including men and women. Therefore, gender
mainstreaming enhances the equality between men and women and

48 Women and Politics

Gender Mainstreaming and Gender Budgeting Unit 4

ensures for making every policy more effective and equal. It not only
aims to enhance equality but also questions the existing state of affairs
and tries to solve the problem. Rather it tries to develop policies which
aim to mitigate the inequalities and proceed for development. Again, it
helps to understand the needs between men and women. So gender
mainstreaming includes those activities which can benefit both men
and women. It is a process of assessing the implications of any policies
or programmes for women and men. Through assessment, there
can be gender-centric analysis in every policy making, designing,
implementing and monitoring and evaluating policies in all socio-
economic programmes. Gender mainstreaming is, therefore, the way
of realising and implementing gender equality. It offers a definite
perspective for both men and women in policy making process, by
reducing discrimination. Most government institutions and policy
implementing bodies are dominated by men and this assessment
has been providing a ground for equal treatment of both the two
sectors. It also prevents the continuation of inequalities in policy making
and policy implementation which can have negative impact on all the
members of the political community. It ensures that mostly all the
policies are of a higher standard and upholds equality. It makes sure
that every policy should respond properly according to the needs of
the majority of people rather than just men. Gender mainstreaming is
important at all levels of government. It is a critical step in building a
more equal world, where everyone has the same opportunity and
access to the policies.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.1: Gender Mainstreaming tries to enhance

…………………… . (Fill in the blank)
Q.2: State the component of the UN 2030 Agenda
related to women.
…............................................................................................................

Women and Politics 49

Unit 4 Gender Mainstreaming and Gender Budgeting

............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
Q.3: Why is the Beijing conference considered an important milestone
with regard to gender mainstreaming?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
Q.4: Mention any two principles of gender mainstreaming.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

4.4 CONCEPT OF GENDER BUDGETING

Gender budgeting is the most important issue in the contemporary

era. Before studying gender budgeting, we should know what budget is.
Budget is a financial plan or estimate for a definite time period that includes
revenues and expenses. It allows for allocating the money for a specific
purpose. A mature and disciplined budget can transform the economy of a
country into a successful one. It is the estimate of income and expenditure
for a particular time period.

Gender budget is not a separate budget. Gender budget gives

adherence to a gender perspective view while preparing and analysing
budgets. It does not signify a separate budget for women, but it allows us to
think and analyse the budget from the gender perspective. It does not identify
a separate budget for men and women. Rather, it is an approach in planning,
executing, observing and analysing the budget within the frame of gender.
Gender budget tries to establish gender justice in the society. It is considered
as a means to examine whether the budget gives importance to women,
whether the authority are ensuring the budgetary goals enriched in the budget
or not. It tries to diminish the gender discrimination. It also guarantees to
enhance the potency that helps in empowerment of women by analysing

50 Women and Politics

Gender Mainstreaming and Gender Budgeting Unit 4

the gender gap and gender injustice. The concept of gender budgeting is
known as women's budget, gender responsive budget, gender sensitive
budget, etc. It tries to reflect how women and men can positively avail the
benefit from a budget. The concept of gender budget started in Australia in
1984. During that time it was known as women's budget. The federal
government of Australia conducted a study to understand the impact of
provincial budget and local government budget upon women from 1984 to
1996 covering a period of almost 12 years. The study showed that there
has been a significant hike in gender budgeting allocation covering different
aspects of women. In Australia, gender budgeting has got tremendous
significance.

Gender budgeting is an important element for achieving gender

mainstreaming. It is an ongoing process helps in the visibility of women in
every sector including budget. It is an important part of budgeting that tries
to establish the gender impacts and gender commitments in the budgetary
process. Ministry of Women and Child Development, Govt. of Assam says
that the rationale for gender budgeting arises from recognition of the fact
that national budgets impact men and women differently through the pattern
of resource allocation. Though women constitute 48% of India's population,
but in many sectors they are lagging behind, for example, health, education,
economic opportunities, etc. Therefore, budget allocation and gender
budgeting has the plausible impact of gender inequalities of resource
allocation.

4.4.1 Importance of Gender Budgeting

The success of a state depends upon the concept of women

empowerment. Women are the backbone of a society. They also
constitute human resource. Women empowerment not only defines
the strength of a country but it is also important for the self-
development of women. Regarding the development of women, there
has arisen a huge discrepancy due to the gender biasness.
Therefore, gender mainstreaming is a process that tries to diminish

Women and Politics 51

Unit 4 Gender Mainstreaming and Gender Budgeting

these discrepancies and concentrates more on the development of

women as well as men in policy making. Also, it is a tool to strengthen
the image, status and equality of the women section. Firstly, gender
mainstreaming not only refers to expenditure but suggests how it
can be equitable to both men and women. Then only it will help in
efficient expenditure of resources. Secondly, this act can enhance
the equality of gender in budget making and implementing procedure.
Thirdly, to figure out and fulfil necessities of women there should be
a preferred expenditure. Fourthly, it can also create transparency in
decision making process by involving women. Fifthly, gender budget
gives importance to accuracy and sustainability in resource
utilisation. Hence, it figures out the odds that hampers in equal
distribution of resources and gives effect to accomplish such activity.
It is a strategy for achieving gender equality by focussing on fiscal
policies. After Australia, many countries around the world has
engaged themselves with such activities. It has elevated the status
of women and accordingly helps in empowering the women section.
In 1995, the South African government borrowed the concept of
gender budgeting and included it as the basic element to define their
budget. Subsequently, this gender budget was considered the main
component for the development of women. It also helped in
eradicating racial challenges. Later on, Tanzania and Uganda also
opted for gender budgeting in 1997 and 1999 respectively. Through
this gender budgeting, SAP policies were taken in Tanzania and
Uganda. Today, more than 60 nations give adherence to this concept.
Moreover, England, Korea and India have also promised to
implement this concept. India adopted a gender- enriched budgeting
in the 9th five year plan in 1998-2002. In that plan, gender equality
and women were the two most debated concepts; accordingly,
gender equality began to achieve prominence. In 2001, the
department of women and child development started the NIPFP,
that is the "The National Institute of Public Finance and Policy". In
2001, for the first time the economic survey adhered preference to

52 Women and Politics

Gender Mainstreaming and Gender Budgeting Unit 4

gender equality, women empowerment, etc. and these were

considered as the main aims of budgeting. Again, the finance
department formed a special expert group to fulfil these aims which
further led to the formation of Gender Budgeting Directorate (GBP)
to execute such objectives. In 2005-06, Indian Government took the
first gender budgeting and accordingly formed gender budget cell-
GBC's. According to the economic survey, the performance of
gender budgeting has improved in India since the last fifteen years,
but women are far lagging behind men.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.5: State the meaning of budget.

..........................................................................................
..........................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
Q.6: State the meaning of Gender Budgeting.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
Q.7: The concept of gender budgeting started in …………………..
(Fill in the blank)

4.5 LET US SUM UP

 In contemporary era, the issue of gender mainstreaming has been

found very relevant and essential while discussing the gender context.
Without the concept of gender mainstreaming, the development of
women is next to impossible. It has provided us a gender-centric policy
which can guide for the overall development and empowerment of
women as well as of men.

Women and Politics 53

Unit 4 Gender Mainstreaming and Gender Budgeting

 The concept gender mainstreaming is being generally used in public

policy. Gender mainstreaming asks for the assessment of different
policy actions including the legislation and other programmes in every
level of human life.
 It is a long term strategy that goes along with gender justice. If it is
implemented properly then gender mainstreaming can be a reformative
approach for social change and development. Therefore, there is a
requirement of gender mainstreaming and specific measures for the
development of women.
 Gender budget gives adherence to a gender perspective view while
preparing and analysing budgets. It does not signify a separate budget
for women, but it allows us to think and analyse the budget from a
gender- perspective. It does not identify a separate budget for men
and women. Rather, it is an approach in planning, executing, observing
and analysing the budget within the frame of gender.
 Gender Mainstreaming is a process that tries to diminish the
discrepancies and concentrate more on the development of women
as well as of men in policy making. Again, it is also a tool to strengthen
the image, status and equality of the women section.

4.6 FURTHER READING

1) Beauvoir, Simone de. (2015). The Second Sex. New Delhi: Vintage
Classics, India.
2) John, E. Mary. (2008). Women’s Studies in India, A Reader. New Delhi:
Penguin India.
3) Menon, Nivedita. (2012). Seeing like a Feminist. New Delhi: Penguin
India.
4) Menon, Nivedita and Nigam, Aditya. (2007). Power and Contestation.
New Delhi : Zed Books Ltd.
5) Edi. Menon, Nivedita. (2001). Gender and Politics in India. New Delhi:
OUP India.

54 Women and Politics

Gender Mainstreaming and Gender Budgeting Unit 4

4.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: equality between men and women.

Ans to Q No 2: The UN 2030 Agenda for sustainable development includes
a standalone goal on gender equality and the empowerment of
women as well as girls.
Ans to Q No 3: The Beijing Conference is being considered as an important
milestone with regard to gender mainstreaming, because the
action plan for gender mainstreaming started from that period.
Ans to Q No 4: (i) Use of gender sensitive language: The first and foremost
principle of gender mainstreaming is gender sensitive language.
Every text should refer both women and men and should make
both categories equally important.
(ii) Proper gender specific data collection and its analysis: All the
data collection processes should be gender specific and a neutral
phenomenon should be adopted. From collecting the data to the
analysis of those data, it should be presented by both the sections
of the society.
Ans to Q No 5: Budget is a financial plan or estimate for a definite time
period that include revenues and expenses.
Ans to Q No 6: Gender budgeting is a concept that gives adherence to a
gender perspective view while preparing and analysing budgets.
Ans to Q No 7: Australia in 1984.

4.8 POSSIBLE QUESTIONS

Q. 1 : Define Gender Mainstreaming.

Q. 2 : What is NIPFP?
Q. 3 : Mention five principles of Gender Mainstreaming.
Q. 4 : What are the three important steps of Gender Mainstreaming?
Explain.

Women and Politics 55

Unit 4 Gender Mainstreaming and Gender Budgeting

Q. 5 : Explain the meaning of Gender Budgeting.

Q. 6 : Make a note on the importance of Gender Budgeting for women
empowerment.
Q. 7 : How can Gender Mainstreaming be considered a tool to strengthen
the equality of women?

*** ***** ***

56 Women and Politics

UNIT 5: WOMEN'S MOVEMENTS
UNIT STRUCTURE

5.1 Learning Objectives

5.2 Introduction
5.3 Meaning of Women's Movements
5.4 Women's Movement: Historical Perspective
5.5 Women's Movements in India
5.6 Contemporary Movements
5.7 Women's Issues in South Asia
5.8 Let Us Sum Up
5.9 Further Reading
5.10 Answers to Check Your Progress
5.11 Possible Questions

5.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to-

 discuss the meaning of Women's Movements
 explain Women's Movements in India
 discuss various contemporary Women's Movements
 examine some of the important women's issues in South Asia.

5.2 INTRODUCTION

In the previous unit, you studied the "Gender mainstreams and

Gender Budgeting" as a political way of gender equality in the governmental
policy. In this unit, our attempt is to study the popular women's movement
with mass support and its achievements. In this unit we shall also discuss
the South-Asian women's issues of movements which are related with
the Indian society and shall try to highlight the position of women in
contemporary State system in South Asia with special emphasis on Indian
society.

Women and Politics 57

Unit 5 Women’s Movements

5.3 MEANING OF WOMEN'S MOVEMENTS

Women's movement is a movement to combat sexual discrimination

and to gain full legal, economic, vocational, educational, and social rights
and opportunities for women, equal to those of men. The Cambridge
dictionary defines the women's movement as- "those people whose social
and political aims are to change women's position in society and increase
knowledge about women's condition in society."
The women's movement (also known as the women's liberation
movement) refers to a series of political campaigns for reforms on issues
such as reproductive rights, domestic violence, maternity leave, equal pay,
women's suffrage, sexual harassment, and sexual violence, all of which fall
under the category of feminism and the feminist movement. The movement's
priorities vary among nations and communities, and range from opposition
to female genital mutilation in one country to opposition to the glass ceiling in
another. The modern women's movement has lobbied for, and brought about
a variety of social reforms. Issues of concern have included: pay equity,
pension benefits, affirmative action, day care, reproductive rights, domestic
and sexual violence, sexism and sex-role stereotyping, matrimonial property
rights, and women's representation in government.

LET US KNOW

Womanist, a term coined by the writer Alice Walker,

refers to the confidence, strength, and wisdom of
African-American women based in their cultures and
long struggle to support their children and communities and to end
racism and all forms of injustice

5.4 WOMEN'S MOVEMENT : HISTORICAL

PERSPECTIVE

While discussing the history of women's movement we can trace the

genesis of women's movement to the West. The western countries
experienced the emergence of women's movement in the late 18th century.

58 Women and Politics

Women’s Movements Unit 5

During that time women's movement centered around certain key issues,
such as- political rights, reproductive rights, domestic violence, equal pay
for equal work etc. The history of women's movement has been divided
into three waves, such - first wave, second wave and third wave.
The first wave women's or feminist movement refers to the movement
that took place in the 19th and early 20th century. During this period the
movement focused on women's right to vote and political equality. In 1848
the first women's rights convention was held in New York. At this Convention
the Declaration of Sentiment was signed which outlined agenda for women's
rights movement. The period of women's movement between 1960s to
1980s is considered as second wave of women's movement. During this
period, the women's movement focused on gender equality in law and
culture. One very famous feminist associated with this wave of feminism
was Simone de Beauvoir. During this period the movement encouraged
women to understand aspects of their personal lives as deeply politicised
and reflective of a sexist structure of power. A very strong slogan of the
second wave of feminism was " Personal is Political". The third wave of
women's movement began in the early 1990s. During this period emphasis
was given on developing different achievements of women in USA. However,
in the initial period development benefited mainly the white women of the
middle and upper classes. The World War II brought drastic changes in the
women's movement. This War brought many women, specially in USA,
into the employment scenario. Thus, the women's movement has passed
through various waves and phases and has been successful to a great
extent in addressing key issues associated with women.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.1: Write the meaning of women's movement.

............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
Q.2: What was the main demand of the first wave of feminism?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

Women and Politics 59

Unit 5 Women’s Movements

5.5 WOMEN'S MOVEMENTS IN INDIA

The development of women's movement in India is a remarkable event

in the Indian society. Women's movements in India focus on the socio-
political and religious laws which are discriminatory towards women. In the
Indian context, the movement is different in pre-independence period and
the post- independence which is discussed in briefly below.

In the pre-independence period it became a reform movement of

traditional society and struggle against the colonial power which was gripped
by the many socio-political evils about the women like - sati, dowry, child
marriage etc. Noted Indian political thinkers and reformers like- Raja Ram
Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Keshab Chandra Sen, Phule,
Pandita Ramabai, Swarnakumari Devi etc. tried to bring reforms the society.
Their efforts spanned action to abolish the practice of sati, the custom of
child marriage, the custom of disfiguring widows, the ban on the remarriage
of widows and a host of other evil practices that affected women. These
reformers were also actively engaged in advancing the status of women by
promoting their participation in politics and education, by obtaining for them
legal rights to property. Raja Ram Mohan Roy founded the Brahmo Samaj
in 1828. He fought against the evils of caste system and the oppression of
women. Vidyasagar took up the cause of widows, and started a movement
in support for remarriage in the 1850s. it resulted in Hindu Widows'
Remarriage Act of 1856. Keshab Chandra Sen was greatly interested in
social reforms. He basically talked about the status of women and removing
the inequalities of caste. The passing of the Brahmo Marriage Bill was the
greatest triumph in his career as a social reformer. As a result of this Act,
early marriage was abolished, polygamy was made penal offence and it
sanctioned widow remarriage and inter-caste marriages. Mahadeva Gobinda
Ranade who joined the Parthana Samaj in 1869, worked against social
evils such as child marriage, the purdah system and prohibition of widow-
remarriage. Swami Dayanand Saraswati, who founded Arya Samaj, too
opposed child marriage and supported widow remarriage and girl's
education. Vivekananda also emphasised on women's education. He

60 Women and Politics

Women’s Movements Unit 5

emphaised that women should be taught the value of liberty, self-initiative

and heroism. The women social reformer Maharani Tapasvini is reported
to have taken part in the Revolt of 1857. She is one of the prominent persons
who further the cause of women's education in Bangal. Pandita Ramabai
develop a series of "Mahila Samajs" in Bombay Presidency and also speared
the women's awareness about the society and social value among the
women's group and society to overcome the social evils. She also had
begun series of project involving girls schools, orphanages and widow's
home. Swarnakumari Devi formed the "Sakhi Samiti' to foster among Indian
women an active and enlightened interest in the welfare of the country.
Ramabai Rande supported the suffrage movement in India and she had
lead a number of meeting with demands for the right to vote. Thus, the
movement of pre-independence period was a kind of reform movement.
The first modern organisation, the Women's Indian Association,
formed in Madras in 1917 by Mrs. Margaret Cousins under the inspiration
and leader of Annie Besant. The Women's India Association, through their
campaign for suffrage, had acknowledged the inspiration received from the
movement for the right to vote in west. The All India Women Conference
(known as the Akhil Hind Mahila Parishad) was established in 1927 to
mobilise women for advancing their status through education, social reform
and politics. The All India Women's Conference, as an apex women's
organisation, played an important role in pressurising the colonial government
for giving women political and legal rights and amendments in Hindu laws
pertaining to marriage, divorce and property. However, as it was dominated
by Hindu women form upper and middle classes and castes, it locked the
mass base and refrained from mobilising the rural women or women from
the lower rank of society in its campaign against the orthodox Hindu laws
and practices. In practice , the dominant section of women's movement
during the colonial period shared views of the social reformers and Gandhi
on the status of women and did not question patriarchal social relations
within the family and society. Although the communist movement was
engaged in organising women workers on a small scale since the colonial
period, yet its influence on the early women's movement was very limited

Women and Politics 61

Unit 5 Women’s Movements

because gender issues were subordinated within its broader political agenda
of class struggle.
The concept of education as pre-requisite for women's equality was
in fact, the first demand of the earlier women's movement that developed
during the 1920's and 1930's. The first conference of the All India Women's
Conference in 1927 condemned the practice of early marriage as it interfaced
with women's education and emphasised the need for legal rights to deal
with obstacles to promote education for women. However, women's
education was eventually perceived as strengthening their roles within the
dominant ideological framework of social reformers and nationalist. The
nationalist movement laid the foundation of the principles of women's equality
and provided some legal rights in social, economic and political spheres
for women.
In the post- independence period, the women's movement raised a
number of issues, such as- demand of rights, political participation and
sometime ecological to give protection for the livelihood of inhabitants. After
independence, Indian women attained the bonafide citizenship of the new
nation. The Constitution of India not only provided equal rights and privileges
for men and women but also went a step further to make provisions for
special measures to be taken by the Government to improve the condition
of women by enacting separate laws and forming institutions. For achieving
the ideals of the Constitution it also incorporated Fundamental Rights and
Directive Principles of State Policy, more particularly Articles 14-16 to provide
equality before law, equal protection of law and equality of opportunity in
matters of public employment irrespective of caste, sex or place of birth.
Thus, the Constitution had once for all, settled the position of women in
society and this recognition of political equality of women was a radical
departure from the socio-cultural norms prevailing in traditional India.
After independence a vigorous women's movement had taken place
in India. Women from diverse castes, classes and communities participated
in the movement along with activists drawn from a variety of political trends,
parties and groups belonging to various ideologies making the movement
highly heterogeneous. By taking a look at the women's movement in India,

62 Women and Politics

Women’s Movements Unit 5

one becomes aware of the enormous variety of positions, ideologies,

strategies and mass bases. There are many debates going on around
unresolved issues and questions, lending a sort of vibrancy to the women's
movement. The positive achievement since independence is an important
factor balancing this debate and controversy. There is the need to celebrate
diverse strengths of the Indian women's movement especially its ability to
meet challenges from different quarters, that is, challenges from
communalism, caste movements etc.

5.6 CONTEMPORARY MOVEMENTS

In 21st century the world has been experiencing various movements

related to the issues of women. Among all the developing countries, India
has one of the most complex forms of patriarchal system. The contemporary
women's movement in India is one of the most growing movements in
developing countries, challenging caste, class, and gender inequalities. The
resurgence of the women's movement in the 1970s in the context of the
crisis of the state and the upsurge in social movements against growing
inequality marked a significant shift in the analysis and understanding of
women's issues and in redefining feminist politics. The proliferation of
women's action groups and grassroots organisations since the 1970s
reflects the diversity and complexity of the women's movement. The canvas
of the contemporary women's movement is very large. It has moved beyond
the traditional concerns with legislation, education and social welfare to a
wide range of issues, such as access to land and natural resources,
environmental degradation, media, reproductive health and population,
gender based violence, alcoholism, dowry-murders, rape, eve-teasing,
pornographic films, plays and literature on harassment of women at the
workplace etc. are the main issues of contemporary women's movements.

5.7 WOMEN'S ISSUES IN SOUTH ASIA

South Asia comprises eight different sovereign nations (India, Pakistan,

Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Afghanistan, Bhutan Maldives) with diverse
socio-cultural and ethnic populations, a range of religious faiths, legal frames,

Women and Politics 63

Unit 5 Women’s Movements

economic and political forces, all of which have impact upon the lives of
women living in the region. Within these diversities, the region stands together
on a number of counts and the women of South Asia too, face similar
conditions on various fronts. South Asia is a highly populated, agriculture
dependent, income poor and identified as the most deprived region in the
World. South Asia has produced important women politicians and heads of
states, while also being witness to some very brutal and harsh attacks on
women based on caste, ethnicity, language and religion. Resistance to such
assault and attack by women is slowly but surely changing the way women
see themselves, no longer as helpless victims but as agents of change and
empowerment. Further, the increasing role of religion in political mobilisations
in South Asia cannot be ignored. The situation of women in South Asia is
different and their participation political and social fields is increasing. This
assessment is undertaken on the basis of a select set of quantitative indicators
regarding their work, survival, health, education and political participation.
 Women's Work: The South Asia region as a whole has been
witnessing rising levels of women's economic participation over the
years. Nevertheless, the characteristics of women's labour, in terms
of the nature of tasks undertaken and the wages earned, remains by
and large unchanged. Majority of the women are undertaking manual,
non-mechanised, low or unpaid tasks. Even among those entering
the paid labour market, women face gender discrimination in access
to jobs and gender inequalities in payment and job security.
 Health Concerns: The overall lower status of women in South Asia
influences their health status too. In South Asian countries, marriages
are traditionally carried out at early ages with little choice being given
to women. The governments of most South Asian countries are actively
working towards preventing child marriages and increasing the
minimum age of marriage for girls. Bangladesh, India and Bhutan
have stipulated the legal minimum age at marriage at 18 years. Yet,
many marriages still continue to occur before girls attain the minimum
age as legally and statutorily fixed. Early marriage along with young
age pregnancies compounded by poor health and economic poverty

64 Women and Politics

Women’s Movements Unit 5

lays or adds to undue stress on women's bodies. Maternal mortality

rates are quite high in the region (HDSA, 2000). The probability of women
not surviving childbirth is further aggravated by a large proportion of
them having non-institutional deliveries, unaided by skilled personnel.
Only 36 per cent of South Asian babies are born with the assistance of
skilled personnel. In Sri Lanka and Maldives, the situation is relatively
better compared to other South Asia countries.
 Education: The importance of education for Human Development
as well as women empowerment as core dimension is well accepted
in South Asia too. Sri Lanka and Maldives are among the best
performing countries in the region. However, the gender biases at
higher educational levels, in professional courses or in non-traditional
subjects are visible even among these countries. There is a serious
problem regarding illiteracy among women. The governments of South
Asian countries have stressed the free and compulsory primary
education and tried to place emphasis on enrolment and retention of
girls in schools. Various incentive schemes such as scholarships for
girls, free school meals and separate schools for girls in each Thana
(Bangladesh) have been operational. Efforts have also been made to
increase female teachers in schools.
 Political Participation: In the South Asian region there are many
women leader who have been heads of the nation (Indira Gandhi,
Shaikh Hasina, Benazir Bhutto, Srimavo Bandaranaike and Chandrika
Kumaratunga). The general level of political participation among the
South Asian women does not reflect similar trends. Even in pockets
where the political awareness among women may be higher, their
actual participation is often limited by the constraints laid on their
mobility and roles based on the socio-cultural perceptions. The 73rd
and 74th Amendment Acts of the Indian provided for reservation of
one-third seats for women in its local governance structures and this
generated tremendous interest in the other countries of the region. In
1997, both Nepal and Bangladesh introduced women's reservation in
local bodies. While it was 20 percent in Nepal, in the case of

Women and Politics 65

Unit 5 Women’s Movements

Bangladesh it was one-third seats in all four tiers of local government.

