Data Structures & Algorithms Notes
Study Notes • Educational Reference
Prepared as an original educational document
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1. Why Data Structures Matter
A data structure determines how information is organized and accessed. Choosing an appropriate
structure can make a program substantially faster and easier to maintain. Arrays, linked lists, stacks,
queues, trees, hash tables, heaps, and graphs each provide different trade-offs.
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2. Arrays
An array stores elements in a contiguous or logically indexed sequence. Direct access by index is
efficient, while insertion or deletion in the middle can require shifting elements. Arrays are useful for
tables, buffers, matrices, and situations where predictable indexed access is important.
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3. Linked Lists
A linked list stores elements in nodes connected by references. A singly linked list has a next
reference, while a doubly linked list has both previous and next references. Linked lists can simplify
insertion and deletion when a suitable node position is already known.
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4. Stacks
A stack follows the last-in, first-out principle. Push adds an element and pop removes the most
recently added element. Stacks are useful for function-call management, expression evaluation, undo
operations, depth-first search, and parsing nested structures.
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5. Queues
A queue follows the first-in, first-out principle. Enqueue adds an item and dequeue removes the oldest
item. Queues are useful in scheduling, buffering, breadth-first search, print systems, and service
systems. Circular queues can reuse previously freed positions efficiently.
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6. Trees and Binary Search Trees
Trees represent hierarchical relationships. In a binary search tree, values smaller than a node are
placed in one subtree and larger values in another, according to the chosen ordering rule. Balanced
trees can maintain efficient search, insertion, and deletion performance.
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7. Hash Tables
A hash table maps keys to locations using a hash function. Average-case lookup, insertion, and
deletion can be close to constant time when the table is well designed. Collisions occur when different
keys map to the same location and can be handled using techniques such as chaining or probing.
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8. Sorting and Searching
Sorting arranges values according to an ordering rule. Insertion sort is simple and useful for small or
nearly sorted data, while merge sort and heap sort provide predictable O(n log n) performance. Binary
search works efficiently on sorted data by repeatedly eliminating half of the remaining search space.
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9. Graphs
Graphs model relationships between entities. Vertices represent objects and edges represent
connections. Graphs may be directed or undirected and may have weighted edges. Breadth-first
search explores level by level, while depth-first search explores a path before backtracking. These
methods support many real-world problems.
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10. Problem-Solving Strategy
A strong algorithmic solution begins by understanding constraints and defining the required output
precisely. Next, identify patterns, select a suitable data structure, design an algorithm, estimate
complexity, test edge cases, and refine the implementation. Clear reasoning is as important as writing
correct code.
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