In Pakistan also, one-third seats are reserved in local bodies, which
is visible in the current figures of women's political participation.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.3: Brahmo Samaj was founded in which year?

........................................................................................
Q.4: Write briefly about various social reform
movements that took place in India during the colonial period.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
Q.5: Write briefly about women's health scenario in South Asia.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................

5.8 LET US SUM UP

 Women's movement is a movement to combat sexual discrimination

and to gain full legal, economic, vocational, educational, and social
rights and opportunities for women, equal to those of men.
 While discussing the history of women's movement we can trace the
genesis of women's movement in the West. The western countries
experienced the emergence of women's movement in the late 18th
century. During that time women's movement centered around certain
key issues, such as- political rights, reproductive rights, domestic
violence, equal pay for equal work etc. The history of women's
movement has been divided into three waves, such - first wave, second
wave and third wave.

66 Women and Politics

Women’s Movements Unit 5

 In Indian context women's movement is different in pre-independence

period and the post-independence period. In the pre-independence
period it became a reform movement of traditional society and struggle
against the colonial power which was gripped by the many socio-
political evils about the women like - sati, dowry, child marriage etc.
Noted Indian political thinkers and reformers like- Raja Ram Mohan
Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Keshab Chandra Sen, Phule, Pandita
Ramabai, Swarnakumari Devi etc. tried to bring reforms the society.
Their efforts spanned action to abolish the practice of sati, the custom
of child marriage, the custom of disfiguring widows, the ban on the
remarriage of widows and a host of other evil practices that affected
women. These reformers were also actively engaged in advancing
the status of women by promoting their participation in politics and
education, by obtaining for them legal rights to property.
 The first modern organisation, the Women's Indian Association, formed
in Madras in 1917 by Mrs. Margaret Cousins under the inspiration and
leader of Annie Besant. The Women's India Association, through their
campaign for suffrage, had acknowledged the inspiration received from
the movement for the right to vote in west. The All India Women
Conference (know as the Akhil Hind Mahila Parishad) was established
in 1927 to mobilise women for advancing their status through education,
social reform and politics.
 In the post- independence period the women's movement raised a
number of issues, such as- demand of rights, political participation
and sometime ecological to give protection for the livelihood of
inhabitants. The Constitution of India has not only provided equal rights
and privileges for men and women but also went a step further to make
provisions for special measures to be taken by the Government to
improve the condition of women by enacting separate laws and forming
institutions.
 The canvas of the contemporary women's movement is very large. It
has moved beyond the traditional concerns with legislation, education
and social welfare to a wide range of issues, such as access to land

Women and Politics 67

Unit 5 Women’s Movements

and natural resources, environmental degradation, media, reproductive

health and population, gender based violence, alcoholism, dowry-
murders, rape, eve-teasing, pornographic films, plays and literature
on harassment of women at the workplace etc. are the main issues of
contemporary women's movements.
 South Asia comprises of eight different sovereign nations (India,
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Afghanistan, Bhutan Maldives)
with diverse socio-cultural and ethnic populations, a range of religious
faiths, legal frames, economic and political forces, all of which have
an impact upon the lives of women living in the region.

5.9 FURTHER READING

1) Altekar, A.S. (1962). The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization. New

Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas.
2) Subbamma, Malladi. (1994). Women’s Movements and Associations.
Hyderabad: Mahilabhyudaya Samastha.
3) UNDP 2019. Human Development Report. United Nations
Development Programme, New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
4) Situation of Women in South Asia: Some Dimensions by Preet Rustagi
in pdf Socio-Political Status of Women in India: A Historical Perspective
in pdf

5.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: Women's movement is a movement to combat sexual

discrimination and to gain full legal, economic, vocational,
educational, and social rights and opportunities for women, equal
to those of men.
Ans to Q No 2: Women's right to vote and political equality.

68 Women and Politics

Women’s Movements Unit 5

Ans to Q No 3: 1828
Ans to Q No 4: During colonial period reform movement took place against
many socio-political evils about the women like - sati, dowry,
child marriage etc. Noted Indian political thinkers and reformers
like- Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Keshab
Chandra Sen, Phule, Pandita Ramabai, Swarnakumari Devi etc.
tried to bring reforms in the society. Raja Ram Mohan Roy founded
the Brahmo Samaj in 1828. He fought against the evils of caste
system and the oppression of women. Vidyasagar took up the
cause of widows, and started a movement in support for
remarriage in the 1850s. it resulted in Hindu Widows' Remarriage
Act of 1856. Keshab Chandra Sen was greatly interested in social
reforms. He basically talked about the status of women and
removing the inequalities of caste. The passing of the Brahmo
Marriage Bill was the greatest triumph in his carreer as a social
reformer. As a result of this Act, early marriage was abolished,
polygamy was made penal offence and it sanctioned widow
remarriage and inter-caste marriages. Mahadeva Gobinda
Ranade who joined the Parthana Samaj in 1869, worked against
social evils such as child marriage, the purdah sysytem and
prohibition of widow-remarriage. Swami Dayanand Saraswati,
who founded Arya Samaj, too opposed child marriage and
supported widow remarriage and girl's education. Vivekananda
also emphasised on women's education. Pandita Ramabai
developed a series of "Mahila Samajs" in Bombay Presidency
and also speared women's awareness regarding the society and
social value among the women's group and society to overcome
social evils. Swarnakumari Devi formed the "Sakhi Samiti' to
foster among Indian women an active and enlightened interest
in the welfare of the country. Ramabai Rande supported the
suffrage movement in India and she had lead a number of meeting
with demands for the right to vote.

Women and Politics 69

Unit 5 Women’s Movements

Ans to Q No 5: The overall lower status of women in South Asia influences

their health status too. In South Asian countries, marriages are
traditionally carried out at early ages with little choice being given
to women. The governments of most South Asian countries are
actively working towards preventing child marriages and
increasing the minimum age of marriage for girls. Bangladesh,
India and Bhutan have stipulated the legal minimum age at
marriage at 18 years. Yet, many marriages continue to occur
before girls attain the minimum age legally and statutorily fixed.
Early marriage along with young age pregnancies compounded
by poor health and economic poverty places or adds undue
stress on women's bodies. Maternal mortality rates are quite
high in the region (HDSA, 2000). The probability of women not
surviving childbirth is further aggravated by a large proportion of
them having non-institutional deliveries, unaided by skilled
personnel. Only 36 per cent of South Asian babies are born with
the assistance of skilled personnel. In Sri Lanka and Maldives,
the situation is relatively better compared to other South Asia
countries.

5.11 POSSIBLE QUESTIONS

Q. 1 : Define the women's movement.

Q. 2 : Write briefly on the three waves of feminism.
Q. 3 : Write briefly on the contemporary women's movement.
Q. 4 : Discuss women's movement that took place in India during colonial
and post-colonial period.
Q. 5 : Evaluate the position of women in South Asia.

*** ***** ***

70 Women and Politics

UNIT 6: WOMEN AND FAMILY
UNIT STRUCTURE

6.1 Learning Objectives

6.2 Introduction
6.3 Structure of Family
6.4 Power Structure in Family
6.5 Position of Women in Family
6.6 Let Us Sum Up
6.7 Further Reading
6.8 Answers To Check Your Progress
6.9 Possible Questions

6.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to-

 explain the structure of the family
 discuss the power structure in family
 analyse the position of women in family.

6.2 INTRODUCTION

Indian culture attaches great importance to women, comprising half

of world's population. According to a report of the Secretary General of the
United Nations, women constitute 50% of human resources. Women are
the key to sustainable development and quality of life in the family. The
varieties of role the women assume in the family are such as the role of
mother, wife, leader, administrator, manager of family income etc. In this
unit we shall discuss the position of women in a family structure.

6.3 STRUCTURE OF FAMILY

Within any society there are more or less common ways of identifying
family relationships. There are ways of organising family relationships which
are broadly accepted as appropriate and given legitimacy in the respective
society.

Women and Politics 71

Unit 6 Women and Family

According to George Murdock, the term 'family' can be defined as, "a
social group characterised by common residence, economic co-operation,
and reproduction. It includes adults of both sexes at least two of whom
maintain a socially approved sexual relationship and one or more children
own or adopted of sexually cohabiting adults". There are various types of
family that exist in today's society, some of the more common family
structures are:

 Nuclear Family: It usually consists of two generations of family,

parents and their child/ children residing in the same household.

 Extended Family: It is also known as three generation family

consisting of grandparents, their children and grandchildren.

 Single Parent Family: It is also known as lone parent family. It consists

of one parent and the child/children in the household.

 Reconstituted Family: This is a family where one or more parents

have been married previously. Here it introduces the concept of step
mother, step father etc.

 Symmetrical Family: This is a family where the roles of husband and

wife or of cohabiting partners have become more alike or equal.

 Empty Nest Family: This is a family, where the child/children have

moved out of the home and the parents reside together.

 Patrilineal Family: In this type of family, property and title inheritance

is inherited by the father's side. Here, father is the head of the family.

 Matrilineal Family: In this type of family, property and title inheritance

passes down through mother's side. Here, mother is the head of the
family.

6.4 POWER STRUCTURE IN FAMILY

Feminists have been central in criticising gender roles associated

with the traditional nuclear family, especially since the 1950s. They have
argued the nuclear family has traditionally performed two key functions which
oppressed women, such as:

72 Women and Politics

Women and Family Unit 6

a) Socialising girls to accept subservient roles within the family, while

socialising boys to believe they are superior - this happens through
children witnessing then recreating the parental relationship.
b) Socialising women into accepting the "housewife" role as the only
possible/acceptable role for a woman. Indeed, it was the only way to
be feminine or to be a woman. Essentially, feminists viewed the function
of the family as a breeding ground where patriarchal values were learned
by an individual, which in turn created a patriarchal society.
The three distinct branches of feminism, such as- Liberal Feminists,
Marxist Feminists and Radical Feminists differ significantly over the extent
to which they believe that the family is still patriarchal and the underlying
causes of the existence of patriarchy.
Family power structure plays a critical role in family health functioning.
Power has been defined as the ability to control, influence or change another
person's behaviour (Friedman, 1998). Power is related to resources. Control
over resources (eg. money) infers power. In most families, parents control
these resources. There are three types of family power namely chaotic power,
symmetrical power and complementary power (Hanson, 2001). Again apart
from this many sociologists also examine the concept of family power
structure in terms of the familial or marital as well as the factor of decision
making.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.1: State the meaning of empty nest family.

....................................................................................
............................................................................................................
Q.2: The family power structure is ……………………… (Fill in the
blank)
Q.3: How does George Murdock define the term family?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
Q.4: Feminists argue that the nuclear family has traditionally performed
two key functions which oppress women. Explain. (within 50 words).

Women and Politics 73

Unit 6 Women and Family

............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

6.5 POSITION OF WOMEN IN FAMILY

From the ancient period in most of the human societies, social

differentiation between the sexes, the male and female existed and in majority
of them women were assigned an inferior position. In recent times the equality
in status has been assigned to women in the socialist societies, however,
many are still deprived of the same. Thus, women accounting for nearly one
half of the human population, live in perpetual subordination to the other half
of men. Women are considered primarily as reproducers although they
invented agriculture and produce about fifty percent of world's food. Their
role as producers is acknowledged but it is viewed as a transferable role. It
seems that, the indispensability of women as reproducers of human societies
has turned into an instrument of their own enslavement.

Traditionally, an Indian woman had four fold status or role sequences.

These were her role as a daughter, wife, housewife (homemaker), and
mother. The woman, whose status and role traditionally was well defined
and almost fixed in the society, is now experiencing significant changes.
The woman in modern times has entered certain new fields which were
earlier unknown to the woman's sphere of role-sets. They actively participate
in social, economic, and political activities todays. The women of the present
generation have generally received higher education than the women of
their preceding generation. There have been far reaching consequences in
the economic status of their families.

Apart from the traditionally fixed four fold roles, women, in contemporary
time, also play important role in the family as decision maker, manager of
income for household expenditure. Women in the family continuously work
for mental and physical wellbeing of all the family members. But most of the
time women are engaged in unpaid labour within the family. Due recognition
is not given to their labour at the domestic level.

74 Women and Politics

Women and Family Unit 6

Women's Role in Society: The modern women are inclined towards the
social issues, and trying hard to improve the social status of women at
large. Increased awareness and education has inspired women to come
out of the four walls of their homes. Many women had actively supported
and participated in the nationalist movement and secured eminent positions
and offices in administration and public life in free India. Just like their male
counterpart, women too are fond of attending social functions and value
their social life and status. Previously, men used to discourage women
from leaving their households to attend social functions. Now the spread of
education, especially that of women, and their changing social attitudes
women have changed the order. The modern woman has started caring
for her health, cultural needs and interests, academic pursuits, social
intercourse, religious activities, recreational needs, etc.
Woman as a Wife: Woman as a wife enjoyed ideally a status almost equal
to that of her husband and performed both social as well as biological
functions. Even today, the Indian girls are still brought up on models
portraying selflessness, self-denial, and sacrifice. The desire for mutual
affection and love is beginning to appear in their conception of their
relationship with their husbands. The husband-wife relationship has become
more equal in character and much more compatible. More freedom of
choice in marriage is thus an accompaniment to the changes in the family.
Women's Role in Politics: Education of women has not only helped them
become aware of the political problems, but they are gradually becoming
active participants in the political life. Some are enrolling themselves as
members of political parties, attending party meetings, conventions, and
carrying out political programs. Many women have attained influential political
stature of their own and have become instrumental in shaping the public
opinions for the betterment of women's conditions in society.
Participation of Women in Socio-economic Activities: Women in modern
times are entering into certain new fields that were unknown to the woman's
sphere of role-sets. These are the woman's participation in economic,
political, and social life. The modern woman keenly desires to enter into a
work career because of the pressing economic needs of the family. In middle

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Unit 6 Women and Family

class families, much emphasis is given to the maintenance of high

standards of living. To fulfill the economic needs of the family and to achieve
higher standard of living the woman participates in economic activities.
Women Equality is not Universal: Women's equality in terms of education,
employment, and power is still an individual rather than a universal
achievement. The majority of our women are still content to accept an inferior
status. This is by and large due to the fact that, although legally women
have equal rights with men, there are not enough jobs for women and
working women are not adequately protected from exploitation.
Unaware of their Legal Status: Women are generally not aware of the
provisions related to the improvement of their own position. Even if they
know about some of the provisions related to their rights of succession,
marriage, or family, they do not desire to invoke them. Traditional dominance
of the authority of the male parents, husband, and other elder members of
the family often tend to restrict the legal rights of women. The materialisation
of these problems still depends largely on the attitudinal changes of the
society.
Rural women: According to Gandhiji's vision women must play an equal
and important role in national development. However, the movement for
raising the socio-economic status of women had generally involved the
middle-class educated women in major urban centers while the great mass
of rural women are yet to enjoy the rights and privileges as enshrined in the
Constitution. The scenario of rural women in India is not so encouraging.
The literacy rate of rural women is less than their male counterpart. Attitude
of the family towards education of girl child is negative. Rural women are
the worst victims of poverty. Besides economic poverty, rural women are
also victims of information poverty.
Role of Women Welfare Organisations: In the present time a number of
women welfare organisations exit both at the national and international level.
The main objective of such organisations is to achieve maximum welfare for
women and to establish a gender just society. In India some of such
organisations are- Young Women Christian Association, All India Women's
Conference, National Council of Women, Inner Wheel (Women's section of

76 Women and Politics

Women and Family Unit 6

the Rotary International). In many cities, local organisations exist such as

Mahila Mandal, Mahila Samiti, and Recreation Clubs, etc. Likewise, at the
international level too, a number of women organisations, such as- Women's
Environment and Development Organisation, United Nations Development
Fund for Women, Women for Women International, Women's International
Democratic Federation- are working for greater welfare of women in general.
Educated women are just on the threshold of transition from tradition
to modernity. The women themselves desire that their status and position
in society should rise higher. Though a proper climate for such a change is
still wanting, yet there have been many structural and statutory innovations
for the improvement of their position. The traditional status and role sets of
women are breaking up and new role-sets based on achievement,
independence and equality are gradually coming up.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.5: Traditionally, an Indian woman had four fold

status-role sequences. (True/False)
.......................................................................................
Q.6: Mention Gandhi's views on rural women.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
Q.7: Name some national level women organisations in India.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
Q.8: Write briefly about the role of women in Politics.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................

6.6 LET US SUM UP

 Indian culture attaches great importance to women, comprising half of

world's population. According to a report of secretary general of United

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Unit 6 Women and Family

Nations, women constitute 50% of human resources, the greatest

human resource next only to man having great potentiality.
 Family is a social group characterised by common residence, economic
co-operation, and reproduction. It includes adults of both sexes at least
two of whom maintain a socially approved sexual relationship and one
or more children own or adopted of sexually cohabiting adults.
 The position of women in ancient India has been a very complicated one
because of the paradoxical statements in different religious scriptures
and sometimes in the same text at different places. Some have described
their status as 'equals to men', while others have held not only in
disrespect but even in positive hatred. This is why it has presented many
problems to the scholars while evaluating women's status in India.
 The cultural history of India reveals that theoretically women enjoyed
the status of devi (goddess) as described in many religious texts of
Hindus, the majority community in India.
 Though woman enjoyed the theoretical importance which these texts
outline for the wife who was defined ardhangini (better-half), but in
practice she had a subservient position than man with no rights.
 It was generally seen and believed that women had lower status with
reference to power and influence than men in all spheres of life-family,
community, religion and politics.
 There are different structures of families like- Nuclear family, Extended,
Single parent family, Reconstituted family, Symmetrical family, Empty
nest family, patrilineal family and matrilineal family.
 Feminists have been central in criticising gender roles associated with
the traditional nuclear family, especially since the 1950s.
 Various branches of feminism differ significantly over the extent to which
they believe that the family is still patriarchal and in what the underlying
causes of the existence of patriarchy.

78 Women and Politics

Women and Family Unit 6

6.7 FURTHER READING

1) Prata, Ndola. Fraser, Ashiley. and Upadhya, Ushma. (2017). Women’s

Empowerment and Family Planning: A Review of Literature. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
2) Tilly, Louise. Scott, W Joan. (1989). Women, Work, and Family. UK:
Psychology Press.
3) Seymour. Susan, Mukhopadhyay, Chapnick Carol. (1994). Women,
Education and Family Structure in India. Cambridge: US: Westview
Press.

6.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: Empty nest family is a family, where the child/children have

moved out of the home and the parents reside together.
Ans to Q No 2: not fixed.
Ans to Q No 3: According to George Murdock, the term 'family' can be
defined as, "a social group characterized by common residence,
economic co-operation, and reproduction. It includes adults of
both sexes at least two of whom maintain a socially approved
sexual relationship and one or more children own or adopted of
sexually cohabiting adults".
Ans to Q No 4: Feminism argued the nuclear family has traditionally
performed two key functions which oppressed women. These
two functions are-
a) Socialising girls to accept subservient roles within the family,
while socialising boys to believe they are superior - this happens
through children witnessing then recreating the parental
relationship.
b) Socialising women into accepting the "housewife" role as the
only possible/acceptable role for a woman. Indeed, it was the

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Unit 6 Women and Family

only way to be feminine or to be a woman. Essentially, feminists

viewed the function of the family as a breeding ground where
patriarchal values were learned by an individual, which in turn
created a patriarchal society.
Ans to Q No 5: True.
Ans to Q No 6: According to Gandhiji's vision women must play an equal
and important role in national development. However, the
movement for raising the socio-economic status of women had
generally involved the middle-class educated women in major
urban centers while the great mass of rural women are yet to
enjoy the rights and privileges as enshrined in the Constitution.
Ans to Q No 7: Young Women Christian Association, All India Women's
Conference, National Council of Women.
Ans to Q No 8: Education of women has not only helped them become
aware of the political problems, but they are gradually becoming
active participants in the political life. Some are enrolling
themselves as members of political parties, attending party
meetings, conventions, and carrying out political programs. Many
women have attained influential political stature of their own and
have become instrumental in shaping the public opinions for the
betterment of women's conditions in society.

6.9 POSSIBLE QUESTIONS

Q. 1 : What is Matrilineal Family?

Q. 2 : How George Murdock defines family?
Q. 3 : Mention the position of the women in the family.
Q. 4 : What is single parent family?
Q. 5 : What are the feminist views on equality of women in power
structure?
Q. 6 : Analyse the role of housewife in the society.
Q. 7 : Discuss the role of women in the society.
*** ***** ***
80 Women and Politics
UNIT 7: VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN
UNIT STRUCTURE

7.1 Learning Objectives

7.2 Introduction
7.3 Causes of Violence against Women
7.4 Forms of Violence
7.5 Sexual Harassment at Workplace
7.6 Women Trafficking
7.7 Let Us Sum Up
7.8 Further Reading
7.9 Answers to Check Your Progress
7.10 Possible Questions

7.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to-

 examine the meaning of violence against women
 discuss the causes and forms of violence against women
 examine the problems of sexual harassment at workplace and
female trafficking.

7.2 INTRODUCTION

In most of the societies, women are treated as second class citizens.

Women are subject to various forms of abuses and violence, such as child-
marriage, female infanticide, sexual harassment, dowry and so on. Violence
against women is partly a result of gender relations that assumes men to be
superior to women. The patriarchal nature of the society is mainly responsible
for this. The patriarchal value and belief system always justify superior position
of men in comparison to women which results in deprivations for women.
Given the subordinate status of women, much of gender violence is considered
normal and enjoys social sanction. Manifestations of violence include physical
aggression, such as blows of varying intensity, burns, attempted hanging,
sexual abuse and rape, psychological violence through insults, humiliation,

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Unit 7 Violence Against Women

coercion, blackmail, economic or emotional threats, and control over speech

and actions. These expressions of violence take place in a man-woman
relationship within the family, state and society. Cultural and social factors
are interlinked with the development and propagation of violent behaviour. In
this unit we shall discuss various causes and forms of violence against
women. We shall also examine the problems of sexual harassment at the
workplace and women trafficking.

7.3 CAUSES OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN

Violence against women is not a new phenomenon. The United Nations

defines violence against women as "any act of gender-based violence that
results in, or, is likely to result in physical, sexual or mental harm or suffering
to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of
liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life. Women have to bear the
burdens of domestic, public, physical as well as emotional and mental violence
against them, which affects their status in the society to a larger extent. The
statistics of increasing crimes against women is shocking, where women
are subjected to violence attacks i.e. foeticide, infanticide, medical neglect,
child marriages, bride burning, sexual abuse of girl child, forced marriages,
rape, prostitution, sexual harassment at home as well as work places etc. In
all the above cases women is considered as aggrieved person.
While we examine the problem of violence against women, we can
identify a number of causes for this problem. Some of these causes are:
 Patriarchal structure of the society: The patriarchal values of the
society are the main reasons behind all forms of violence against
women. Patriarchal system of belief always places women in a
subordinate position in the society which perpetuates violence against
them.
 Dowry: In India demand of dowry is one of the main causes of violence
against women. In 1961, the Government of India passed the Dowry
Prohibition Act, declaring the dowry demands in wedding
arrangements illegal. However, many cases of dowry-related
domestic violence, suicides and murders have been reported.

82 Women and Politics

Violence Against Women Unit 7

 Child Marriage: Child marriage has been traditionally prevalent in

India and continues to this day. Traditionally, young girls would live
with their parents till they reached puberty. Earlier child widows were
condemned to a life of great agony and compulsions such as having
clean shaved heads, living in isolation conforming to restrictions and
often being mistreated by society. Although child marriage was
outlawed in 1860, yet it continues in some areas of India.

 Female Infanticides and Sex Selective Abortions: Many countries

of the world including India have a highly masculine sex ratio, the
chief reason being that many women die before reaching adulthood.
It is therefore suggested by many experts, that the highly masculine
sex ratio can be attributed to female infanticides and sex-selective
abortions. The abuse of the dowry tradition has been one of the main
reasons for sex-selective abortions and female infanticides in India.

 Domestic Violence: The incidents of domestic violence occurs in

many families regardless of high or lower socio economic status.
Domestic violence against women in many cases result in severe
physical and emotional injuries of women. Domestic violence includes
harassment, maltreatment, brutality or cruelty and even the threat of
assault-intimidation etc.

 Trafficking: The problem of female trafficking is very serious all

across the world. These women are either forced into prostitution,
domestic work, or child labour. In India to eliminate this problem, the
Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act was passed in 1956.

 Eve- Teasing: Eve teasing is an act of terror that violates a woman's

body, space and self-respect. It is one of the many ways through
which a woman is systematically made to feel inferior, week and afraid.
Whether it is an obscene word whispered into a woman's ear;
offensive remarks on her appearance; an intrusive way of touching
any part of a woman's body; a gesture which is perceived and intended
to be vulgar; all these acts represent a violation of a woman's person,
her bodily integrity.

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Unit 7 Violence Against Women

 Rape: Crimes such as rape as a form of sexual violence against

women are reported to be on the increase. Around the world, one in
five women has been found to be victims of rape in their lifetime.
Many rapes go unreported because of the stigma and trauma
associated with them and the lack of sympathetic treatment from
legal systems. The insecurity outside the household is today the
greatest obstacle in the path of women.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.1: What are the forms of abuse against women?

..................................................................................................
Q.2: In India, the Dowry Prohibition Act was passed
in the year ………………… (Fill in the blank)
Q.3: Write a short note on Domestic Violence. (Within 50 words).
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
Q.4: Write briefly about any two causes of violence against women.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

7.4 FORMS OF VIOLENCE

Violence against women and girls has many manifestations, including

forms that may be more common in specific settings, countries and regions.
Violence against women manifests itself as physical, sexual, emotional
and economic.
The most universally common forms include domestic and intimate
partner violence, sexual violence (including rape), sexual harassment, and
emotional/psychological violence. Sexual violence as a tactic of warfare
and in the aftermath of emergencies is also common in the respective
countries and areas affected. Other widespread forms of violence against
women around the globe include: sexual exploitation, sex trafficking, women

84 Women and Politics

Violence Against Women Unit 7

killing and harmful practices, such as female genital mutilation/cutting, forced

and child marriage etc. Less documented forms of violence against women
include- crimes committed in the name of honour, foeticide, prenatal sex
selection, female infanticide, economic abuse, political violence, elder
abuse, dowry-related violence and acid-throwing. Particular groups of
women and girls, such as members of racial, ethnic and sexual minorities,
HIV-positive women, migrants and undocumented workers, women with
disabilities, women in detention and women affected by armed conflict or in
emergency settings may be more vulnerable to violence and may experience
multiple forms of violence on account of compounded forms of
discrimination and socio-economic exclusion. The perpetrators of violence
may include the State and its agents, family members (including husbands),
friends, intimate partners or other familiar individuals, and strangers.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.5: Violence against women manifests itself as

physical, sexual, emotional and economic. (True/
False)
............................................................................................................
Q.6: Mention various forms of violence against women.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

7.5 SEXUAL HARASSMENT AT WORKPLACE

Sexual harassment includes such unwelcome sexually determined

behaviour (whether directly or through implication) as:
(a) physical contact and advances
(b) a demand or request for sexual favours
(c) sexually coloured remarks
(d) showing pornography
(e) any other unwelcome physical, verbal or non-verbal conduct of sexual
nature.

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Unit 7 Violence Against Women

When any of these above mentioned acts are committed in

circumstances where the victim has a reasonable apprehension that in relation
to the victim's employment or work whether she is drawing salary, or
honorarium or voluntary, whether in government, public or private enterprise,
such conduct can be humiliating and may constitute a health and safety
problem, it amounts to sexual harassment. It is discriminatory for instance
when the woman has reasonable grounds to believe that her objection would
prove to be a disadvantage for her in connection with her employment or
work including recruitment or promotion or when it creates a hostile work
environment. Adverse consequences might be visited if the victim does not
consent to the conduct in question or raises any objection thereto.
Examples of sexual harassment in many forms, including- unwelcome
sexual advances or requests for sexual favours, deliberate touching or
physical contact, sharing sexually inappropriate images or videos with co-
workers, sending emails, letters, or telephone calls, or text messages of a
sexual nature etc.
 Steps to be taken by the employers
All Employers or persons in charge of work place whether in public or
private sector should take appropriate steps to prevent sexual harassment.
Without prejudice to the generality of this obligation they should take the
following steps:
(a) Express prohibition of sexual harassment as defined above at
the work place should be notified, published and circulated in
appropriate ways.
(b) The Rules/Regulations of Government and Public Sector bodies
relating to conduct and discipline should include rules / regulations
prohibiting sexual harassment and provide for appropriate
penalties in such rules against the offender.
(c) As regards private employers steps should be taken to include
the aforesaid prohibitions in the standing orders under the
Industrial Employment (Standing Orders) Act, 1940.

In India to prohibit the crime of sexual violence at the workplace, the

Parliament of India has passed the Sexual Harassment of Women at

86 Women and Politics

Violence Against Women Unit 7

Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013. The Act came
into force from 9 December 2013. This Act provides that all employers
must form a grievance redressal mechanism for the cases for sexual
harassment at the workplace.

7.6 WOMEN TRAFFICKING

The trafficking of women for sexual exploitation is an international,

organised, criminal phenomenon that has grave consequences for the safety,
welfare and human rights of its victims. The United Nations defines human
trafficking as the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of
persons by improper means (such as force, abduction, fraud or coercion)
for an improper purpose including forced labour or sexual exploitation.
Trafficking of women is a criminal phenomenon that violates basic human
rights, and totally destroying victims' lives. Countries are affected by this
problem in various ways. Some see their young women being lured to leave
their home and ending up in the sex industry abroad or in her own country.
Other countries act mainly as transit countries, while several other receive
foreign women who become victims of sexual exploitation.
Trafficking of Women across the world
The United Nations estimates that 4 million people are trafficked each
year, resulting in $7 billion in profits to criminal groups. Many countries have
weak, unenforced or no laws against trafficking in human beings, often making
it less risky and more profitable to criminal groups than drug or arms
trafficking. With increased economic globalisation, trafficking in women from
poor to wealthier countries appears to be on the rise. Trafficking networks
may recruit and transport women legally or illegally for slavery-like work,
including forced prostitution, sweatshop labour and exploitative domestic
servitude. In case of India, women and girls from Nepal and Bangladesh
trafficked for the purpose of commercial sexual exploitation. They are forced
to work as sex workers undergoing severe exploitation and abuse.
Trafficked women are the most vulnerable group in contracting HIV
infection. Due to unrelenting poverty and lack of unemployment opportunities
there is an increase in the voluntary entry of women into sex work. Trafficking

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Unit 7 Violence Against Women

both for commercial sexual exploitation and for non-sex based exploitation
is a transnational and complex challenge as it is an organised criminal
activity, an extreme form of human rights violation and an issue of economic
empowerment and social justice. The trafficking of women and children
causes untold miseries as it violates the rights and dignity of the individual
in several ways. It violates individual's rights to life, dignity, security, privacy,
health, education and redressal of grievances.
The following are reasons for increased of women trafficking across
the world:
 Forced Marriage: Girls and women are not only trafficked for
prostitution but also bought and sold like commodity in many regions
of the world where female ratio is less as compared to male due to
female infanticide. These are then forced to marry.
 Bonded Labour: According to the International Labour Organisation there
are more than 11.7 million people working as a forced labour in the
Asia-Pacific region. People running out of cash generally sell their kids
as debt labour in exchange for cash. Both boys and girls are sold for
this purpose and generally not paid for years. Victims of human
trafficking have great chances of suffering from issues like mental
disorders, depression and anxiety. Women forced into sexual trafficking
have at higher risk of getting affected from HIV and other STDs.
Poverty and illiteracy are the main elements constituting the main
elements responsible for trafficking. The number of non-governmental
organisations working in the field has increased enormously during the last
few years. However, the vast majority of them are located in urban centres
and very few have grassroots connections. Women trafficking touch every
country and countless industries worldwide, and while there are many
individuals and organisations working globally to combat this problem, it
may take time before it is fully realised just how huge this issue is.
The situation of female trafficking presents a picture of lack of cohesion
and coordination. Whether it is intra-state trafficking, inter-state trafficking
or trans-border trafficking, the agencies involved in rescue do not seem to
have any coordination with the agencies concerned with rehabilitation. The

88 Women and Politics

Violence Against Women Unit 7

issue of missing women and children has been seen in isolation and was
never seen in correlation with trafficking. There is no common platform
linking up prevention strategies between source and destination areas. The
absence of a national coordinating/monitoring agency has been a serious
impediment in justice delivery and protection of human rights. Therefore, in
order to ensure the best interests of the victims, to bring about effective
coordination at the national level and to coordinate preventive strategies,
programmes and policies, there is also a need for a national nodal agency
to combat trafficking.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.7: Mention any two reasons responsible for the

increase of women trafficking.
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
Q.8: What does the word "Sexual Harassment" imply?
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................

7.7 LET US SUM UP

 In most of the societies, women are considered as second class

citizens. Women are subject to various forms of abuses and violence,
such as child-marriage, female infanticide, sexual harassment, dowry
and so on.
 Violence against women is partly a result of gender relations that
assumes men to be superior to women. Given the subordinate status
of women, much of gender violence is considered normal and enjoys
social sanction. Manifestations of violence include physical aggression,
such as blows of varying intensity, burns, attempted hanging, sexual
abuse and rape, psychological violence through insults, humiliation,

Women and Politics 89

Unit 7 Violence Against Women

coercion, blackmail, economic or emotional threats, and control over

speech and actions.
 Some of the causes responsible for violence against women are-
patriarchal structure of the society, dowry, child marriage, female
infanticides and sex selective abortions, domestic violence, trafficking,
eve- teasing, rape etc.
 The most universally common forms of violence against women include
domestic and intimate partner violence, sexual violence (including rape),
sexual harassment, and emotional/psychological violence. Sexual
violence as a tactic of warfare and in the aftermath of emergencies is
also common in the respective countries and areas affected. Other
widespread forms around the globe include: sexual exploitation, sexual
trafficking, and harmful practices, such as female genital mutilation/cutting
(FGM/C), forced and child marriage. Less documented forms, include:
crimes committed in the name of honour, foeticide, prenatal sex selection,
female infanticide, economic abuse, political violence, elder abuse, dowry-
related violence and acid-throwing.
 Sexual harassment at the workplace and trafficking are two very serious
problems that the women are experiencing across the world. In India
to prohibit the crime of sexual violence at the workplace the Parliament
of India has passed the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace
(Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013. The Act came into
force from 9 December 2013. This Act provides that all employers
must form a grievance redressal mechanism for the cases for sexual
harassment at the workplace.

7.8 FURTHER READING

1) 1) Kosambi, Meera. (1993). Violence Perpetrated Against Women in

India (Report). Bangkok: UNESCO Principal Regional Office for Asia
and the Pacific.
2) Mohanty, Bedabati. (2005). Violence Against Women. New Delhi:
Kanishka Publishers.

90 Women and Politics

Violence Against Women Unit 7

3) Naidu, Y. Gurappa. (2011). Violence Against Women in India. New Delhi:

Serials Publications.

7.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: Women are abused in the form of child-marriage, female

infanticide, sexual harassment both at home and workplace,
dowry, rape, domestic violence, acid attack and so on.
Ans to Q No 2: 1961
Ans to Q No 3: The incidents of domestic violence occur in many families
regardless of high or lower socio- economic status. Domestic
violence against women in many cases result in severe physical
and emotional injuries of women. Domestic violence includes
harassment, maltreatment, brutality or cruelty and even the threat
of assault-intimidation etc.
Ans to Q No 4: (i) Patriarchal structure of the society: The patriarchal values
of the society are the main reasons behind all forms of violence
against women. Patriarchal system of belief always places
women in a subordinate position in the society which perpetuates
violence against them.
(ii) Dowry: In India demand of dowry is one of the main causes of
violence against women. In 1961, the Government of India passed
the Dowry Prohibition Act, declaring the dowry demands in wedding
arrangements illegal. However, many cases of dowry-related
domestic violence, suicides and murders have been reported.
Ans to Q No 5: True
Ans to Q No 6: Various forms of violence against women include domestic
and intimate partner violence, sexual violence (including rape),
sexual harassment, and emotional/psychological violence, sexual
exploitation, sexual trafficking, and harmful practices, such as
female genital mutilation/cutting, forced and child marriage,
crimes committed in the name of honour, foeticide, prenatal sex

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Unit 7 Violence Against Women

selection, female infanticide, economic abuse, political violence,

elder abuse, dowry-related violence and acid-throwing.
Ans to Q No 7: (i) Forced marriage: Girls and women are not only trafficked
for prostitution but also bought and sold like commodity in many
regions of the world where female ratio is less as compared to
male due to female infanticide. These are then forced to marry.
(ii) Bonded labour: According to the International Labour
Organisation there are more than 11.7 million people working as
a forced labour in the Asia-Pacific region. People running out of
cash generally sell their kids as debt labour in exchange for cash.
Both boys and girls are sold for this purpose and generally not
paid for years. Victims of human trafficking have great chances
of suffering from issues like mental disorders, depression and
anxiety. Women forced into sexual trafficking have at higher risk
of getting affected from HIV and other STDs.
Ans to Q No 8: Sexual harassment is a type of harassment that relates to
a sexual nature and the unwelcome or inappropriate promise of
rewards in exchange for sexual favours. Sexual harassment
includes a range of actions from mild transgressions to sexual
abuse or assault. Harassment can occur in many different social
settings such as the workplace, the home, school, religious
places, etc.

7.10 POSSIBLE QUESTIONS

Q. 1 : What are the manifestations of violence against women?

Q. 2 : What is Bonded labour?
Q. 3 : Write about various forms of violence.
Q. 4 : Explain various causes responsible for violence against women.
Q. 5 : Examine the problems of sexual harassment at the workplace and
women trafficking.

*** ***** ***

92 Women and Politics

UNIT 8: POLITICAL EMPOWERMENT OF
WOMEN: GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
UNIT STRUCTURE

8.1 Learning Objectives

8.2 Introduction
8.3 Concept of Empowerment
8.4 Concept of Gender Empowerment
8.5 Political Empowerment of Women
8.6 Role and Position of Women in Electoral Politics: Global
Perspective
8.7 Let Us Sum Up
8.8 Further Reading
8.9 Answers To Check Your Progress
8.10 Possible Questions

8.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to -

 explain the concept of empowerment
 explain the concept of gender empowerment
 describe the initiatives taken at the global level for political
empowerment of women
 discuss the role and position of women in the electoral politics.

8.2 INTRODUCTION

The concept of empowerment refers to the process of improving one's

capabilities for developing herself or himself in various aspects of life. So
far as the concept of gender empowerment is concerned, it refers to the
empowerment of people of any gender, and not directly refers to
empowerment of women as such. As women are marginalised in most of
the societies of the world, so gender empowerment conventionally refers
to empowerment of women. Gender empowerment is closely related to

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Human Resource Development of a state. It refers to providing adequate

opportunities to women to develop their capabilities in order to make them
equal partners in the progress of the society and the state. Political
empowerment of women is an important aspect for ensuring gender
empowerment. In this unit we shall discuss the concept of political
empowerment of women from a global perspective.

8.3 CONCEPT OF EMPOWERMENT

The concept of empowerment refers to the process of strengthening

oneself to be more powerful and have the potential to guide himself or herself
for a good life and to claim his or her rights to lead a good life. If
empowerment is understood as an action, then it refers to the process of
making oneself confident to overcome obstacles and to achieve success
in life, socially, politically and economically.

The different definitions of empowerment range from defining it as a

largely individual process of taking control of the responsibility for one's
own life and situation to a political process of granting human rights and
social justice to disadvantaged groups of the society. To be practical,
empowerment includes both individual capacity to be able to develop himself
and at the same time, political support to overcome the incapabilities which
hinder individual development definitely at the societal level.

The term, "empowerment" refers to the process of making one

powerful who is lacking in power. It refers to the change of power relationship
in the society at different levels - individual, community as well as societal
level. It is a multi-dimensional process involving sociological, psychological,
cultural, economic and political changes in the status quo.

8.4 CONCEPT OF GENDER EMPOWERMENT

The concept of empowerment of women is related to gender equality.

It is found that women have not been able to enjoy equality in different
spheres of their life. Socially discriminated, economically exploited, politically
subjugated, women have not been able to enjoy their rights equally with

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that of men. Due to various kinds of discriminations faced by women in the

society right from their birth to unequal treatment, demands arose for the
promotion and protection of their rights. This had become a worldwide
movement with the United Nations at the forefront which assured protection
of human rights and fundamental freedom to all in its Charter.

In 1946, the United Nations established the Commission on the Status

of Women to look after women's issues. Though the Charter of the United
Nations and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights contain certain
human rights provisions yet, they were not considered sufficient enough.
Therefore, women specific measures were felt necessary. To deal with the
rights of women in a more comprehensive manner, the Declaration on the
Elimination of Discrimination Against Women was adopted by the General
Assembly on 7th November, 1967. In order to implement the principles of
the Declaration, the General Assembly adopted the Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women on 18th
December, 1979. On 20th December, 1993, another important measure
was taken by the UN namely the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence
Against Women which directed the state parties to condemn violence
against women and not to invoke any custom, tradition or religious
consideration to avoid their obligation with respect to elimination of violence
against women.

The United Nations has also been organising World Conferences

emphasising particularly on women so that they can have their due share
of rights in the society. The First World Conference was held in Mexico City
in 1975 which highlighted the themes of "Equality, Development, and Peace".
The UN observed the decade 1975-85 as the International Women's Decade.
The themes of the Mexico Conference were further developed during the
International Women's Decade. The Second World Conference was held
in Copenhagen in 1980 which added three sub-themes, "Education,
Employment, Health" to the themes already adopted at Mexico City. The
Third Conference was held in Nairobi in 1985 and the Fourth one was held
in Beijing in 1995. The Beijing Conference adopted a platform for action

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concentrating on key issues identified as obstacles, such as, poverty,

education, health, violence, armed conflicts, economic disparity and power
sharing for the advancement of women throughout the world.

According to the UN Development Fund for Women, the following

factors are included in defining women empowerment: (i) acquiring
knowledge and understanding of gender relations and the ways in which
these relations may be changed; (ii) developing a sense of self-worth, a
belief in one's ability to secure desired changes and the right to control
one's life; (iii) giving the ability to generate choice and exercise bargain
power.

To ensure women empowerment, equality must be established

between men and women. Education at all levels must be assured so that
they can take part in the decision making process both at the individual and
social life. Economic security in terms of employment with adequate wages
and social security in terms protection from violence and atrocities should
also be assured. Empowerment of women entails equal access to resources
of the society, equal opportunities for development, economic independence,
equal political participation, participation in the decision making processes at
all levels, freedom of thought and choice to list the least.

LET US KNOW

The Constitution of India has made various provisions

for protecting women's rights and ensure them equality.
Articles 14, 15(1),15(3),16 and 23 of the Fundamental
Rights, Articles 39 and 42 of the Directive Principles and Article 51(a)(e)
are special in this regard.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.1: What is meant by empowerment?

............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

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Political Empowerment of Women: Global Perspective Unit 8

Q.2: What is gender empowerment?

............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
Q.3: State the name of any two documents adopted by the UN to
protect rights of women.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

8.5 POLITICAL EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN

Political empowerment of women is an important aspect to ensure

gender empowerment. Political empowerment of women refers to ensuring
equal and active participation of women in the political process of the state.
Women must be provided with all political rights in equal terms with that of
men. Right to vote, right to contest in elections, right to hold public office,
right to express political views, right to criticise the government are some
of the important political rights and these rights must be enjoyed by all without
any discrimination on the basis of class, creed, religion, language, sex, etc.
The guarantee of the political rights is important for political empowerment
of women. Unless women are politically aware they cannot take part in the
political process. Without their involvement in the political process, they
will not be able to take part in the decision making process- the most
essential factor to change women's status in the society.

Women had to fight for their political rights. Many states of the world
guaranteed the right to vote to women much later since the adoption of their
democratic constitutions. However, with the coming of the UN, equality in
matters of rights of all, irrespective of men and women, has been established
universally and the constitutions of almost all the states of the world have
granted social, political and economic rights to both men and women.

The Convention on the Political Rights of Women was adopted by

the UN General Assembly on 31st March, 1953. The first three Articles of

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the Convention assert the rights of women to vote, to be eligible for election
and to hold public office, with each Article ending with the specification- "all
on equal terms with men, without any discrimination."

The political empowerment of women entails the following measures:

 The legal-judicial system should be made such that they are more
responsive to the needs and requirements of women. Laws must
protect women in case of violence and personal assault. Changes
should be made in the personal laws in matters like marriage, divorce,
maintenance, guardianship, etc. in order to eliminate discrimination
against women.

 Developmental processes should be gender sensitive in order to

minimise the gap of men and women in different spheres of life. The
programmes and policies should be enacted to bring women in the
developmental process as catalysts, participants and the recipients.

 Equal access must be provided to guarantee women's participation

in the decision making process at different levels including legislative,
executive, judicial bodies at central, state and local levels.

ACTIVITY 8.1

Try to find out in which of the states of the world women

are holding the posts of the head of the state.
...........................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................

8.6 ROLE AND POSITION OF WOMEN IN ELECTORAL

POLITICS: GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE

Political participation has always been considered a secondary activity

for women. Motherhood is regarded as the major role of women. Women's
political participation and access to positions of power are restricted for
several reasons, e.g., women's mobility is restricted, they have fewer

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opportunities to mix up with those in power, they have the sole responsibility
for household maintenance and childcare activities and they face political
nepotism which favours men. Women face two major obstacles while
entering in the political process - one is lack of support from family and
friends and the aggressive and very competitive political atmosphere. To
add to this, women are not treated as a political constituency to be wooed
and won, much less as political actor on their own right. Political parties
also show reluctance in giving a justified share to women in decision making
process. The 17th Lok Sabha election saw a good number of women M.P.s
with 78 women being elected to the House. This, however, constitutes only
14% of the 543 elected member House. This is much lower in a large
democratic country like India where more than 48% of the population is
women. The 18th Lok Sabha have 74 women MPs. According to the
Economic Survey, 2017-18, which was placed in the Parliament of India,
there are developing countries like Rwanda which has more than 60%
women representatives in the Central Legislature in 2017. Countries like
Egypt, Brazil, Malaysia, Japan, Sri Lanka and Thailand have less than 15%
representation of women in the Legislature. The survey maintained that as
of 2017, the Lok Sabha had 64 (11.8%) and Rajya Sabha had 27 (11%)
women M.P.s. As on October, 2016, out of total 4118 M.L.A.s across the
country, only 9% were women. It also mentioned that there were 13.72 lakh
elected women representatives in the Panchayati Raj Institutions which
constitute 44.2% of the total elected representatives as on December, 2017.
This definitely reflects that reservation of seats is an essential factor to
encourage more women to participate in the electoral process. In the 2019
Lok Sabha elections, a total of 724 women contested from across the country
out of 8049 candidates who were in the fray, which is only 9% ( the Assam
Tribune, May 25, 2019). In India, the gap between male and female voters
turning out to vote is narrowing since 2009. In 2009, the gap was 9%, which
went down to 1.4% in 2014. In 2019, it stands at 0.4%. In the 17th Lok Sabha
elections in 2019, the total voter turnout was 67.47% which itself was the
highest in history. In this election, women voters outnumbered men voters in
13 states out of 29 states of the country. This is definitely a positive sign.
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Unit 8 Political Empowerment of Women: Global Perspective

In the UK, which is regarded as the mother of parliamentary

governments, there were 211 women in the House of Commons in 2019.
This constituted 32% of the total members. There were 207 female peers-
27% of the members of the House of Lords. In the European Parliament,
41% of the members are women. At 32%, the UK is in 39th position in
proportion of women in the lower House of the Parliaments of the world.
Rwanda has over 61% along with Cuba and Bolivia having a majority of
women in Parliament ([Link]). In the 116th Congress of the
US, there were 127 women representatives which constituted 23.7% of the
total members.

Women should actively participate in the political process. They

should act as the real leaders and decision makers. In those capacities,
their activities should not only be women-centric rather their activities
should be broad enough to include all issues related to socio-economic
development of the society, then only real empowerment of women is
possible.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.4: How can political empowerment of women be

ensured?
…..............................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
Q.5: Mention the obstacles which women mainly find in participating
in the political process.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................

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Political Empowerment of Women: Global Perspective Unit 8

8.7 LET US SUM UP

 The concept of empowerment refers to the process of strengthening

oneself to be more powerful and have the potential to guide himself for
a good life and to claim his rights to lead a good life. If empowerment is
understood as an action, then it refers to the process of making oneself
confident to overcome obstacles and to achieve success in life -
socially, politically and economically.
 So far as the concept of gender empowerment is concerned, it refers
to the empowerment of people of any gender, and not directly refers to
empowerment of women as such. As women are marginalised in most
of the societies of the world, so gender empowerment conventionally
refers to empowerment of women.
" The role of the United Nations in ensuring equal rights and position to
women is very important. It has adopted a number of documents in
this regard.
 Political empowerment of women is an important aspect to ensure
gender empowerment. Political empowerment of women refers to
ensuring equal and active participation of women in the political process
of the state. They must be provided with all political rights in equal
terms with that of men. Right to vote, right to stand in elections, right to
hold public office, right to express political views, right to criticise the
government, etc. are some of the important political rights and these
rights must be enjoyed by all without any discrimination on the basis of
class, creed, religion, language, gender, etc.
 Women have to face a number of obstacles in the way of political
participation.
 Women should actively participate in the political process. They should
act as the real leaders and decision makers. In those capacities, their
activities should not only be women-centric rather their activities should
be broad enough to include all issues related to socio-economic

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Unit 8 Political Empowerment of Women: Global Perspective

development of the society, then only real empowerment of women is

possible.

8.8 FURTHER READING

1) Agarwal, M.(Ed.) (2013). Women Empowerment and Gender Equality.

New Delhi: Kanishka Publishers, Distributors.
2) Brush, L.D.(2007). Gender And Governance. Jaipur: Rawat Publication.
3) Ghai, K.K. (2008). Indian Government and Politics. New Delhi: Kalyani
Publishers.
4) Hust, E. (2004). Women’s Political Representation And Empowerment
In India: A Millions Indiras Now? New Delhi: Manohar Publication.
5) Yasin, Adil-ul & Upadhyay, Archana. (2004). Human Rights. New Delhi:
Akansha Publishing House.

8.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: The concept of empowerment refers to the process of

strengthening oneself to be more powerful and have the potential
to guide himself or herself for a good life and to claim his or her
rights to lead a good life. The different definitions of empowerment
range from defining it as a largely individual process of taking
control of the responsibility for one's own life and situation to a
political process of granting human rights and social justice to
disadvantaged groups of the society. To be practical,
empowerment includes both individual capacity to be able to
develop himself and at the same time, political support to
overcome the incapabilities which hinder individual development
definitely at the societal level.
Ans to Q No 2: The concept of gender empowerment refers to the
empowerment of people of any gender and not directly refers to
empowerment of women as such. As women are marginalised

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Political Empowerment of Women: Global Perspective Unit 8

sections in most of the societies of the world, so gender

empowerment conventionally refers to empowerment of women.
Ans to Q No 3: Declaration on the Elimination of Discrimination Against
Women, Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination Against Women.
Ans to Q No 4: Political empowerment of women can be achieved by
adopting following measures:
(a)The legal-judicial system should be made such that they are
more responsive to the needs and requirement of women. Laws
must be to protect women in case of violence and personal
assault. Changes should be made in the personal laws in matters
like marriage, divorce, maintenance, guardianship, etc. order to
eliminate discrimination against women.
(b)Developmental processes should be gender sensitive in order
to minimise the gap of men and women in different spheres of
life. The programmes and policies should be enacted to bring
women in the developmental process as catalysts, participants
and the recipients.
(c)Equal access must be provided to guarantee women
participation in the decision making process at different levels
including legislative, executive, judicial bodies at central, state
and local levels.
Ans to Q No 5: Women's political participation and access to positions of
power are restricted for several reasons, e.g., women's mobility
is restricted, they have fewer opportunities to mix up with those
in power, they have the sole responsibility for household
maintenance and childcare activities and they face political
nepotism which favours men. Women face two major obstacles
while entering in the political process - one is lack of support
from family and friends and the aggressive and very competitive
political atmosphere. To add to this, women are not treated as a
political constituency to be wooed and won, much less as political
actor on their own right. Political parties also show reluctance in
giving a justified share to women in decision making process.

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8.10 POSSIBLE QUESTIONS

Q. 1 : State the definition of women empowerment provided by the UN

Development Fund for Women.
Q. 2 : Discuss the necessity for women empowerment.
Q. 3 : Discuss the efforts of the United Nations to promote rights of
women.
Q. 4 : Examine the various obstacles in the way of political empowerment
of women.
Q. 5 : Discuss the political participation of women in India.

*** ***** ***

104 Women and Politics

UNIT 9: POLITICAL EMPOWERMENT OF
WOMEN IN INDIA WITH SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO ASSAM
UNIT STRUCTURE

9.1 Learning Objectives

9.2 Introduction
9.3 Factors that affect Political Participation of Women
9.4 Measures Adopted in India for Political Empowerment of
Women
9.5 Role and Position of Women in the Indian Parliament
9.6 Role and Position of Women in Assam Legislature
9.7 Let Us Sum Up
9.8 Further Reading
9.9 Answers to Check Your Progress
9.10 Possible Questions

9.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to -

 examine the factors that influence political participation of women
 explain the measures adopted in India for political empowerment
of women
 discuss the role and position of women in the Indian Parliament
and Assam Legislative Assembly.

9.2 INTRODUCTION

Political empowerment is one of the important ways through which

the position of women can be uplifted in the society. Political empowerment
of women can be achieved through political participation. Political
participation is normally associated with the modern form of democracy. In
this political system, participation of individual in political activity is considered
as a virtue, a sign of political health and the best method of ensuring one's

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interests. Participation gives an opportunity to express one's own point of

view and secure the greatest good for the greatest number. It provides
citizens a sense of dignity and value, provides a sense of their duties and
responsibilities and facilitates broader political understanding. By involving
people in the affairs of the state, participation promotes stability and order
in the system. Political participation makes citizens politically empowered.
Participation of both men and women in the political affairs of the state is
very important. However, in many cases we tend to notice lower level of
political participation of women in the political sphere which results in lack
of political empowerment of women. In this unit, we shall discuss various
aspects associated with the political empowerment of women with special
reference to India and Assam.

9.3 FACTORS THAT AFFECT POLITICAL

PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN

Political empowerment of women can be achieved when women are

involved in the political affairs of the state in the real sense. Effective political
participation is very important for political empowerment of women. A number
of factors influences the level of political participation of women. Some of
them are mentioned in the following:

 Poverty: Women do not have enough resources to enable them to

effectively participate in politics. Majority of them are involved in
economic activities that do not generate enough resources. Very few
women have the economic power to finance themselves, they have
to depend on their husbands or close family relatives to sponsor them.
These people in cases do not encourage them because they see
politics as a waste of time and resources.

 Religion and other Socio-cultural Factors: Religious belief and

other socio-cultural factors are also used as strategy to exclude
women from politics. In many third world nations, women are excluded
and not allowed to participate in any public matters. Some culture
has separate roles for men and women. The sphere of women's wok

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is within the home and family (private sphere) while that of men is in
the public sphere which has in many ways affected the nations building.
Many societies restrict women only to the household activities and
women's participation in politics is regarded as a hindered by the
family and domestic obligations.

 Level of Education: The level of education also effects political

participation of women. In many societies women do not have equal
educational opportunities along with their male counterparts. However,
there are some women that are more talented and progressive than
some men, if given the opportunity they will contribute their quarter
towards nation building.

 Lack of Interest by Women: In many cases women lack interest to

actively participate in the political process of their country. Some time,
lack of interest by women in politics is borne out of their socialisation
and the belief that politics and leadership are not for women.

9.4 MEASURES ADOPTED IN INDIA FOR POLITICAL

EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN

In India a number of constitutional and legislative measures have been

adopted for political empowerment of women. Through these measures
the Government of India has aimed to strengthen the overall processes
that promote all round development of women. The Constitution of India
has guaranteed equality and freedom to all citizens. Articles 325 and 326 of
the Indian Constitution that guarantee political equality and equal rights to
participate in political activities as well as the right to vote respectively.

The government of India has adopted a number of strategies of

coordinating women's welfare and socio-economic development programs
across ministries and departments. It aims to provide service for all
programs run by the Government for women under the aegis of various
Central Ministries implying a vision for holistic empowerment of women.
The Government of India has adopted a number of schemes with the
purpose of providing educational facilities to the women. As education plays

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a very important role when it comes to any sort of empowerment and

specially women empowerment that will help them to take part in politics
as well. Apart from this the Government of India has also adopted other
schemes for empowerment of vulnerable and marginalised groups and
women in difficult circumstances, such as- Schemes of National Scheduled
Tribes Finance and Development Corporation (NSTFDC), Integrated Child
Development Scheme, Integrated Child Protection Scheme, Swarnjayanti
Gram Swarozgar Yojana, Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment
Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) etc. These schemes provide supportive
institutional framework for women victims of difficult circumstances so that
they could lead their life with dignity and conviction.

The Parliament of India has enacted a number of laws for making

women politically empowered. The Parliament has passed the 73rd
Amendment Act in 1992 which provided for reservation of 33% of seat for
women in Panchayati Raj Institution. It has also passed the 74th Amendment
Act in 1992 which provided reservation of 33% of seat for women in the
Municipalities. Through these amendments Article 243D and 243T women
are provided reservation of seats for women in Panchayats and
Municipalities. These Acts have fostered more and more women
participants and leaders at the grass root levels.
Apart from this the Indian Parliament has also enacted the Sexual
Harassment of Women at Workplace (PREVENTION, PROHIBITION and
REDRESSAL) Act, 2013 which also contribute towards political
empowerment of women indirectly. This Act provides protection against
sexual harassment of women at work place and for the prevention and
redressal of complaints of sexual harassment and for matters connected
therewith or incidental thereto. It is applicable and enacted whereas sexual
harassment results in violation of the fundamental rights of a woman to
equality under article 14 and 15 of the Constitution of India and her right to
life and to live with dignity under article 21 of the Constitution and right to
practice any profession or to carry on any occupation, trade or business
which includes a right to safe environment, free from sexual harassment.

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Again the Women's Reservation Bill (The Constitution 108th

Amendment Bill) proposes to amend the Constitution of India to reserve
one-third of all seats in the Lok Sabha, and in all state legislative assemblies
for women. The Act was passed in the year 2023. This will be helpful in
increasing the political participation of women.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.1: What is the full form of MGNREGA?

..................................................................................
..................................................................................
Q.2: State the meaning of political participation.
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
Q.3: Mention one provision of the 73rd Amendment Act.
...........................................................................................................
Q.4: Write briefly about any two factors that affect the political
participation of women.
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................

9.5 ROLE AND POSITION OF WOMEN IN THE INDIAN

PARLIAMENT

A new dimension of women in politics has emerged in recent years

all over the world. More and more women have now been entering into
politics. In India, reform movements before and after independence has
helped women to gain considerable power in politics also. After
independence they have achieved an unprecedented political break-through
with the reservation of seats for them in panchayats and other public bodies.

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It is heartening to note that Indian women were among the earliest to get
their political rights (right to vote) without any political movement like in the
United States and many Western countries. Indian women have a distinction
to become UNO Secretary (Vijay Laxmi Pandit), President (Pratibha Patil),
Prime Minister (Indira Gandhi), Chief Minister (Sucheta Kriplani, Jayalalitha,
Uma Bharati, Mayawati and Vasundhara Raje). However, it does not imply
high level of political empowerment of women in India. If we take women's
participation in politics as one of the measurements of their empowerment,
we find at present their number is very low in comparison to men in the
Parliament. It is about 11 percent only (26 women in upper house-Rajya
Sabha consisting of 245 members and 59 women in lower House-Lok Sabha
consisting of 543 members. There were only 8 women ministers from a
total of 75 in the government of Dr Manmohan Singh). The 17th Lok Sabha
has a total of 78 women members. Again the Rajya Sabha has 24 female
members at present. The 18th Lok Sabha has 74 Women MPs.
Many studies conducted in India and elsewhere (in so-called
developed countries) revealed that though the number of women voters
has increased over the years, the number of women as holder of public
offices is not very encouraging. One of the reasons for this is that equal
sharing of housework is still a nightmare for women. Working women find
that housework and care of children is still largely considered their task, as
on an average working wives/mothers are compelled to work at least 14
hours a day or even more. This prohibits many women come to participate
in active politics.

9.6 ROLE AND POSITION OF WOMEN IN ASSAM

LEGISLATURE

Assam has a glorious history about women's role in politics.

Princesses Amritprabha and Rajyamati from ancient Assam exercised their
influence in the administration and politics. Queen Sadhani took active part
in politics and acted as an advisor to her husband in the Chutiya Kingdom
of Sadiya. During the Ahom reign, women had a remarkable position in
politics. The chief queen of the Ahom King Tao-Khamthi (1380-89); Chao-

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Political Empowerment of Women in India with Special Reference to Assam Unit 9

Ching, a very accomplished consort of the Ahom King Suklenmung (1539-

52) and ngbakla Gabharu, the wife of Tao-mung Bargohain played important
roles in politics. Bar- raja Phuleswari, the chief consort of the Ahom King
Siva Singha (1714-44) was the first queen of Assam to govern the kingdom
directly. Phuleswari's successor Ambika and Sarbeswari governed the
kingdom one after another. Women like Mula Gabharu, Ramani Gabharu,
Jaymati, Rangili and Padumi were politically conscious women and
sacrificed their lives for the cause of the kingdom.

During the British period, many prominent Assamese women leaders

came forward. Women leaders like Hemanta Kumari Devi Bardoloi, poet
Linibala Devi, Bijut Phookan, Sumitra Bhattacharya, Kiranmayee Agarwalla,
Snehalata Devi Baruah, Chandra Prabha Saikiani, Shrijuta Rajabala Das,
Swarlata Barua, Raj Kumari Mohini Gohain, Basantalata Hazarika etc., along
with other Assamese women played remarkable roles in the India's struggle
for freedom. Assamese women like Kanaklata Barua, Bhogeswari Phukani,
Rabati Lahon, Golapi Chutiyani, etc., sacrificed their lives during the Quit
India Movement. Assamese women took active participation in Assam
Movement also.
Despite having a glorious history, the participation of women in the
politics of Assam today is very low. Although as voters, women of Assam
showed a remarkable progress, however their participation in the active
politics is negligible. Women constitute 48.82% of the entire population of
the state (Census 2011), but their representation in the politics of Assam
hardly reflects their percentage in population. When representation and
participation of women in Assam politics itself is made a big issue, the
issue of participation by Muslim women, tea garden women and tribal women
are another dimension of the issue. The state with a considerable percentage
of Muslim population (34.2%, Census 2011), tea garden population and
tribal population has little women's representation in active politics. Today,
the 33% reservation at the Panchayat level has increased Assamese
women's representation in the local bodies, however due to the low political
participation and representation of women in Assam in the last general
elections reflects a low representation in both houses of the Parliament

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and State Assembly. Though the average percentage of women's

representation in the Parliament, Assemblies and Council of Ministers taken
together has been around 15% in India, but it is lesser in case of Assamese
women. In the present Lok Sabha, out of 14 MPs from Assam, there are
only 1 female MP out of seven MPs from Assam in the Rajya Sabha, at
present there is no female MP and out of 126 MLAs in the present State
Assembly , there are only 06 female MLAs. However, as compared to its
neghbouring States, Assam is still in a good position in terms of women's
representation in politics. The participation of Assamese women in the Rajya
Sabha elections is also very minimal. Since its first election, only a few
have received the opportunity to represent in the Rajya Sabha. In the
elections of 1994 and 1996, there was only one female member in the
Rajya Sabha. Assam has 126 Assembly constituencies but the participation
of women in the State Assembly compared to its male counterpart is also
very low. Late Usha Barthakur was the first woman MLA and woman minister
of Assam, who won Assembly election in 1952. In 1980, Syeda Anwara
Taimur created history by becoming the only female Chief Minister of the
state from December 6, 1980 to June 30, 1981.

The lack of importance of the political parties, negative attitude of

political leaders, lack of opportunity, low female literacy, low level of
information, economic inequality, burden of domestic work, female insecurity,
lack of confidence, lack of ability to communicate with public, lack of
empowerment among women and lack of proper training barred an
Assamese woman to take active part in mainstream politics despite having
interest in it. Assamese women have been unable to occupy major positions
in the political parties, except one or two. Most of the parties do not groom
women towards taking up powerful positions and responsibilities. The space
has been limited to family connections rather than convictions and
commitment. Women are allowed only if there is no alternative choice.
They are considered only if there is a mandatory provision like reservation.
The number of successful female politicians in the State also clearly reflects
that common people are not in favour of bringing women in power. Student
politics is an important feature in the politics of Assam. The major student's

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organisations produce about 50% of the future political leaders. Even these
bodies pay little attention in women's participation in politics.

Less involvement of the Assamese women in the election process has

kept them marginalised in power politics. They should be in a greater number
in power politics so that they can address the issues concerning women.
The Indian Constitution ensures people's right to participate in politics without
any difference or distinction. The channels to enter into the Parliament or
Assembly are same for both men and women. The election is instrumental
for the people in a democratic country through which they can participate in
the decision making process of its government. With active participation in
the elections as competitors or voters, Assamese women can enter into
power politics and bring fair and equal treatment towards all.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.5: The 17th Lok Sabha has a total of

………………… women members. (Fill in the
blank)
Q.6: Mention names of any two women Assamese leaders who took
active part in the Freedom Movement of India.
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
Q.7: What are the factors responsible for lower participation of women
in politics?
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................

9.7 LET US SUM UP

 Political empowerment is one of the important ways through which the

position of women can be uplifted in the society. Political empowerment
of women can be achieved through political participation.

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 Political participation is normally associated with the modern form of

democracy. Participation gives an opportunity to express one's own
point of view and secure the greatest good for the greatest number. It
provides citizens a sense of dignity and value, provides understanding
of their duties and responsibilities and facilitates broader political
understanding.
 Political participation makes citizens politically empowered.
Participation of both men and women in the political affairs of the state
is very important. However, in many cases we can notice lower level
of political participation of women in the political sphere which results
in lack of political empowerment of women.
 A number of factors affect political participation of women. Some of
these factors are- poverty, religion and other socio-cultural factors,
level of education, lack of interest by the women etc.
 In India a number of constitutional and legislative measures have been
adopted for political empowerment of women.
 However despite the existence of various measures, the participation
of women in active politics is very low in India and in Assam as well.

9.8 FURTHER READING

1) Carmichael, Sarah; Dilli, Selin; Rijpma, Auke. (2016). Women in the

Global Economic History. in Baten, Jörg (ed.), A History of the Global
Economy: from 1500 to the Present. Cambridge New York: Cambridge
University Press.
2) MacIvor, Heather. (1996). Women’s Participation in Politics. in MacIvor,
Heather (ed.), Women and Politics in Canada: an Introductory text,
Peterborough, Ontario: Broadview Press.
3) Tadros, Mariz. (2015). Women in Politics: Gender, Power and
Development (ed), Canada: Zed Books.

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9.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee

Act
Ans to Q No 2: Political participation is normally associated with the modern
form of democracy. Participation gives an opportunity to express
one's own point of view and secure the greatest good for the
greatest number. It provides citizens a sense of dignity and value,
provides understanding about their duties and responsibilities
and facilitates broader political under-standing. By involving people
in the affairs of the state, participation promotes stability and order
in the system. Political participation makes citizens politically
empowered.
Ans to Q No 3: The 73rd Amendment Act provided for reservation of 33%
of seat for women in Panchayati Raj Institution.
Ans to Q No 4: (i) Poverty: Women do not have enough resources that
may enable them participate effectively in politics. Majority of them
are involved in economic activities that do not generate enough
resources. Very few women have the economic power to finance
themselves, they have to depend on their husbands or close
family relatives to sponsor them. These people in cases do not
encourage them because they see politics as waste of time and
resources.
(ii) Religion and other socio cultural factors: Religious belief and
other socio-cultural factors are also used as strategy to exclude
women from politics. In many third world nations, women are
excluded and not allowed to participate in any public matters.
Some culture has separate roles for men and women. The
sphere of women's wok is within the home and family (private
sphere) while that of men is in the public sphere which has in
many ways affected the nations building. Many societies restrict
women only to the household activities and women's participation
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in politics is regarded as a hindered by the family and domestic

obligations.
Ans to Q No 5: 78
Ans to Q No 6: Kanaklata Barua, Bhogeswari Phukani.
Ans to Q No 7: The lack of importance of the political parties, negative
attitude of political leaders, lack of opportunity, low female literacy,
low level of information, economic inequality, burden of domestic
work, female insecurity, lack of confidence, lack of ability to
communicate with public, lack of empowerment among the
women and lack of proper training are responsible for lower
political participation of women.

9.10 POSSIBLE QUESTIONS

Q. 1 : In which year was the 73rd Amendment Act passed by the Indian
Parliament?
Q. 2 : Write briefly about the provisions incorporated in the Indian
Constitution for political empowerment of women.
Q. 3 : Examine various factors that affect political participation of women.
Q. 4 : Explain the measures adopted by the Indian Parliament for political
empowerment of women.
Q. 5 : Examine the role and position of women in the Indian Parliament.
Q. 6 : Discuss the role and position of women in the Assam Legislative
Assembly.

*** ***** ***

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UNIT 10: ECONOMIC PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN
IN INDIA: ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
UNIT STRUCTURE

10.1 Learning Objectives

10.2 Introduction
10.3 Empowerment of Women in India
10.4 Stridhan
10.5 Personal Law and Women
10.6 Initiative Taken by SAFP for Women Empowerment
10.7 Let Us Sum Up
10.8 Further Reading
10.9 Answers To Check Your Progress
10.10 Possible Questions

10.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to --

 explain the concept of Stridhan
 discuss the various provisions of personal law related to women
 describe various initiatives taken by SAFP for women
empowerment.

10.2 INTRODUCTION

Empowerment is a continuous process of realising the goals of

equality, human liberation and freedom. Women empowerment implies
equality of opportunity and equality between the genders of ethnic groups,
social classes and age groups, collective participation in different spheres
of life etc. Women empowerment is a process through which women can
effectively take part in the decision making process that has tremendous
impact on their lives. In this unit, we shall discuss various aspect associated
with economic empowerment of women in India.

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10.3 EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN IN INDIA

Empowerment as a concept was first introduced at the International

Women Conference at Nairobi in 1985 and was defined as a redistribution
of social power and control of resources in favour of women. It was a general
opinion that empowered women who then became agents of their own
development, able to exercise choices to set their own agenda and be strong
enough to challenge and change their position in the society. Empowerment
is self-governance, self-sufficiency and self-maintenance and above all it
is economic independence through information, knowledge and necessary
skills. In India, the major land mark in the field of women empowerment
was bought about by 73rd and 74th amendments to the Constitution of
India in the first half of the 90's in which 33% reservation to the women in
the panchayats and municipalities was made mandatory.
In India, the National Policy for Empowerment of Women was adopted
in 2001. The goal of this Policy is to bring about the advancement,
development and empowerment of women. The year 2001 was celebrated
as "Women Empowerment Year". Awareness regarding this policy was
widely disseminated to encourage active participation of all stakeholders
for achieving its goals. Some of the objectives of this Policy are :
i) To create an environment through positive economic and social
policies for full development of women which will enable them to realise
their full potential.
ii) Enabling all women to enjoy all human rights and fundamental freedom
on equal basis with men in all spheres- political, economic, social,
cultural and civil.
iii) Equal access to participation and decision making of women in social,
political and economic life of the nation.
iv) Equal access to women to health care, quality education at levels,
career and vocational guidance, employment, equal remuneration,
occupational health and safety, social security and public office etc.

v) Strengthening legal systems aimed at elimination of all forms of

discrimination against women.

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vi) Changing societal attitudes and community practices by active

participation and involvement of both men and women.

vii) Mainstreaming a gender perspective in the development process.

viii) Elimination of discrimination and all forms of violence against women
and the girl child.
ix) Building and strengthening partnerships with civil society, particularly
women's organisations.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.1: State the meaning of empowerment.

.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
Q.2: Mention any two objectives of the National Policy for
Empowerment of Women, 2001.
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................

10.4 STRIDHAN

Stridhan is the exclusive property of the wife and its entrustment to

her in-laws amounts to the creation of a trust and they are bound to return
the same when a married woman makes a demand. A criminal proceeding
for its misappropriation against husband or her in-laws is maintainable. In
Soma Devi Veena Kumari the Court held that "Stridhan" is covered by the
expression "dowry".
Manu, the ancient Indian Philosopher, enumerates six kinds of
Stridhan, such as:
i) Gifts made before the nuptial fire, explained by katyayana to mean
gifts made at the time of marriage before the fire which is the witness
of the nuptial.
ii) Gifts made at the bridal procession, that is, says Katyayana, while
the bride is being led from residence of her parents to that of her
husband.

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iii) Gifts made in token of love, that is, says Katyayana, those made
through affection by her father-in-law and mother-in-law ( Pritidatta),
and those made at the time of her making obeisance at the feet of
elders (Padavandanika),
iv) Gifts made by the father
v) Gifts made by the mother
vi) Gifts made by the brothers.
Stridhan property belongs to the wife not only in the matrimonial home
or even after her separation from it. The husband is mere custodian of
stridhan and he cannot refuse to return it to his wife. Dishonesty or
misappropriation or conversion to use stridhan property by husband would
constitute offence under section 406 of the Indian Penal Code.

10.5 PERSONAL LAW AND WOMEN

The Indian Constitution guarantees equal rights to both sexes and

does not discriminate on the basis of caste, colour and creed. The concept
of social security is essentially related to high ideas of human dignity and
social justice. The Act passed by the Government for the benefit and
empowerment of women, her social security and welfare are numerous.
Some of them are-
(a) Personal Law : Hindu Laws were codified after independence, which
brought out radical reforms to improve condition of women. Though
Hindu women occupied a high position during Vedic times, later on
they were subjected to various social discrimination. Hindu women
become subservient. They were never considered an equal partner in
life. To uplift the position of women many Acts were passed, such as:
(i) Hindu Marriage Act, 1955: Under Hindu Marriage Act, 1955
provisions have been made to prohibit Bigamy and by this Act,
divorce can be given by the wife, subject to fulfillment of certain
conditions.

(ii) Hindu Marriage Act, 1956: By this Act, women have been given
the right of enjoyment of property rights and other entitlements.

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The 1956 Act gave absolute share to the widow as well as

daughters in the self acquired property of the husband and father
respectively.

(iii) The Law of Adoption and Maintenance Act, 1956: This Act
provides provisions for maintenance of wife, widow, minor children
and poor parents. Through this Act Hindu women has the right to
adopt a child. A woman who is unmarried or widow may adopt a
child.

(iv) Dowry Prohibition Act 1961 and Amendment Act, 1986: Among
all the social evils, the dowry system is the most serious evil and
to prohibit this evil, the Parliament enacted the Dowry Prohibition
Act, 1961, which was amended in 1986 for making its provision
more stringent and effective. By this Act, a new offence of "Dowry
death" was included in I.P.C. and necessary amendment have
been made in Cr. P.C. and Indian Evidence Act. The offence
relating to dowry are now cognizable, non bailable and not
compoundable. The burden of proof of innocence rests on the
accused.

(v) Prevention of Atrocities Act, 1989: This Act makes provision

for safeguarding the women of weaker section, belonging to SC
& ST classes. By this Act, assault or using force on women is
punishable for not less than 6 months and upto a maximum of
five years with fine.

(vi) National Commission for Women Act, 1990: The National

Commission for Women Act, 1990 was enacted to facilitate
redressal of grievances and for the setting up of an agency. The
main function of the Commission is to look into the matters of
constitutional and legal safeguard provided for women and to
review the existing laws and suggest amendments, if necessary.
The Commission also has executive cum judicial function to look
into the complaints and take suo moto notice of cases relating to
women's rights.

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Equal rights for women has been recognised under the Article 15 (3)
of the Indian Constitution and it allows the state to take special measures
for women and girls to guarantee the right to equality. Despite the different
gender specific laws in place, women's status in society continues to be
devalued. Gender based violence and discrimination faced by women are
manifestations of the devalued status of women. In order to find a solution
to the gender based violence, laws impacting women's equality rights have
to be assessed and strictly implemented. The laws prohibiting the gender
discrimination based in the home and in the public sphere have to be evolved
and implemented. The problem of gender based violence requires immediate
attention. The efforts to improve women's status through the use of laws
will also be undertaken at the grassroots level.

Ministry of Women and Child Development, Government of India, has

been concerned with the legislative aspects of the following Acts :

Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986: A proposal

to amend the Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986
was considered by the Government of India, in order to widen its scope and
make its implementation more effective. It has been directed for wider
consultations to be held for the Amendment Act. National Commission for
Women, after holding wide ranging consultations at Regional and National
levels, has recommended enactment of a comprehensive legislation to
replace the existing Act.

The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961: National Commission for Women has
suggested number of amendments to the Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 to
make its implementation more effective. Recommendations have been
considered in the Ministry and therefore, discussed by an Inter-Ministerial
Group (IMG) constituted for this purpose. The proposed Amendments to
the Act are currently with the Ministry of Law and Justice for their views.

The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005: Protection of

Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 is a comprehensive legislation
to protect women from all forms of domestic violence. This Act also covers
women who have been in a relationship with the abuser and are subjected

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to violence of any kind- physical, sexual, mental, verbal or emotional. This

Act has come into force with effect from 26. 10. 2006.
Ministry of Women and Child Development has notified the Protection
of Women from Domestic Violence Rules for implementation of the Act.
Both the Act and Rules have been circulated to the states/Union territories
to appoint Protection Officers, register service providers, notify medical
and shelter facilities and give wide publicity to the Act for creating awareness
of it provisions among the public. The State Governments and Union Territory
Administrations have also been advised to send quarterly reports on the
implementation of the Act.
Bill for Protection of Women from Sexual Harassment at Work Place:
A Bill seeking to provide women the right to protection against sexual
harassment at work place has been drafted in consultation with the National
Commission for Women and prominent women, civil society organisations
working in the area. The proposed new legislation seeks to cover women
working in the unorganised, organised, formal and informal sectors and
would have all essential provisions about the employers obligation to prevent
and redress sexual harassment at the work place. The Indian Parliament
passed the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention,
Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013. The Act came into force from 9
December 2013. This Act ensures that all employers must form a grievance
redressal mechanism for the cases for sexual harassment at the workplace.
Prevention of Trafficking of Women and Children for Commercial
Sexual Exploitation: Trafficking in human being is an organised crime violating
all basic human rights. India has emerged as a source transit and destination
country. It is estimated that there are three million sex workers in India, of
which 40 percent constitute children. Most often these victims are trafficked
through means like duping, luring, fake marriage, abducting, kidnapping and
manipulating social and economic vulnerabilities. The issue of trafficking in
the country is a matter of serious concern. The Ministry of Women and Child
Development has adopted a multi-pronged approach to prevent and combat
trafficking which includes legislative measures for prevention of trafficking of
commercial and sexual exploitation, programmes/schemes for prevention,

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rescue and rehabilitation, reintegration and repatriation of victims of trafficking,

training capacity building and awareness generation.
The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956: The Immoral Traffic
(Prevention) Act, 1956 (ITPA) is the premier legislation for prevention of
trafficking for commercial sexual exploitation. Certain Amendments are being
proposed to Immoral Traffic (prevention) Act, 1956 to widen its scope to
make the implementation more effective by providing stringent punishment
to the traffickers and other perpetrators of the crime and by preventing re-
victimisation of the victims. Indian Penal Code also provides provision for
prevention of crimes related to trafficking. India is also signatory to various
International and Regional Conventions such as United Nations Convention
against Transnational Organised Crime with its Protocol to Prevent,
Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Person specially Women and Children.
Apart from this, India has ratified some of the major Conventions related to
trafficking, such as- SACRC Convention of Preventing and Combating
Trafficking of Women and Children in Prostitution, Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, Convention on
the Rights of the Child. Article 23 of the Constitution of India also prohibits
trafficking in human beings and beggars.
Some other laws enacted by the Indian Parliament to protect women
are- Legal Practitioners (Women) Act, 1923; Maternity Benefit Act, 1961;
Equal Remuneration Act, 1976; Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961; Pre-conception
and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques Act. 1994; Medical Termination of
Pregnancy Act, 1971; Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006; Immoral Traffic
(Prevention) Act, 1987; Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition)
Act, 1986; Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987; Criminal Law
Amendment Act, 2013.
 Violence Against Women
The deep rooted ideologies of gender discrimination, the confinement
of women to the private domestic realm, restrictions on their mobility and
exclusion from the society, public, political sphere continue to discourage
the majority and the entitlements and public services, which constitute the
poor women 's life line, do not reach appropriately to women. Violence

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against a woman affects the women's sense of self-esteem. Violence

against women demolishes her self-confidence. It is often used as a potent
tool of subjugation and disempowerment of women.
National Family Health Survey (2005-06) reported that one-third of
women aged 15 to 49 had experienced physical violence and approximately
one in ten had been victim sexual violence. National Crime Record Bureau
indicated that, there is an increasing incidence of crimes against women.
Total number of crimes against women has increased by 29. 6 percent
between 2006-2010. It has been observed that the conviction rate for
violence against women remained low, reflecting inter alia, that many of
these cases are not being prosecuted properly and inadequate proof is
tendered before the courts. Child marriage is another area of concern which
makes women more vulnerable to domestic violence.
The consequences of gender discrimination especially violence
against women led to declining female sex ratio. The Census of India, data
has revealed that the worst child sex ratio has been found and it continues
to suffer from adverse sex ratio due to persisting gender discrimination.
The declining child sex ratio is a salient demographic disaster which has
adverse implications on women in the form of increased trafficking for sexual
exploitation, honour killing, rapes, etc.
Trafficking of women and children is another gross form of human
rights violation. It has deprived them from their rights and fundamental
freedom. Trafficked women and children have a greater tendency to face
risk with fewer opportunities to avoid abusive conditions with a marginalised
access to justice and other redressal resources. Trafficking is often hidden
in the view of migration and therefore the abuse of rights is very difficult to
identify. The forced/bonded labour, domestic servitude are among other
major consequences of trafficking. It has been estimated that during 2004
around 2. 8 million women were victims of trafficking out of which 36 percent
were children.
Discrimination against women and gender based violence continue
to be a pervasive feature of our society. Unequal social, political and
economic status of women is an outcome of patriarchy and deeply

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entrenched socio- economic, cultural stereotypes about women and it is

sometimes perpetuated by laws, regulations, and policy which do not
sufficiently address the sub-ordinate status of the women. Thus, it is
necessary that the laws which are gender biased or gender blind are
recognised and amended and wherever necessary, new legislations be
enacted to protect and safeguard the rights of women. It is important that
the existing laws are implemented and enforced effectively.

10.6 INITIATIVE TAKEN BY SAFP FOR WOMEN

EMPOWERMENT

Women are the one of the important agent of sustainable development.

They are the best upholders of environmental, ecological and social
balances yet a victim of man-dominated patriarchal system, neglected in
their day to day life, neither considered equal to man in wage or social
status. Empowerment is a process that helps and assists women realise
their identity, capacity, capability, strengths and power and its application in
day to day life in various spheres. It enables them to have access to
resources, greater say in decision making, more ability to plan their time
and family size and also free them from irrelevant customs, traditions,
practice and prejudices.
Empowerment is multi-dimensional process. This enables women
to realise their identity and hidden power and creates a desire to achieve
and express. Generally, development is expected to generate the focus
that leads to empowerment and raises the status of women. Power is not
a commonly acquired priviledge which could be purchased or handed over.
This has to be understood, acquired, exercised, sustained and preserved
both by women themselves, their families and communities. The process
of empowerment helps women to understand and realise their own unique
potential, express what they desire, suffer, feel, respecting themselves and
understanding own needs, explaining own distinct growth and development.
Empowerment of women can be achieved through education and
training, better health care and management, higher age at marriage, control
on family spacing and number, higher work participation in organised sector,

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financial and service support, advancement into higher positions of power,

better consciousness of rights and responsibilities. Women need support,
counseling, guidance and training in order to become empowered persons.
They need to be empowered through the process of realisation of capacity
and potential, develop independent critical thinking and perceptions, think
authentically and act with their own convictions and feeling and learn
respecting themselves and their decisions.

Save A Family Plan (SAFP) is committed to the empowerment of the

poor and marginalised people of India. SAFP is a Canadian-based international
non-government organisation. It is founded by Monsignor Augustine Kandathil
in India in 1965. SAFP is a family development programme which works for
social change and justice by assisting poor families and communities in India.
It recognises value and dignity of each person. SAFP uses two main programs
that work to teach families how to support themselves and build a better
future for their communities. Activities of SAFP is supported by a large network
of volunteers in Canada and India.

SAFP has been working for the betterment of women across the
country. It has done extensive work in the field of human trafficking and
violence against women. It also works for the betterment of household
particularly female headed household. It has particularly contributed in the
process of empowerment of women by placing emphasis on education,
health awareness etc. In the year 2017-18, a total number of 1,437 families
received training in marketing and entrepreneurship to give them the tools
required to start a small business ([Link]
11/[Link]).

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.3: State the meaning of Stridhan.

............................................................................................
............................................................................................
..............................................................................................................

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Q.4: Mention the names of any four Acts enacted by the Indian
Parliament to protect the rights of women.
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
Q.5: Write briefly about the meaning of women empowerment.
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................

10.7 LET US SUM UP

 Empowerment as a concept was first introduced at the International

Women Conference at Nairobi in 1995 and was defined as a redistribution
of social power and control of resources in favour of women. It was a
general opinion that empowered women to become agent of their own
development, enabling themselves to exercise choices, to set their own
agenda and be strong enough to challenge and change their position in
the society. Empowerment is self-governance, self-sufficiency and self-
maintenance and above all it is economic independence through
information, knowledge and necessary skills.
 In India, the major landmark in the field of women empowerment was
bought about by 73rd and 74th amendments to the Constitution of India
in the first half of the 90's in which 33% reservation to the women in the
panchayats and municipalities was made mandatory.
 In India the National Policy for Empowerment of Women was adopted
in 2001. The goal of this Policy is to bring about the advancement,
development and empowerment of women. The goal of this Policy is
to bring about the advancement, development and empowerment of
women.

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 Stridhan is the exclusive property of the wife and its entrustment to her
in-laws amounts to the creation of a trust and they are bound to return
the same when a married woman makes a demand.
 The Indian Constitution guarantees equal rights to both sexes and does
not discriminate on the basis of caste, colour and creed. The Parliament
of India has enacted a number of Acts for the protection and upliftment
of women.
 Save A Family Plan (SAFP) is committed to the empowerment of the
poor and marginalised people of India. SAFP is a Canadian-based
international non-government organisation. It is founded by Monsignor
Augustine Kandathil in India in 1965.

10.8 FURTHER READING

1) Biju, M. R. (2006). Women’s Empowerment: Politics and Policies. New

Delhi: Mittal Publication.
2) Sarkar, I. (2008). Women in Changing Society. New Delhi: Serials
Publication.
3) Srivastav, V.P. (2005). Handbook on Crime against Women. Indian
Publication.
4) Yadav, Hridari R. (2015). Women Empowerment: History, Policy and
Legislation Volume I, New Delhi: Concept Publication.

10.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: Empowerment is self-governance, self-sufficiency and

self-maintenance and above all it is economic independence
through information, knowledge and necessary skill.
Ans to Q No 2: (i) Enabling all women to enjoy all human rights and
fundamental freedom on equal basis with men in all spheres-
political, economic, social, cultural and civil.

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(ii) Equal access to participation and decision making of women in

social, political and economic life of the nation.
Ans to Q No 3: Stridhan is the exclusive property of the wife and its
entrustment to her in-laws amounts to the creation of a trust and
they are bound to return the same when a married woman makes
a demand. A criminal proceeding for its misappropriation against
husband or her in-laws is maintainable. In Soma Devi Veena
Kumari the Court held that "Stridhan" is covered by the expression
"dowry".
Ans to Q No 4: Maternity Benefit Act, 1961; Equal Remuneration Act, 1976;
Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961; Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act,
1987.
Ans to Q No 5: Empowerment is multi-dimensional process. This enables
women to realise their identity and hidden power and creates a
desire to achieve and express. Generally, development is
expected to generate the focus that leads to empowerment and
raise status of women. Power is not a commonly acquired
priviledge which could be purchased or handed over. This has to
be understood, acquired, exercised, sustained and preserved
both by women themselves, their families and communities.
Empowerment process helps women to understand and realise
their own unique potential, express their desires, sufferings,
feelings, respecting themselves and understanding their own
distinct growth and development.

10.10 POSSIBLE QUESTIONS

Q. 1 : Write briefly about the meaning of empowerment.

Q. 2 : Write a short note on Stridhan.
Q. 3 : Explain the goals and objectives of National Policy for Empowerment
of Women 2001.
Q. 4 : Discuss the role of the SAFP in the empowerment of women.

*** ***** ***

130 Women and Politics
UNIT 11: ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT OF
WOMEN AND SKILL DEVELOPMENT
UNIT STRUCTURE

11.1 Learning Objectives

11.2 Introduction
11.3 Economic Empowerment
11.3.1 Importance of Economic Empowerment
11.4 Importance of Skill Development
11.5 Economic Issues and Challenges Experienced by Women
11.6 National Policy for the Empowerment of Women, 2001
11.7 Let Us Sum up
11.8 Further Reading
11.9 Answers to Check Your Progress
11.10 Possible Questions

11.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to-

 explain the meaning and importance of economic empowerment
 examine the importance of skill development
 discuss various economic issues and challenges faced by women
 explain objectives of the National Policy for the Empowerment of
Women, 2001.

11.2 INTRODUCTION

"Empowerment of women" is the central issue pervading the

development debate since the 80s. Improving their status and empowering
them would go a long way in accomplishing egalitarian gender relations in
the society. Women who are hitherto constrained by their social structure
for their self-expression constitute the target of most of the development
programmes, which aim at bringing them into the mainstream of the
development. Empowerment of women is the most important way to

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establish equality in the society. In this unit we shall discuss various issues
associated with economic empowerment of women.

11.3 ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT

Economic empowerment refers to ability of one person to involve in

the process of decision making related to allocation of finances and
resources. The fact is that women though largely absent from the formal
workplace and hence from official labor statistic, are nevertheless heavily
engaged in subsistence agricultural and informal sector of economy. There
is a constant effort to put women's income in bracket in order to consolidate
the position that women are only reproducers and not producers. This idea
needs to be changed. Women's economic right is definitely an important
indicator for enhancement of their status. Therefore, women labour needs
to be recognised. Education, more employment avenues, political awareness
etc. would all lead to women's economic emancipation.
Empowered women can play an important role in linking other women and
girls to their entitlements such as access to nutritious food and supplements,
equality in participation of women in government programs such as Mahatma
Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS),
National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM), PM Aawas Yojna (PMAY), and
Crehes for women at working sites etc. They can also play an important
role in bringing about a mindset change towards the value of girl child by
actively associating themselves with programmes such as 'Beti Bachao
Beti Padhao' (BBBP), 'Swachh Bharat Abhiyan' etc.
Table : Women's Economic Empowerment

Macro Level Macro Level Micro Level

  
Policy Level Community Level Household Level
  
Better remuneration and Ownership of assets, land, Women’s control over
job representation of access to credit representation income, relative contribution
women’s interest in the in Local Bodies and access to to family support access to
Macro-Economic Policies markets. control of family resources.
at National and State
Level

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The process of empowering women is a continuous process. The

need of the hour is to make women realise their potential, make them aware
of the bright future that awaits them, guide them and nurture them
Women have now taken up professional roles in order to create a
new space for themselves. The traditional role of a house wife has gradually
changed into working women and house wife. Some of the factors are
responsible for this change. These are better education, changing socio
cultural values and need for supplementary income.
Early 70's marked the beginning of consciousness about the women
rights in India. There is greater need to accept their role in society and
economy. It aims at increasing women's power in terms of their self-reliance
and internal strength to determine choices in life. There are two ways in
which education and employment improve women power-
(i) By importing skill
(ii) By raising the capability through greater discipline, responsiveness
to challenges and conscientiousness.
In the era of globalization, technical education is the key to empower
women and use their resources for regional and national development.
Women in India are victims of a multiple socio-economic and cultural
factors. Emancipation of women is a pre-requisite for nation's economic
development and social upliftment. The role of women and the need to
empower them are central to human development programmes, including
poverty alleviation. In spite of safeguards provided in many of the poverty
alleviation programmes, it was observed that women in rural areas,
especially from poor families could be not benefited. The self-help group
(SHG) is a viable organised setup to disburse micro-credit to the rural women
for the purpose of making them enterprising and encouraging to enter into
entrepreneurial activities. The formation of SHGs is not ultimately a micro-
credit project but an empowerment process.

11.3.1 Importance of Economic Empowerment

Women are the key agents for development. They play a catalytic
role towards achievement of transformational economic,

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environmental and social changes required for sustainable

development. However, limited access to credit, health care and
education are among the many challenges they face. These are further
aggravated by the global food and economic crises and climate
change. Empowering them is essential, not only for the well-being of
individuals, families and communities, but also for overall economic
productivity, given women's large presence in the agricultural and
industrial workforce worldwide.

To achieve rightful and dignified status of women, empowerment

programmes need to be initiated to provide a solid foundation to nurture
the inner strength and self-esteem for women. Education is a potent
tool to progress in life serving as a catalyst that has unsettled centuries
of restrictions and given women the much deserved platform to set
themselves free and rise as equals.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.1: State the name of any one scheme adopted by

the Government of India with regard to girl child.
.........................................................................................................
Q.2: State the meaning of economic empowerment.
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................

11.4 IMPORTANCE OF SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Skill development refers to the process of identification of skill gap and

increasing and developing persons' existing skill which will enable them to
achieve their goals. Skill development efforts in India needs to be accelerated
and aligned with the overall development of the economy so that the country's
resources are efficiently utilised in creating skills that the market demands.

India's spectacular growth performance in recent years has attracted

the attention of researchers, analysts and policy makers around the globe.

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It is projected that with consistently high growth rates, India would emerge
as one of the largest economies of the world. While growth projections
appear encouraging, the major challenge for India would be to meet the
emerging human resource requirements of an expanding economy. Despite
its population of more than 100 billion, India suffers from workforce
deficiency, mainly due to absence of required skills among the vast majority
of its workforce. This gets reflected in the fact that about 80% of the
workforce in rural and urban areas do not possess any identifiable
marketable skills (NSS 61st Round on Employment and Unemployment).
Vocational training plays a crucial role in transforming the unskilled
people into skilled human resources and Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs)
are key components of the vocational training system in the country.
Vocational training being a concurrent subject, the responsibility is shared
by both Central and State Governments. Director General, Employment
and Training (DGE & T), Ministry of Labour, Govt. of India formulates policies,
lays down standards and conducts trade testing & certification for both
public and private ITIs. The State Governments are responsible for managing
the ITIs.
Though in India ITIs have grown in size, they have fallen short in fulfilling
the skill requirements of the country. First, the ITIs are not able to match the
realities of the employment scenario. Training offered by them mainly cater
to the needs of the organised manufacturing sector, whereas over 90% of
India's workforce is actually engaged in the unorganised sector. Secondly,
ITIs have been slow in adapting to rapid changes in the economy, more
particularly in the post reform period. As a result, the trade and the number
of share in each trade are not decided on the basis of dynamic market
needs, thus creating a demand-supply mismatch almost in every trade
sector. Thirdly, weak institute and industry interaction lead to a gap between
course curriculum and industry's requirement. Fourthly, physical
infrastructure facilities in most of the ITIs are poor and their laboratories are
not equipped with modern equipment and testing facilities. The competence
and motivational levels of the trainers/instructors are also below par in many
cases. Finally, the ITIs, more particularly the government run institutes, lack

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autonomy in matters like administration, finance, academics and internal

management etc. In contrast, the private institutes, though have autonomy,
do not attach due importance to meet the quality standards in vocational
training.

The Eleventh Five Year Plan of India proposes a mission mode

approach for skill development by launching a "Skill Development Mission".
In the Indian context, initiatives for skill development have been taken up at
various levels, both government and private. Some of these initiatives are
discussed in the following paragraphs.

Initiatives taken by the Government of India

Coordinated Action on Skill Development is the major initiative of the

Government of India for achieving 11th Plan objective of inclusive growth
through coordination and harmonisation of skill development initiatives of
different players. The action aims at creation of a pool of skilled persons
with adequate skills that meet the employment requirement across various
sectors of the national economy. The institutional structure put in place for
the purpose includes the PM's Council on Skill Development, the National
Skill Development Coordination Board (NSDCB) chaired by Deputy
Chairperson, Planning Commission and the National Skill Development
Corporation under Ministry of Finance.

(i) PM's National Council on Skill Development

PM's Council on National Skill Development has Union Ministers of

key ministries like Finance, Human Resource Development, Micro Small
Medium Enterprises, Heavy Industries and Public Enterprises, Rural
Development, Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation Labour. The main
function of the Council are :

i. To lay down over all policy objectives, financing and governance

models and strategies relating to skill development.

ii. To review the progresses of schemes, and guide on midcourse

corrections, additions and closure of parts or whole of any
particular programme / scheme.

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Economic Empowerment of Women and Skill Development Unit 11

iii. Coordinate Public Sector/ Private Sector Initiatives in a

framework of a collaborative action.

The Council has set a target of creating 500 million skilled persons by
2022 with emphasis on inclusion so as to deal with divides of gender, rural/
urban, organised/unorganised employment, traditional and contemporary
work place. Some of the key governance principles it has laid down include
designing of programmes under which the leaner can pay the skill provider
directly; skills are fungible and bankable, individuals are enabled to convert
their knowledge and skills through adequate testing and Certification into
higher diplomas and degrees. The emphasis is on promoting multiple
models of delivery that can respond to different situations in various states
and to utilise existing available infrastructure of educational institutions for
skill development after school hours without affecting formal education.

(ii) National Skill Development Coordination Board

The National Skill Development Coordination Board (NSDCB) is

entrusted with the coordination and harmonisation of the Government's
initiatives for skill development spread across the seventeen Central
Ministries and State Governments with the initiatives of the National Skill
Development Corporation. It has twelve members which include Secretaries
of Central Ministries of Labour & Employment, Rural Development, and
Finance, Higher Education. The main functions of the Board include :

(a) Enumerating strategies to implement the decisions of the Prime

Minister's National Council on Skill Development.

(b) Developing suitable operational guidelines and instructions to

achieve the objectives of skill development.

(c) Initiating solutions and strategies to address the problems of

regional imbalance in skill development infrastructure, socio-
economic, rural-urban and gender divide; quality teachers;
ensuring effective utilisation of investment; integrating varying
existing regulatory institutions; involving private sector to develop
skills for wage/self employment and promoting apprenticeship/

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on the-job training for creation of skilled personnel to address

both unemployability and unemployment.
(d) Encouraging the State governments to put in place similar
institutional structures.
(e) Establishment of National Skill Inventory and National Database
for Skill Deficiency Mapping on National Web Portal to facilitate
exchange of Information between prospective employers and job
seekers.
(f) Coordinating and facilitating the repositioning of Employment
Exchange as outreach points for storing and providing information
on employment and skill development.
(g) Monitoring, evaluating and analysing the outcomes of the various
schemes and programmes and apprising the Apex Council.
(iii) National Skill Development Corporation :
The National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC), a non-profit
company under Section 25 of the Companies Act, has been set up under
the Ministry of Finance. The Corporation has a two tier structures viz. a 15
Member Board and a National Skill Development Fund (NSDF) as a 100%
government owned trust to facilitate its mandate of coordinating and
stimulating private sector initiative in the area of skill development with
enhanced flexibility and effectiveness. Some of its main functions are as
follows :
(a) It will make periodic as well as an annual report of its plans and
activities and put them in the public domain.
(b) Establishing a Trainee Placement and Tracking System for
effective evaluation and future policy planning.

11.5 ECONOMIC ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

EXPERIENCED BY WOMEN

In India there are various obstacles that come in the way of economic
empowerment of women. Some key challenges faced by women in India
include -

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 Lack of Access to Education: One major issue faced by women in

India is their low level of educational attainment. Lack of education
impedes their participation in other development processes of the
country. Poor knowledge on legal rights hampers the social and political
empowerment of women. Illiteracy also impedes their access to skill
upgradation and capacity building programs, access to credit, access
to subsidies on inputs provided by government programs, access to
technologies and related training modules offered by the agriculture
extension system and their decision making power. For example,
women are engaged in all types of farm activities and do more work as
compared to male workers, but their participation in decision making
related to farm and income generating activities is low. They do not
enjoy autonomy in decision making in the family or matters relating to
children's education in spite of their significant contribution to economic
activities. Poor access to safe spaces in rural areas specifically due to
lack of good roads, transport and lighting facilities at night also hampers
their access to education despite the presence of schools/colleges.

 Digital Illiteracy : Poor access to Information Technology (IT) by many

women intensifies existing inequalities between women and men and
also creates new forms of inequalities in education and health. This
also leads to emergence of new forms of violence against women
and widen the existing gender digital divide. Digital literacy has the
capacity to empower women by raising social and political awareness,
improving educational and employment opportunities.
 Poor access to technologies : Access to women friendly
technologies/implements and services by the government schemes/
agricultural extension is poor. The studies carried out so far in the
field of agriculture indicate that despite the key role of women in crop
husbandry, animal husbandry, fisheries, forestry and post-harvest
technology, those in charge of formulating packages of technologies,
services and public policies for rural areas often tends to neglect the
productive role of women. There is inadequate development with
respect to technologies particularly tailored to women-specific

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occupations. Besides, involvement of women in technology

development and transfer has also received poor attention from both
scientific and administrative wings of the government.
 Poor Livelihoods opportunities outside Agriculture : Agriculture
is seen as subsistence strategy for rural women's livelihoods. With
agriculture becoming a non-profitable proposition for economic
sustenance of rural households, importance of non-farm activities
for income generation activities is growing. Women are rarely involved
in the backward and forward production linkages with agriculture. Poor
linkages between the non-farm activities and farm activities further
hampers opportunities for value addition & market linkages for
economic empowerment/ livelihoods promotion of women. Though
women's participation in agricultural production is consistently
expanding, they lack access to input supplies, extension advice, credit
and the most important agricultural resource-land. They continue to
face constraints, which could be social, legal, and cultural in nature.
Their poor access to all these resources hampers their decisions on
various agricultural aspects.
 Lack of Skills : While a large number of women are involved in micro/
small enterprises or manufacturing, most training programmes hardly
have any female participation. There is often less involvement of
women in opportunities related to construction, trade, transport,
storage, and services due to lack of skills.
 Vulnerability to Climate Change : Women are affected differently
and often more severely by climate change and its associated natural
disasters such as floods, droughts, cyclones and storms. The effect
of climate change drives women into dangerous situations/risks and
vulnerabilities.

11.6 NATIONAL POLICY FOR THE

EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN, 2001

The issue of women empowerment is a subject of serious discussion.

In India a number of policies are adopted by the Government in this regard.

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A National Perspective Plan for Women (1988-2000) was drafted advocating

a holistic approach for the development of women. The National Nutritional
Policy, the National Policy on Education, the National Population Policy have
significant component for women aimed at their empowerment. Some of
the strategies of the Government to uplift the position of women are-

(a) The Government has adopted legislative measure of reservation of

not less than one-third seats for women in the Parliament and in state
Legislative Assemblies to ensure adequate representation of women
in decision-making .

(b) The Government has adopted an integrated approach towards

empowering women through effective convergence of existing
services, resources, infrastructure and manpower in both women-
specific and women-related sectors.

(c) It has adopted a special strategy of "Women's component Plan" to

ensure that no less than 30 per cent of funds/benefits flow to women
from other developmental sectors.

(d) It has organised women into self-help groups and thus mark the
beginning of a major process of empowering women.

(e) The Government ensures easy and equal access to education to

women and girls.

(f) The Government has equipped women with necessary skills in the
modern trades which could make them economically self reliant.

(g) It has facilitated increasing access to credit through setting up of a"

Development Bank for Women Entrepreneurs" in small sectors.

The year of 2001 was declared as "Women Empowerment Year" by

the Government of India. The National Policy for the Empowerment of
Women was evolved in the same year. The Policy recognises the causes
of gender inequality which are related to social and economic structures.
The policy underlines the need for mainstreaming gender perspective in
the development process. The objectives of the National Policy for the
Empowerment of women include :

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Unit 11 Economic Empowerment of Women and Skill Development

(1) Creating an environment through positive economic and social policies

for full development of women to enable them to realise their full
potential.

(2) The de-jure and de facto enjoyment of all human rights by women on
equal basis with men in all spheres - political, economic, social, cultural
and civil.

(3) Equal access to anticipation and decision-making in social, political

and economic life of the nation.

(4) Equal access to healthcare, quality education at all levels, career and
vocational guidance, employment and equal remuneration.

(5) Strengthening of legal systems aimed at elimination of all forms of

discrimination against women.

(6) Changing societal attitudes and community practices by active

participation and involvement of both men and women.

(7) Mainstreaming a gender perspective in the development process.

(8) Elimination of discrimination and all forms of violence against women

and the girl child.

(9) Building and strengthening partnerships with civil society, particularly

women's organisations.

It was envisioned that affirmative actions such as reservations, quotas

including higher legislative bodies, will be considered whenever necessary
on a time-bound basis. Women-friendly personnel policies will also be
drawn up to encourage women to participate effectively in the developmental
process. Besides empowering women to participate in decision making
process, the policy also visualised the means of economic and social
empowerment of women.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.3: What does skill development refer to?

...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................

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Economic Empowerment of Women and Skill Development Unit 11

Q.4: Mention any two functions of the PM's Council on National Skill
Development.
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
Q.5: Mention any two objectives of the National Policy for the
Empowerment of Women, 2001.
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
Q.6: Write briefly about any two challenges faced by women in the
way of economic empowerment.
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................

11.7 LET US SUM UP

 Economic empowerment refers to ability of one person to involve in

the process of decision making related to allocation of finances and
resources.
 Women are the key agents for development. They play a catalytic role
towards achievement of transformational economic, environmental and
social changes required for sustainable development. Empowering them
is essential, not only for the well-being of individuals, families and
communities, but also for overall economic productivity, given women's
large presence in the agricultural and industrial workforce worldwide.
 Skill development refers to the process of identification of skill gap and
increasing and developing persons' existing skill which will enable them
to achieve their goals. Skill development efforts in India needs to be
accelerated and aligned with the overall development of the economy
so that the country's resources are efficiently utilised in creating skills
that the market demands. The Government of India has adopted a

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Unit 11 Economic Empowerment of Women and Skill Development

number of measures regarding skill development process in India.

 In India, women are facing various obstacles in the way of economic
empowerment. Some of these obstacles are- poor education, digital
illiteracy, lack of skill, poor access to technologies, effect of climate
change etc.
 The year of 2001 was declared as "Women Empowerment Year" by
the Government of India. The National Policy for the Empowerment of
Women was evolved in the same year. The Policy recognises the
causes of gender inequality which are related to social and economic
structures. The policy underlines the need for mainstreaming gender
perspective in the development process.

11.8 FURTHER READING

1) Kurukshetra, VOL – 66, January, 2018

2) Kurukshetra, December, 2008
3) Kurukshetra, VOL - 61, Aug, 2013
4) Biju, M. R. (2006). Women’s Empowerment: Politics and Policies.
New Delhi: Mittal Publication
5) Sarkar, I. (2008). Women in Changing Society. New Delhi: Serials
Publication.
6) Thakur, Anil Kumar and Rahman, R. (2009). Women Entrepreneurship.
New Delhi: Deep & Deep Publication.

11.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: 'Beti Bachao Beti Padhao'

Ans to Q No 2: Economic empowerment refers to ability of one person to
involve in the process of decision making related to allocation of
finances and resources.

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Ans to Q No 3: Skill development refers to the process of identification of

skill gap and increasing and developing persons' existing skill
which will enable them to achieve their goals.
Ans to Q No 4: (i) To lay down over all policy objectives, financing and
governance models and strategies relating to skill development.
(ii) To review the progresses of schemes, and guide on midcourse
corrections, additions and closure of parts or whole of any
particular programme / scheme.
Ans to Q No 5: (1) Creating an environment through positive economic and
social policies for full development of women to enable them to
realise their full potential.
(2)Equal access to anticipation and decision-making in social,
political and economic life of 'the nation.
Ans to Q No 6: (i) Lack of Access to Education: One major issues faced
by women in India is their low level of educational attainment.
Lack of education impedes their participation in other
development processes of the country. Poor knowledge on legal
rights hampers the social and political empowerment of women.
Illiteracy also impedes their access to skill up-gradation and
capacity building programs, access to credit, access to
subsidies on inputs provided by government programs, access
to technologies and related training modules offered by the
agriculture extension system and their decision making power.
(ii) Digital Illiteracy : Poor access to Information Technology (IT) by
many women intensifies existing inequalities between women
and men and also creates new forms of inequalities in education
and health. This also leads to emergence of new forms of violence
against women and widen the existing gender digital divide. Digital
literacy has the capacity to empower women by raising social
and political awareness, improving educational and employment
opportunities.

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Unit 11 Economic Empowerment of Women and Skill Development

11.10 POSSIBLE QUESTIONS

Q. 1 : Which year was observed as the Women's Empowerment Year?

Q. 2 : Write about the importance of economic empowerment of women.
Q. 3 : What is meant by skill development?
Q. 4 : Examine the role of the Government of India in expanding skill
development process in the country.
Q. 5 : Explain the objectives of the National Policy for the Empowerment
of Women, 2001.
Q. 6 : Discuss various challenges faced by women in the process of
economic empowerment.

*** ***** ***

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UNIT 12: WOMEN AND SELF-HELP GROUPS
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO ASSAM
UNIT STRUCTURE

12.1 Learning Objectives

12.2 Introduction
12.3 Development of Self Help Groups in India
12.4 Aims, Objectives and Features of Self Help Groups
12.5 Development of Self Help Groups in Assam
12.6 Role played by the Self-Help Groups in Enhancing Capacity of
Women
12.7 Let Us Sum Up
12.8 Further Reading
12.9 Answers to Check Your Progress
12.10 Possible Questions

12.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to -

 explain the development of Self Help Groups in India and in Assam
 describe the aims, objectives and features of Self Help Groups
 examine the role played by the Self-Help Groups in the
empowerment of Women.

12.2 INTRODUCTION

Self-Help Group or in-short SHGs is now a well-known concept. It is

now more than two-decade old. It is reported that the SHGs have a role in
accelerating country's economic development. SHGs have now evolved
as movement. Mainly, members of the SHGs are women. Consequently,
participation of women in the country's economic development is increasing.
They also play an important role in elevating the economic status of their
families. This has led boost to the process of women's empowerment.
SHGs are now gaining acceptance as an alternative system credit delivery

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for meeting the credit needs especially to the people who are the poorest of
poor generally comprising small/marginal farmers and landless agricultural
labours. The concept of Self Help Groups has been evolved to organise the
rural poor to meet their productive and consumption needs out of their
savings. In India, SHGs have provided significant contribution towards
economic empowerment of women. In this unit, we shall discuss the role
of the SHGs in enhancing women's capability specially in Assam.

12.3 DEVELOPMENT OF SELF HELP GROUPS IN

INDIA

Self Help Groups are voluntary association of people to attain certain

collective goals, both economic and social goals. Self Help Groups are
normally formed by the economically weaker section of the society, coming
from rural or semi-urban areas. Each group consists of 10 to 20 members of
small and marginal farmers, landless agriculture labourers, rural artisans,
women folk, and micro-entrepreneurs. A group could be exclusively male or
female, or even mixed. However, majority Self Help Groups are female groups.

A Self Help Group is an association of the poor people specially women

who belong to the same social & economic background. The SHGs are
usually informal groups of a locality area, whose members have a common
need and importance towards collective action. These groups normally
consist of 10 to 20 members of the group meet regularly, make their share
of contribution.

The SHG promotes small saving among its members, which are then
kept in a bank. SHGs have been generally formed for specific issues. The
main purpose of SHGs is to mobilise savings among their members and
utilised resources to meet the emergent credit needs of the members of the
group. SHGs generally work according to the local requirement.

The group voluntarily decide to collect a fixed amount of savings at a

fixed interval of time from all of its members. This amount may range from
Rs. 10 to Rs. 200. This money is collected by the treasurer and kept partially
in a Bank and partially among the group. The group opens a bank account in

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the nearest bank branch. The bank has to maintain only one account for the
group as a single entry. The group can be thus treated as a single customer
by the bank and the hassles of treating 20 micro-accounts of each member
can be done away with. The group members meet once in a week or fortnight
or month. They decide how to work on different accumulated savings and
how to work on different socioeconomic issues that confront them. Members
make small regular savings contributions over a few months until there is
enough money in the group to begin lending. Funds may then be lent back to
the members or to others in the village for any purpose. In India, many SHGs
are 'linked' to banks for the delivery of micro-credit.

The origin of self-help group can be traced is from Grameen Bank of

Bangladesh, which was founded by Mohamed Yunus. SGHs were started
and formed in 1975. In India NABARD initiated in 1986-1987. The absence
of institutional credits available in the rural area has led to the establishment
of SHGs.

It can be mentioned here the microfinance sector started in India in

1970s with the emergence of informal Self-Help Groups (SHG) to provide
access to much-needed savings and credit services. The sector witnessed
strong growth following the liberalisation of the Indian economy in 1991,
since private sector organisations increasingly extended credit to
microfinance companies. During 2005-2010, the microfinance sector
reported strong growth supported by strong demand for loans from
borrowers neglected by the banking system and investors eager to invest
funds in the high growth industry. However, in 2010, the sector was severely
impacted by the Andhra Pradesh crisis and the State Government
promulgating an ordinance to curb the activities of microfinance companies.
The crisis triggered a strong response from the RBI and in the years that
followed, the sector has registered a turn around and has evolved into a
more mature market. Moreover, the Government as well as the RBI has
tried to create a conducive policy and regulatory environment for MFIs to
expand the financial inclusion agenda in India.

From 1970 to 2014 a good numbers of microfinance institutions come

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up throughout the country. As another move towards expanding access to

financial services in rural and semi-urban areas, in the year 2015, The RBI
has given license of small finance bank to ten institutions out of which eight
were MFIs.

12.4 AIMS, OBJECTIVES AND FEATURES OF SELF

HELP GROUPS

The objectives of SHG can be listed as bellow-

1. To inculcate the savings and banking habits among members.
2. To secure them from financial, technical and moral strengths.
3. To enable availing of loan for productive purposes.
4. To gain economic prosperity through loan/credit.
5. To gain from collective wisdom in organising and managing their
own finance and distributing the benefits among themselves.
6. To sensitise women of target area for the need of SHG and its
relevance in their empowerment.
7. To create a sense of group feeling among women.
8. To enhance the confidence and capabilities of women.
9. To develop collective decision making among women.
10. To encourage habit of saving amongst women and to facilitate
the accumulation of their own capital resource base.
11. To motivate women taking up social responsibilities particularly
related to women development.
12. To create a platform for the members to provide space and
support to each other.

The salient features of SHGs are:

1. Identical Interest, Common Occupation and Identity

The people in SHG are having identical interest in terms of group functioning.
Adopting common things is a highlighting features of the SHGs. Varied ideas
and interest do not foster proper groups functioning.

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2. Flexible and Responsible

The members have flexible thinking, decision- making and

implementing the plan enables and group to have a border framework
of mechanism and operation. Shared sense of responsibility in turn
would promote flexibility in the group.

3. Simple Documentation

SHGs required simple documentation of the records and the registers.

The documents are maintained in such a way that it can be referred
and used by all the members.

4. Collective Leadership

The members in SHG believe in a collective leadership because

collective leadership promotes group cohesion as it is through
collective leadership that the members interact. Leadership is
responsible for effective integration of goals and communication in
the group in order to develop a climate of trust.

5. Mutual Decision - making

In the SHG the members take a mutual decision because group

sustainability depends to a larger extent on how the members involve
in mutual decision - making. Hence, collective decision - making is
an important feature of SHGs.

6. Group Solidarity and Self Help

Group solidarity gives an impulse towards collective action and

articulation, whereas the idea of self help provides larger scope
for integrated mechanism of group functioning.

7. Awareness and Socio - Economic Empowerment

Awareness is a crucial feature of the self-help group, since women

are exposed to various components of the social sphere. This feature
gives a forward thrust for the effective group functioning.

8. Mutual Trust and Confidence

The successful functioning of the group for a prolonged period relies

on the mutual trust and confidence of group members.

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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.1: Write the meaning of SHGs.

.........................................................................................
................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
Q.2: Mention two objectives of SHGs.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
Q.3: Write briefly about any two features of SHGs.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

12.5 DEVELOPMENT OF SELF HELP GROUPS IN

ASSAM

In some parts of Assam, the women groups in the form of vigilance

committees work at village level for supervising the execution and monitoring
of the rural development activities. Thus, women groups shape as social
activities in implementation of different development schemes. These women
groups have also involved in prohibition of elicit liquor, afforestation, creating
awareness of development schemes.
A. N. Sarkar (2001) says that majority of the economically weaker section
came into SHG that resulted in increase of the value of assets owned,
employment, average income of the members due to the SHGs. The SHG
strategy has made positive impact on the empowerment of women in terms
of increasing their economic capacity. The total numbers of SHGs was
29,2071 in Assam in the year 2015. The saving amount of SHGs with bank
was Rs. 9,943 lakhs in Assam in the year 2015.

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12.6 ROLE PLAYED BY THE SELF HELP GROUPS

IN ENHANCING CAPACITY OF WOMEN

Self-Help Groups (SHGs) are usually informal groups whose

members have a common perception of need and importance towards
collective action. These groups promote savings among members and use
the pooled resources to meet the emergent needs of their members,
including the consumption needs. The number of members in SHGs is
normally ranged from 10 to 20. It is expected that, within the group, there
should be true democratic culture in which all the members must participate
actively in the decision making process. Collective work, leadership with
fixed tenure, mutual trust and cooperative philosophy are the driving forces
for SHGs. The basic objective of Self-Help Groups is to develop saving
capability among the poorest sections of the society, which in turn reduce
dependence on financial institutions and develop self-reliance. The SHGs
can play pivotal role in creating economic self-reliance of rural poor by
meeting consumption and production credit needs as and when they arise.
This will prevent exploitation of the poorer sections from non-institutional
credit sources. SHGs also help in the development of group dynamics,
building leadership quality to realise their potentiality and self-belief. SHGs
also help the banks in recovery of credit by motivating members for prompt
repayment of loans. These groups also contribute towards procurement of
high cost inputs that could not be bought individually. These Groups are
also beneficial in terms of providing training to the members regarding the
use of extension services and Government support.
In the recent years the Government of India has assigned a special
role to SHG in the implementation of its poverty alleviation programmes and
on the whole rural development. SHGs as a strategy for implementing poverty
alleviation programmes, the focus is on Rural Development. Credit is important
in the lives of the rural poor in a developing economy. As the distribution of
land in the countryside remains skewed, the majority of the rural population
is left with an inadequate resource base for production. Faced with a weak
social security system to fall back upon, this section of landless or near
landless rural population is forced to depend upon credit for its livelihood. It

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was this understanding that led various developing countries to make credit
an integral part of their poverty alleviation programmes. The conception and
implementation of such programmes were often based on the broad principles
of social banking in several developing countries including India. SHGs/Micro-
finance (i.e. Credit, Saving and Insurance) programs can help smooth
consumption of poor households during an adverse shock. Providing
affordable credit to the rural population has long been a prime component of
development strategy. Governments and donors have sponsored and
supported supply-led rural finance institutions both to improve growth and
equity and to neutralise or mitigate urban-based macro-economic policies.
However, only to because of high risks, heavy transaction costs, and mounting
loan losses, many of the programs have drained state resources to little
purpose, reaching only a small part of the rural population and making little
progress toward self-sustainability.
The Self Help Groups have been playing a very important role in the
process of empowerment of women. Empowerment of women covers three
aspects - economic empowerment, capacity building and social
empowerment. Economic empowerment means greatest access to
financial resources, reducing vulnerability of poor women in crisis situation
like flood, death and accidents in the family and significant increase in
women's own income. Economic empowerment gives women the power
to retain income and use it at her discretion. The success of women
development however, depends on capacity building. The capacity building
depends on better condition of health, education, environment,
communication skills and better leadership skills. Women empowerment
is incomplete without social empowerment. Social empowerment means
equal status, participation and power of decision-making at the household
level and also at the community level. Social empowerment enables women
to participate in the decision making process in democratic institutions.
The Self Help Group programme mainly focuses on empowerment
of rural women and making them financially, socially and politically capable.
One of the major objectives of initiating SHGs for women, especially the
poor women is to help them to take up and manage on their own productive
activities which could supplement their household employment and income

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leading to improved living standards. These income generating activities

are also expected to serve as instruments which could bring about economic
awareness and empowerment among the women members. SHGs have
the power to create a socio-economic revolution in the rural areas of our
country. SHGs have not only produced tangible assets and improved living
conditions of the members, but also helped in changing much of their social
outlook and attitudes.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.4: Write the meaning of economic empowerment

of women.
..........................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
Q.5: Write briefly about the role of SHGs in the empowerment of
women.
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................

12.7 LET US SUM UP

 Self Help Groups are voluntary association of people to attain certain

collective goals, both economic and social goals. Self Help Groups
are normally formed by the economically weaker section of the society,
coming from rural or semi-urban areas. Each group consists of 10 to
20 members of small and marginal farmers, landless agriculture
labourers, rural artisans, women folk, and micro-entrepreneurs. A group
could be exclusively male or female, or even mixed. However, majority
Self Help Groups are female groups.
 A Self Help Group is an association of the poor people specially women
who belong to the same social and economic background. The SHGs

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are usually informal groups of a locality area, whose members have a

common need and importance towards collective action.
 The SHG promotes small saving among its members, which are then
kept with a bank. SHGs have been generally formed for specific
issues. The main purpose of SHGs is to mobilise savings among
their members and used resources to meet the emergent credit needs
of the members of the group. SHGs generally work according to the
local requirement.
 Some of the objectives of SHGs are- to inculcate the savings and
banking habits among members, to secure them from financial,
technical and moral strengths, to enable availing of loan for productive
purposes, to gain economic prosperity through loan/credit, to gain from
collective wisdom in organising and managing their own finance and
distributing the benefits among themselves, to sensitise women of
target area for the need of SHG and its relevance in their empowerment,
to enhance the confidence and capabilities of women, to encourage
habit of saving among women and facilitate the accumulation of their
own capital resource base etc.
 Some salient features of Self Help Groups are- identical interest,
common occupation and identity; flexible and responsible; simple
documentation; collective leadership; mutual decision - making; group
solidarity and self help; awareness and socio - economic
empowerment; mutual trust and confidence.
 The Self Help Group programme mainly focuses on empowerment of
rural women and making them financially, socially and politically
capable. One of the major objectives of initiating SHGs for women,
especially the poor women is to help them to take up and manage on
their own productive activities which could supplement their household
employment and income leading to improved living standards. These
income generating activities are also expected to serve as instruments
which could bring about economic awareness and empowerment
among the women members. SHGs have the power to create a socio-
economic revolution in the rural areas of our country.

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12.8 FURTHER READING

1) Biju, M. R.(2006). Women’s Empowerment : Politics and Policies. New

Delhi: Mittal Publication,
2) Rengaraja, Dr. V. (2013). Microfinance-Principles and Approaches.
Notion Press.
3) Thakur, Anil Kumar. & Rahman, R. (2009). Women Entrepreneurship.
New Delhi: Deep & Deep Publication.

12.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: Self Help Groups are voluntary association of people to

attain certain collective goals, both economic and social goals.
Self Help Group are normally formed by the economically weaker
section of the society, coming from rural or semi-urban areas.
Each group consists of 10 to 20 members of small and marginal
farmers, landless agriculture labourers, rural artisans, women
folk, and micro-entrepreneurs. A group could be exclusively male
or female, or even mixed. However, majority Self Help Groups
are female groups. A Self Help Group is an association of the
poor people specially women who belong to the same social
and economic background. The SHGs are usually informal
groups of a locality area, whose members have a common need
and importance towards collective action.
Ans to Q No 2: (i) To inculcate the savings and banking habits among
members.
(ii) To enable availing of loan for productive purposes.
Ans to Q No 3: (i) Identical Interest, Common Occupation and Identity:
The people in SHG have or share identical interest in terms of
group functioning. Adopting common things is a highlighting
features of the SHGs. Varied ideas and interest do not foster
proper groups functioning.

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(ii) Flexible and Responsible: The members have flexible thinking,

decision- making and implementing the plan enables and group to
have a border framework of mechanism and operation. Shared
sense of responsibility in turn would promote flexibility in the group.
Ans to Q No 4: Economic empowerment means greatest access to financial
resources, reducing vulnerability of poor women in crisis situation
like flood, death and accidents in the family and significant
increase in women's own income. Economic empowerment
gives women the power to retain income and use it at her
discretion.
Ans to Q No 5: The Self Help Group programme mainly focuses on
empowerment of rural women and making them financially,
socially and politically capable. One of the major objectives of
initiating SHGs for women, especially the poor women, is to help
them to take up and manage on their own productive activities
which could supplement their household employment and income
leading to improved living standards. These income generating
activities are also expected to serve as instruments which could
bring about economic awareness and empowerment among the
women members. SHGs have the power to create a socio-
economic revolution in the rural areas of our country. SHGs have
not only produced tangible assets and improved living conditions
of the members, but also helped in changing much of their social
outlook and attitudes.

12.10 POSSIBLE QUESTIONS

Q. 1 : State the meaning of Self Help Groups.

Q. 2 : Write about the development of Self Help Groups in India.
Q. 3 : Explain the objectives and salient features of Self Help Groups.
Q. 4 : Examine the role of the Self Help Groups in the empowerment and
capacity building of women.

*** ***** ***

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UNIT 13: ENVIRONMENT AND WOMEN
UNIT STRUCTURE

13.1 Learning Objectives

13.2 Introduction
13.3 Impact of Environmental Issues on Women
13.3.1 Suggestions to Mitigate the Impact of Environmental
Degradation on Women
13.4 Let Us Sum Up
13.5 Further Reading
13.6 Answers to Check Your Progress
13.7 Possible Questions

13.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to-

 describe the relationship women and environment
 discuss the impact of environmental issues on women.

13.2 INTRODUCTION

The relationship between environment and human being is interlinked.

Human society does not exist in vacuum, but it exists within the environment
only. So any major or minor change in the environment, will definitely affect
human beings. Accordingly, the relationship between the environment and
the women is very close. Women play a critical role in managing natural
resources on family and community levels and are most affected by
environmental degradation. In communities around the world, women
manage water, sources for fuel, and food, as well as both forests and
agricultural terrain. The relationship women and environment is also
recognised by various international documents and conferences. The
problem of environmental degradation has now begun to pose threats to
women in various ways. In this unit, we shall discuss the impact of
environmental degradation on women.

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13.3 IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES ON

WOMEN

Environment has profound impact on the lives of women. In the early

1960s, an interest in women and their connection with the environment
was sparked, largely by a book written by Ester Boserup entitled ”Woman’s
Role in Economic Development”. Starting in the 1980s, policy makers and
governments became more mindful of the connection between the
environment and gender issues. Changes began to be made regarding
natural resources and environmental management with the specific role of
women in mind. According to the World Bank in 1991, “Women play an
essential role in the management of natural resources, including soil, water,
forests and energy...and often have a profound traditional and contemporary
knowledge of the natural world around them”. Whereas women were
previously neglected or ignored, there was increasing attention paid to the
impact of women on the natural environment and, in return, the effects the
environment has on the health and well-being of women”. The gender-
environment relations have valuable ramifications with regard to the
understanding of nature between men and women, the management and
distribution of resources, responsibilities and day-to-day life as well as the
well being of people.
Globally, women provide livelihood for their families and
simultaneously manage the environment. However, due to gender power
relations, their knowledge is often overlooked and they are not counted as
agents of change. Therefore, a gender analysis of environmental
management is necessary, looking at gender aspects of the use of natural
resources (water, forests, land, etc), consumption of services and goods
(transport, food, etc) and experiences of environmental degradation
(pollution, chemicals, loss of biodiversity, etc). Women and men should be
agents in environmental management, including equal participation in
decision making and the policy implementation processes.
When addressing gender in the context of the environment, it is
important to recognise that women and men are not homogenous

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categories. Where women and men live, their age, social class, ethnicity,
religion, sexual orientation and other variables, interact in shaping the links
between gender and the environment. This complexity must be accounted
for participation and it requires analysis and programme design. The impact
of environmental degradation on women can be discussed as follows:
 Chemicals and pollution: Women exposures to toxic chemicals
depend on the division of labour in the private and public arenas.
For example, women are disproportionately exposed to pesticides
used in non-waged agricultural activities. Women’s responsibilities
in household work mean that they are more exposed to toxic
chemicals found in products used for cleaning, personal care, and
pest control, and to pesticides and house building materials stored
at home. Another risk is pesticide containers recycled for other uses,
which may have severe health consequences. In rural areas indoor
pollution affects women more than men, as they are more exposed
to smoke from burning fuels. In urban areas, risk factors include
exposures to chemicals and indoor air pollution from household solid
fuel. These hazards play a role in more than 80 per cent of the
diseases regularly reported by the WHO. Inefficient burning of
biomass in unventilated homes releases high levels of black carbon,
causing approximately 2 million deaths per year, mainly amongst
women and children in the poorest communities.
 Water: Both women and girls play a central part in the provision,
management and safeguarding of freshwater as a natural resource,
and they are often responsible for sanitation and for maintaining a
hygienic home. Water is also a prerequisite for gardening, raising
livestock and agriculture. Women and girls bear disproportionate
burden of deteriorating water quality and availability in rural and urban
areas. A gender analysis is relevant in the management of water as
a natural resource, in the planning and design of sustainable water
technologies and their application to local conditions. Today, 2.8
billion people - approximately 40 percent of the world’s population -
live in river basins impacted by water scarcity. Lack of access to
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water decreases women’s contributions to agricultural production

and their business opportunities. Droughts also bring health hazards
through lack of water for drinking, cooking and hygiene, as well as
food insecurity. Other health consequences are nutritional
deficiencies and burdens associated with travelling to collect water
and this adversely affects women.
 Energy: Rural societies in developing countries rely predominantly
on natural resources, such as wood, charcoal and agricultural
wastes as primary energy sources. The use of these is seldom
sustainable and often has negative impacts on the environment. In
many countries women bear the main responsibility for providing
energy to the household, and often lack technologies like efficient
stoves, grinders and pumps that could ease their burdens. Women
are affected by the lack of access to modern energy services also
when growing food, maintaining the household, and in opportunities
for education and employment. In the male dominated energy sector
a challenge lies in raising awareness and promoting gender policies
in institutions and organisations.
 Livelihoods, Agriculture and Fishing: Women and girl’s
responsibilities as food growers, fuel gatherers and caregivers
connect them closely to the surrounding environment and natural
resources, and equip them with distinct knowledge, such as crop
varieties suitable for different soils and weather conditions. However,
women have less access to land than men and are therefore
noticeably less productive than men. In coastal areas, men work
predominantly with fishing and fish farming, while up to 90% of
secondary sector workers are women. Women are also heavily
involved in the small-scale fishery sector. Increasing the productivity
of women farming and fishing is crucial for women’s economic
empowerment. However, producing more is not enough – and may
harm the environment. Women’s empowerment can be increased
through productivity combined with the conservation and
improvement of natural resources.
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 Forestry: The gender division of labour in forest management differs

and depends on many aspects. Men often collect firewood by felling
and processing trees, while women use fallen branches and thus
have a less damaging impact on the environment. To a larger extent
than men, women use products such as berries, herbs and honey.
Yet, women have less land rights and access to forests, and
participate less in forest management.
 Waste Management: The global environmental consequences of
waste disposal are alarming. This is particularly true in the developing
world’s urban areas, where for example dumpsites have severe
environmental and health effects. Women and men have different
ways of handling wastes, in private and public. Household waste
management is often the unpaid work of women, but when it is
mechanised - for example by the use of carts or delivery tricycles -
and at the same time paid for, men often take over this work. In
other words, in large proportion of waste management works women
are involved yet men gain the benefits not women.
Moreover, environmental effects have an impact on female fertility,
from nutrition, weight and physical health to psychological stress and use of
medications. One key influence that women increasingly need to take into
account is the environment in which they live. In short, environmental factors
have been strongly linked to women’s ability and their day to day life.

13.3.1 Suggestions to Mitigate the Impact of

Environmental Degradation on Women

To mitigate the impact of environmental degradation on women

some measures should be taken on an urgent basis. Some of the
suggested measures in this regard are-
a. There is an urgent need of development of gender action plans
in all environmental organisations and ensure that gender action
plans are used in dialogue with other donors.
b. Inclusion of women in decision making processes at all levels is
very important.

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Unit 13 Environment and Women

c. Use of targeted approaches, that address women and girls'

specific interests, vulnerabilities and needs, will also be fruitful in
this context.
d. Information should be spread about financing women for doing
environmental work. This will encourage more and more women
to come forward and engage themselves in environmental
issues.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.1: Who was the author of the book entitled

"Woman's Role in Economic Development"?
............................................................................................................
Q.2: Write briefly about any two environmental issues that have
profound impact on women.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
Q.3: Mention any two suggestions to mitigate the impact of
environmental degradation on women.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

13.4 LET US SUM UP

 The relationship between the environment and the women is very close
and interlinked. Women play a critical role in managing natural resources
at the family and community levels and are most affected by
environmental degradation. In communities around the world, women
manage water, sources for fuel, food, as well as both forests and
agricultural terrain. The relationship women and environment is also

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Environment and Women Unit 13

recognised by various international documents and conferences.

 The environment has profound impact in the lives of women. In the
early 1960s, an interest in women and their connection with the
environment was sparked, largely by a book written by Ester
Boserup entitled ”Woman’s Role in Economic Development”. Changes
began to be made regarding natural resource and environmental
management with the specific role of women in mind. The World Bank
has also recognised the important role of women in resource
management.
 Globally, women provide a livelihood for their families and simultaneously
manage the environment. However, due to gender power relations,
their knowledge is often overlooked and they are not counted as agents
of change. Therefore, a gender analysis of environmental management
is necessary, looking at gender aspects of the use of natural resources.
Women and men should be agents in environmental management,
including equal participation in decision making and policy
implementation processes.
 Various environmental problems have a negative impact in the lives of
women. Environmental problems have an impact on female fertility,
from nutrition, weight and physical health to psychological stress and
use of medications.
 To mitigate the impact of environmental degradation on women, some
measures should be taken on an urgent basis. Some of the suggested
measures in this regard are- there is an urgent need of development
of gender action plans in all environmental organisations and to ensure
that gender action plans are used in dialogue with other donors. Also
inclusion of women in decision making processes at all levels is very
important. The use of targeted approaches, that address women and
girls’ specific interests, vulnerabilities and needs, will also be fruitful in
this context, information should be widely disseminated with regard to
financing women in taking up Environmental work.

Women and Politics 165

Unit 13 Environment and Women

13.5 FURTHER READING

1) Jonsson-Arora, Seema (2011). “Virtue and Vulnerability: Discourses

on Women, Gender and Climate Change”. Global Environmental
Change. May, Vol. 21 (2) .
2) Panda, P. & Agarwal, B. (2005). “Marital Violence, Human Development
and Women’s Property Status in India”. World Development. Vol. 33(5)
3) United Nations, Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the
Pacific (2017). Gender, the Environment and Sustainable Development
in Asia and the Pacific. United Nations ESCAP.
4) Wolfgang, Lutza (November 1, 2017). “How Population Growth Relates
to Climate Change”. Sustainability Science, Economic Sciences:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States
of America – via JSTOR.

13.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: Ester Boserup

Ans to Q No 2: (i) Chemicals and pollution: Women exposures to toxic
chemicals depend on the division of labour in the private and
public arenas. For example women are disproportionately
exposed to pesticides used in non-waged agricultural activities.
Women's responsibilities in household work mean that they are
more exposed to toxic chemicals found in products used for
cleaning, personal care, and pest control, and to pesticides and
house building materials stored at home. Another risk is pesticide
containers recycled for other uses, which may have severe health
consequences. In rural areas, indoor pollution affects women
more than men, as they are more exposed to smoke from burning
fuels. In urban areas, risk factors include exposures to chemicals

166 Women and Politics

Environment and Women Unit 13

and indoor air pollution from household solid fuel. These hazards
play a role in more than 80 per cent of the diseases regularly
reported by the WHO. Inefficient burning of biomass in
unventilated homes releases high levels of black carbon, causing
approximately 2 million deaths per year, mainly of women and
children in the poorest communities.
(ii) Water: Both women and girls play a central part in the provision,
management and safeguarding of freshwater as a natural
resource, and they are often responsible for sanitation and for
maintaining a hygienic home. Water is also a prerequisite for
gardening, raising livestock and agriculture. Women and girls
bear disproportional the burden of deteriorating water quality and
availability in rural and urban areas. A gender analysis is relevant
in the management of water as a natural resource, in the planning
and design of sustainable water technologies and their application
to local conditions. Today 2.8 billion people - approximately 40
percent of the world's population - live in river basins impacted
by water scarcity. Lack of access to water decreases women's
contributions to agricultural production and their business
opportunities. Droughts also bring health hazards through lack
of water for drinking, cooking and hygiene, as well as food
insecurity. Other health consequences are nutritional deficiencies
and burdens associated with travelling to collect water and this
adversely affects women.
Ans to Q No 3: (i) There is an urgent need of development of gender action
plans in all environmental organisations and ensure that gender
action plans are used in dialogue with other donors.
(ii) Inclusion of women in decision making processes at all levels is
very important.

Women and Politics 167

Unit 13 Environment and Women

13.7 POSSIBLE QUESTIONS

Q. 1 : Write briefly about the relationship between environment and gender.

Q. 2 : Discuss the impact of environmental degradation on the lives of
women.
Q. 3 : Examine how degradation of environment is related to
disempowerment of women.
Q. 4 : Provide suggestions to mitigate the impact of environmental
problems on women.

*** ***** ***

168 Women and Politics

UNIT 14: PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN VARIOUS
SOCIO-POLITICAL MOVEMENTS IN
ASSAM
UNIT STRUCTURE

14.1 Learning Objectives

14.2 Introduction
14.3 Participation of Women in the Assam Movement
14.4 Participation of Women in the Bodoland Movement
14.5 Let Us Sum Up
14.6 Further Reading
14.7 Answers to Check Your Progress
14.8 Possible Questions

14.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to -

 discuss the role of women in politics
 discuss the participation of women in the Assam Movement
 describe the participation of women in the Bodoland Movement.

14.2 INTRODUCTION

Participation of women in socio-political movement is not a new

phenomenon. Women continue to be a part of the resistance movement
throughout the world. The foundation of political participation of women in
India was laid during the Freedom Movement. The selfless participation of
large number of women had strengthened the movement. However, gender
equality was nowhere the agenda of Indian National movement. It was not
the main thrust of the national movement. Either directly or indirectly large
number of women participated in the freedom struggle. The contribution of
women in getting freedom is noteworthy. They proved that women are
capable of strengthening the political movement. The participation of women
in freedom struggle had its impact on the society and family and on women
themselves.
Women and Politics 169
Unit 14 Participation of Women in Various Socio-Political Movements in Assam

In the Non-cooperation Movement which can be considered as the

first potent milestone in India’s liberation struggle, women in Assam made
a significant presence. It must be mentioned here that Gandhiji’s call to
women had an immediate liberating effect and he was able to draw large
number of women into the movement. In the beginning, a small number of
women participated in the Movement, like Bidyutprova Devi, Girija Devi,
Hemanta Kumari Devi, Dharmada Devi, Nalinibala Devi, Pushpalata Das,
Guneshwari Nath and Chandraprova Saikiani. They organised meetings
both at the rural and the urban level to disseminate the message and intent
of “non-cooperation, swadeshi and constructive work”. Gandhiji’s visit to
Assam in 1921 provided boost to their activities. The Civil Disobedience
Movement in Assam too saw a vibrant participation of women. In 1930,
Pushpalata Das along with Sarla Saxena, Punyaprava Barua and Jyotsna
Majumdar, established the “Mukti Sangha” to mobilise girls in the national
movement. Their fiery spirited speeches encouraged many young minds
to fight for Poorna Swaraj. It is during this movement that at various places
of Assam, “Nari Bahinis” or women squads were formed for carrying out
programmes of picketing. Anti-opium campaign was very strongly carried
out by women during this phase. With a large number of men behind bars,
women came out in thousands breaking the law to show their support to
the programme of Salt Satyagraha. In the Quit India Movement women in
Assam came out in large numbers. It was in 1940’s that women wings
were made an integral part of the Indian National Congress at both national
and provincial level. In Assam, the women’s wing was set up in September
1940 with Pushpalata Das and Amolprava Das as joint secretaries. The
following year, the All Assam Girl Students’ Committee was formed in Shillong.
In the face of unprecedented police repression and with large numbers of
men in prison, prominent women leaders took upon themselves the task of
coordinating the activities. Chandraprova Saikiani was one of the main
guiding forces among women. In 1942, the Mrityu Bahini or Suicide Squad
was formed to carry out subversive activities in a more organised manner.
The Quit India phase showcased the rise of a novel wave of female militancy.
Kanaklata, Ratnabala Phukan, Buddheshwari Hazarika, Khahuli Nath and
170 Women and Politics
Participation of Women in Various Socio-Political Movements in Assam Unit 14

Damayanti Bora were active members of the Mrityu Bahini and were
acclaimed as fearless radical women nationalists. Besides them, common
women of the Assamese society made immense contributions via means
like facilitation of hiding weapons, using their domestic role to support
subversive and revolutionary activities.
Thus, Assam is a land where women took part in every aspect of
society - be it administration, cultural aspects since the ancient time. In this
unit, we shall discuss participation of women in two very significant
movements that occurred in Assam, namely- the Assam Movement and
the Bodoland Movement.

14.3 PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN THE ASSAM

MOVEMENT

In the case of Assam Movement which had at its core, the demands
of locating and expelling illegal migrants from Assam, economic
development of the state, safeguarding larger Assamese linguistic and
cultural identity, infrastructural development of the state; the participation of
women was as widespread as that of men. The participation of women
from different class, caste and the communal background is one of the
most important features of the anti-foreigners’ agitation of 1979-85. Women
were spontaneous participants and they took part in all activities, be it
satyagraha, picketing or procession. The agitation was primarily a student-
led movement with the student community, both boys and girls participating
in large proportions. One of the important roles played by the women in this
movement was the act of fundraising for the sustenance of the movement.
The numerous Mahila Samiti (Women’s Association) that came up during
the agitation contributed money to All Assam Students’ Union (AASU) to
carry on the agitation and this process lasted until the end of the agitation.
Assam Women Writers Association supported the cause of the agitation
and pleaded the government not to hold election without correcting voters
list which allegedly comprised a large number of names of illegal immigrants
from Bangladesh.

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Unit 14 Participation of Women in Various Socio-Political Movements in Assam

In almost every corner of every locality, a women’s association was

formed and these women were not merely supporting the agitation but they
were creating new avenues for self-employment and self-dependence. They
used handloom as their traditional companion and instrument to carry their
fights against the ‘other’. The newspaper reports were full of their offer to
help victims of violence, to provide food and aid to those who were picketing,
themselves being engaged in picketing and at the same time, weaving
cloths, which was the main source of earning for many families. Another
notable women’s organisation that played a crucial role in the movement is
Assam Jagrata Mahila Parishad . It provided crucial assistance in the political
mobilisation of women. They symbolised women as mother and their
inspiration as a source of strength to carry on the agitation in the face of
hardships. An important outcome of the anti-foreigner’s agitation in Assam
was the emergence of women leaders at the time of the movement. Students
involved in the AASU led movement gave girl students the opportunity to
lead from the front. An example of such leadership was Rekha Rani Bodo,
a tribal leader. She was elected as president of All Assam Tribal Women’s
Association in 1982 and was a part of AASU.
Another important contribution of women towards the Assam agitation
was through their role as “Peacekeepers”. During the anti-foreigners’
agitation in Assam, thousands of women poured into the streets in support
of the agitation and many of them were victims of violence. In such situation,
many women’s organisations came up who urged for peace. Several
Matribahinis (Mother Force) were created to assist those who suffered
during the agitation. Samajsewi Matribahini (Social Worker Mother Force)
was one such organisation who offered material help to those women who
were either molested by Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) jawans or
lost family members, by granting them handlooms to become self-
dependent financially. Purbanchaliya Mahila Sanstha (Northeastern
Women’s Association) was another organisation involved in helping those
who suffered due to the agitation. The women involved in this organisation
went from place to place, to offer medical and material support to those
injured in conflicts that broke out between the protesters and security forces.
172 Women and Politics
Participation of Women in Various Socio-Political Movements in Assam Unit 14

By 1981, there was many women’s organisation involved in maintaining

peace in society. They were protesting against the army and police torture
on agitators.
Finally, if we look at the entire period of the agitation, women’s
participation was not of equal intensity. At the beginning, the middle-class
women living in urban areas were supporters of the agitation. They
spontaneously came out of home for processions and picketing. Old ladies
and young girls in rural areas supported the agitation and took to the streets.
But once the agitation became more intense, women of different ethnic
groups too started participating in the agitation. The common perception
was that, as the ‘Mother Assam’ (Aai Axomi) is in danger and everyone
should come out of home to save her from ‘intruders’.
A positive change brought by the Assam Movement on women’s
lives was their growing political consciousness. This led to a blossoming of
a multitude of women’s organisations and women clubs. Some of them
were- Mula Gabhoru Santha, Sanjukta Mahila Sangha (United Women’s
Association), Satya Sandhya Mahila Sangha (Satya Sandhya Women’s
Association), Sankari Samaj Mahila Samiti (Sankari Society Women’s
Committee) etc. Although many of these were dissolved after the agitation,
yet a large number of these associations continued operating. It gave women
a sense of unity, togetherness and strength to stand together against issues,
such as domestic violence and social disturbances caused by drunkards.
After the agitation was over, many of these women’s associations continue
working as self-help groups and organisations for social and political
empowerment of women.
Although, in the Assam movement millions of Assamese women
came out on the street and participated in the different programmes of the
movement, yet their role in the success of the movement did not bear any
fruitful result for the women with respect of electoral politics. In 1985 the
Assam Accord was signed between the Central Government and the leaders
of the Assam Movement. The leaders of the movement formed Asom Gana
Parishad, (AGP) - a new regional political party in 1985 and took part in the
election to the Assam Legislative Assembly held in the same year. It was
Women and Politics 173
Unit 14 Participation of Women in Various Socio-Political Movements in Assam

ironical that only two women had received the opportunity to file nomination
as candidates of AGP in that election despite millions of Assamese girl
students and women participating in the Assam Movement. Although it
proved that in the mass movement the participation of women was
considered very essential, yet they were virtually kept aloof from the electoral
politics. Other national political parties were also reluctant to induct women
into the electoral politics of the state.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.1: Mention the names of any two women's

association involved in the Assam Movement.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
Q.2: What were the demands raised during the Assam Movement?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
Q.3: Write briefly about the role of women as Peacekeeper during the
Assam Movement.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

14.4 PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN THE

BODOLAND MOVEMENT

The Bodoland Movement has been the most significant tribal

movement in contemporary Assam. This movement is rooted in the colonial
times but intensified into a radical political, cultural and extremist assertion
in the 1980s. Some of the reasons for the emergence of the Bodoland
Movement are- feeling of discrimination, deprivation and injustice

174 Women and Politics

Participation of Women in Various Socio-Political Movements in Assam Unit 14

experienced by the Bodo community in Assam. During the campaign in

order to protect political, economic and cultural identity, the leaders of the
Bodoland Movement emphasised that the Bodo people are ethnically different
from rest of the people of Assam and hence entitled to political representation
in the form of a separate state-Bodoland.
The Bodoland Movement marked the beginning of a political
awakening among the Bodo women. With the establishment of the All Assam
Tribal Women’s Welfare Federation (AATWWF) in 1986 later known All
Bodo Women’s Welfare Federation (ABWWF) in 1993, large number of
women from villages to towns had joined this organisation as members.
Prior to the formation of the AATWWF there were hardly any women in
leadership. The AATWWF was the first organisation in which a large number
of women participated. The AATWWF was formed under the direct initiative
of the leaders like Upendranath Bramha, Sansuma Khungur Bwismithiary,
Subhas Basumatary, and Deora Dekhereb Basumatary, of the ABSU.
Pramila Rani Brahma was elected as the first president of AATWWF. With
the establishment of this federation, it started to function as the women
wing to ABSU, aiding the principal actor in taking forward the Bodoland
Movement.
Prior to 1994 women’s participation in the ABSU movement was
negligible. It was more intense only after the movement for implementation
of the Roman Script launched in 1994. Alo (pseudo name), one of the
prominent AATWWF members, was a close associate of Upendranath
Brahma and took active part in mobilising people on the issues of the
Movement.
The Bodoland Movement exhibited-two contradictory trends very
clearly: non-violent protests through organising mass rallies, processions,
protest rallies, hunger strike, road blockade, etc. and the other trend was
violent in nature. The ABSU established a military wing (ABSU Volunteer
Force) to conduct armed struggle. Dr. Phukan Chandra Bodo and, later
Premsingh Brahma, were in-charge of this wing and were designated as
‘chairmen’. They were both former executive members of the ABSU. The
Bodo Volunteer Force actively participated in the movement from the
Women and Politics 175
Unit 14 Participation of Women in Various Socio-Political Movements in Assam

beginning. It worked as an underground wing of the ABSU. Its protests were

violent in nature. Its volunteers worked as soldiers for the Bodos during the
movement. In 1989, the ABSU and the VF leaders expressed the desire to
train the women in arms. The women too wanted to join arms training and
they did it. This Force required messengers to carry secret messages.
Many AATWWF members of different village councils and district
committees were involved in this activity. Carrying money for ABSU was
also a part of their job. Thus, from 1989 onwards, women joined the Volunteer
Force but they were not involved in ‘direct action’. They were taught to use
the rifle for their own safety. The aim of such training was to provide some
measures for their safety. There was no plan to bring them to armed action.
But they were told that if situation so demanded they would be called in.
They were trained to carry messages and other necessary articles. Bodo
leader Upendra Nath Brahma drew large number of women into the freedom
struggle. Brahma believed that a society cannot progress without the
progress of women. In response to Upendra Nath Brahma’s call a large
number of women joined in the movement.
The All Bodo Women’s Welfare Federation played a very significant
role in promoting political as well as cultural consciousness among the
Bodo women and performed an even greater role in the political mobilisation
of women during the Movement. The Bodo women under the banner of this
organisation collectively performed a wide range of activities to support
and sustain the Movement. They participated extensively in protests, dharna,
gheraos and processions against police and army brutality and state
atrocities. A section of women of the organisation also provided indirect
support to the Movement by facilitating the active members with food, nursing
and healthcare. Therefore, women participation in the Bodoland Movement
reflected the diversity of roles that Bodo women could adapt to. Then again,
there was this other section of enlightened and educated Bodo women,
equipped with managerial and leadership skills, who assisted in
disseminating Bodo sub-nationalist values through fiery speeches and skillful
mobilisation. Many Bodo women received training in nursing and healthcare
by doctors in Primary Healthcare Centres as a part of the larger strategy of
176 Women and Politics
Participation of Women in Various Socio-Political Movements in Assam Unit 14

the Movement. These women were to provide nursing and immediate medical
aid to the injured activists. Additionally, there was also an emission of literary
activities among Bodo women during the Movement. Songdan, the first
magazine of Bodo women by Bodo women and for Bodo women, was
published in 1991 by the AATWWF. The magazine called Raikhrnuthi was
published in the same year. These magazines were published once in a
year and women related issues were of primary concern to them though
they also published other writings of women. The editorial board members
were women though the writers were not necessarily women. Many
renowned Bodo intellectuals, poets, ABSU activists, etc. wrote on women
related issues in those magazines. Those articles discussed the contribution
of women to the upliftment of the Bodos, involvement of the Bodo women
in politics, women’s contribution to the development of Bodo society etc.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q.4: What is the full form of AATWWF?

..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
Q.5: Who was elected as the first president of AATWWF?
..............................................................................................................
Q.6: Write briefly about the role played by the All Bodo Women's
Welfare Federation in the Bodoland Movement.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................

14.5 LET US SUM UP

 The foundation of political participation of women in India was laid during

the Freedom Movement. The selfless participation of large number of

Women and Politics 177

Unit 14 Participation of Women in Various Socio-Political Movements in Assam

women had strengthened the movement. Either directly or indirectly

large number of women participated in the freedom struggle. The
contribution of women in getting freedom is noteworthy. They proved
that women are capable of strengthening the political movement. The
participation of women in freedom struggle had its impact on the society
and family and on women themselves.
 In Assam too, women participated in large manner in various socio-
political movements. Two major movements that occurred in Assam
in post-independent period are- the Assam movement and the Bodoland
movement. In these two movements participation of women was very
encouraging.
 The main demands of the Assam Movement (1979-85) were the
demands of locating and expelling illegal migrants from Assam,
economic development of the state, safeguarding larger Assamese
linguistic and cultural identity, infrastructural development of the state
etc. The participation of women from different class, caste and the
communal background is one of the most important features of the
anti-foreigners’ agitation of 1979-85.
 Women were spontaneous participants and they took part in all
activities of the Assam Movement, be it satyagraha, picketing or
procession. One of the important roles played by the women in this
movement was the act of fundraising for the sustenance of the
movement. Assam Women Writers Association supported the cause
of the agitation and pleaded the government not to hold election without
correcting voters list which was alleged to comprise of a large number
of names of illegal immigrants from Bangladesh.
 A number of women’s organisations were formed during the Assam
Movement, such as Mula Gabhoru Santha, Sanjukta Mahila Sangha
(United Women’s Association), Satya Sandhya Mahila Sangha (Satya
Sandhya Women’s Association), Sankari Samaj Mahila Samiti (Sankari
Society Women’s Committee) etc.

178 Women and Politics

Participation of Women in Various Socio-Political Movements in Assam Unit 14

 Another important contribution of women towards the Assam agitation

was through their role of “Peacekeepers”. During the anti-foreigners’
agitation in Assam, thousands of women poured into the streets in
support of the agitation and many of them were victims of violence.
 A positive change brought by the Assam Movement on women’s lives
was their growing political consciousness. Although in the Assam
movement millions of Assamese women came out on the street and
participated in the different programmes of the movement, yet their
role in the success of the movement did not bear any fruitful result for
the women in respect of electoral politics.
 The Bodoland Movement marked the beginning of a political awakening
among the Bodo women. With the establishment of the All Assam Tribal
Women’s Welfare Federation (AATWWF) in 1986 later known All Bodo
Women’s Welfare Federation (ABWWF) in 1993, large number of
women from villages to towns had joined this organisation as members.
Pramila Rani Brahma was elected as the first president of AATWWF.
With the establishment of this federation, it started to function as the
women wing to ABSU, aiding the principal factor in taking forward the
Bodoland Movement.
 The ABSU established a military wing (ABSU Volunteer Force) to
conduct armed struggle. In 1989, the ABSU and the VF leaders
expressed the desire to train the women in arms. This Force required
messengers to carry secret messages. Many AATWWF members of
different village councils and district committees were involved in this
activity. Therefore, from 1989 onwards, women joined the Volunteer
Force but they were not involved in ‘direct action’. They were taught to
use the rifle for their own safety. The aim of such training was to provide
some measures for their safety.
 The All Bodo Women’s Welfare Federation played a very significant
role in promoting political as well as cultural consciousness among
the Bodo women and performed an even greater role in the political
mobilisation of women during the Movement. The Bodo women under
the banner of this organisation collectively performed a wide range of
Women and Politics 179
Unit 14 Participation of Women in Various Socio-Political Movements in Assam

activities to support and sustain the Movement. They participated

extensively in protests, dharna, gheraos and processions against police
and army brutality and state atrocities. They also provided food, nursing
and healthcare services.

14.6 FURTHER READING

1) Baishya, D. D. (n.d.). Political Participation of Women of Assam with

Special Reference to Nalbari District. International Research Journal of
Interdisciplinary & Multidisciplinary Studies (IRJIMS), II(VIII), 87–95.

2) Chaudhuri, Suchetra Sen. (2004). The Bodo Movement Women’s

Participation. New Delhi: Mittal Publication.

3) Parida, Subhas C., and Nayak, Sasmita. (2009). Empowerment of

Women in India. Delhi: Northern Book Centre.
4) Sharma, Nabanita. (2017). Role of Women during the Anti-Foreigners’
Agitation in Assam 1979-1985, Journal of North East India Studies,
7(2): 18-32.

5) Sinha, Niroj. (2000). Women Participation in National Freedom Struggle,

in Noroj Sinha (ed), Women in Indian Politics. New Delhi: Gyan
Publishing House.

14.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1: Mula Gabhoru Santha, Sanjukta Mahila Sangha

Ans to Q No 2: The demands raised during the Assam Movement were-
the locating and expelling illegal migrants from Assam, economic
development of the state, safeguarding larger Assamese linguistic
and cultural identity, infrastructural development of the state etc.

180 Women and Politics

Participation of Women in Various Socio-Political Movements in Assam Unit 14

Ans to Q No 3: One important contribution of women towards the Assam

Movement was through their role of “Peacekeepers”. During the
anti-foreigners’ agitation in Assam, thousands of women poured
into the streets in support of the agitation and many of them were
victims of violence. In such situation, many women’s
organisations came up who urged for peace. Several Matribahinis
(Mother Force) were created to assist those who suffered during
the agitation. Samajsewi Matribahini (Social Worker Mother Force)
was one such organisation who offered material help to those
women who were either molested by Central Reserve Police
Force (CRPF) jawans or lost family members, by granting them
hand looms to become self-dependent financially. Purbanchaliya
Mahila Sanstha (Northeastern Women’s Association) was
another organisation involved in helping those who suffered due
to the agitation. The women involved in this organisation went
from place to place, to offer medical and material support to those
injured in conflicts that broke out between the protesters and
security forces. By 1981, there was many women’s organisation
involved in maintaining peace in society. They were protesting
against the army and police torture on agitators.
Ans to Q No 4: All Assam Tribal Women’s Welfare Federation
Ans to Q No 5: Pramila Rani Brahma
Ans to Q No 6: The All Bodo Women’s Welfare Federation played a very
significant role in promoting political as well as cultural
consciousness among the Bodo women and performed an even
greater role in the political mobilisation of women during the
Movement. The Bodo women under the banner of this
organisation collectively performed a wide range of activities to
support and sustain the Movement. They participated extensively
in protests, dharna, gheraos and processions against police
and army brutality and state atrocities. A section of women of
the organisation also provided indirect support to the Movement

Women and Politics 181

Unit 14 Participation of Women in Various Socio-Political Movements in Assam

by facilitating the active members with food, nursing and

healthcare.

14.8 POSSIBLE QUESTIONS

Q. 1 : In which year was the All Assam Tribal Women's Welfare Federation
formed?
Q. 2 : Mention the name of the military wing of the ABSU.
Q. 3 : Mention names of three women's associations formed during the
period of the Assam Movement.
Q. 4 : Examine the participation of women in the Assam Movement.
Q. 5 : Discuss the role of women in the Bodoland Movement.

*** ***** ***

182 Women and Politics

 REFERENCE

Books

1) Agarwal, M.(Ed.) (2013). Women Empowerment and Gender

Equality. New Delhi: Kanishka Publishers, Distributors.

2) Arora, N.D.& Awasthy, S.S. (2004). Political Theory. New Delhi: Har
Anand Publications Pvt. Ltd.

3) Beauvoir, Simone de. (2015). The Second Sex. New Delhi: Vintage
Classics, India.

4) Bhasin, Kamla. (2003). Understanding Gender. New Delhi: Kali for

Women.

5) Bhasin, Kamla. (1993). What is Patriarchy? New Delhi: Kali for

Women.

6) Biju, M. R. (2006). Women’s Empowerment: Politics and Policies.

New Delhi: Mittal Publication.

7) Brush, L.D. (2007). Gender And Governance. Jaipur: Rawat

Publication.

8) Chaudhuri, Suchetra Sen. (2004). The Bodo Movement Women’s

Participation. New Delhi: Mittal Publication.

9) Hust, E. (2004). Women’s Political Representation And

Empowerment In India: A Millions Indiras Now? New Delhi: Manohar
Publication.

10) John, E. Mary. (2008). Women’s Studies in India, A Reader. New

Delhi: Penguin India.

11) Menon, Nivedita. (2012). Seeing like a Feminist. New Delhi: Penguin
India.

12) Menon, Nivedita and Nigam, Aditya. (2007). Power and Contestation.
New Delhi: Zed Books Ltd.

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