STATES OF MATTER – 1: GASES

Complete Detailed Notes — Chemistry Grade XI (Unit 4)

1. Pressure
Definition: Pressure is the force exerted per unit area. It is represented by the letter P.
P = F / A (Force / Area)
SI unit of force is the Newton (N); SI unit of area is the square metre (m²). So pressure has SI unit N/m², called the
Pascal (Pa).

1.1 Atmospheric Pressure

The atmosphere is the thick blanket of gases surrounding Earth. Gravity pulls these gas molecules toward Earth's
surface, so the column of air above any area presses down on that area — this pressure is called atmospheric
pressure.
• Atmospheric pressure = sum of the individual pressures of all gases in air (78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, 1%
other gases including argon and CO₂).
• At sea level, atmospheric pressure ≈ 101,325 N/m² (equal to the weight of a 1.03 kg mass per square
centimetre).
• Actual atmospheric pressure depends on: location, temperature, and weather conditions.

1.2 Units of Pressure

Unit Symbol Definition / Relationship

Pascal Pa SI unit of pressure. 1 Pa = 1 N/m²

Millimetre of
mmHg Pressure that supports a 1 mm mercury column in a barometer
Mercury

1 torr = 1 mmHg (named after Evangelista Torricelli, inventor of the

Torr torr
barometer)

Atmosphere atm Average atmospheric pressure at sea level at 273.15 K

1 atm = 760 mmHg = 760 torr = 101,325 Pa = 1.01325 × 10⁵ Pa = 101.325 kPa
Example 4.1: Convert 49 torr into atm and Pascal
Given: Pressure = 49 torr, and 1 atm = 760 torr
Step 1 (convert to atm): 49 torr × (1 atm / 760 torr) = 6.447 × 10⁻² atm
Step 2 (convert to Pa): 6.447 × 10⁻² atm × (101325 Pa / 1 atm) = 6.5327 × 10³ Pa
Answer: P = 6.447 × 10⁻² atm = 6.5327 × 10³ Pa

Practice Problem 4.1 (try yourself): Barometer reads 2.21 atm. Find pressure in (a) torr and (b) Pascal.
Hint: use 1 atm = 760 torr, and 1 atm = 101325 Pa (same method as Example 4.1).
2. Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT)
KMT explains gas behaviour on the assumption that gas molecules are in constant motion. First proposed by Daniel
Bernoulli; developed further by James Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann.

2.1 Postulates of KMT

1. All gases consist of small particles called molecules.
2. Gas molecules have higher kinetic energy than molecules of liquids and solids.
3. Molecules are far apart with large distances between them — so gas volume is mostly empty space.
4. The volume of a single gas molecule is negligible compared with the total volume occupied by the gas.
5. Attractive/repulsive forces between molecules are negligible — each molecule behaves independently.
6. Molecules move in constant random motion, colliding with each other and with container walls; pressure
results from these collisions.
7. All collisions are perfectly elastic — total kinetic energy remains constant (no energy lost).
8. Average kinetic energy of gas molecules is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
9. Different gases at the same temperature have the same average kinetic energy.
10. Gravity has almost no effect on the motion of gas molecules.
Note: Postulate 5 says forces are “negligible”, not “zero”. At low temperature molecules slow down and get closer,
so these weak forces become significant — this is why gases eventually condense.

3. Boyle's Law
Statement: At constant temperature, the volume of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to the pressure
applied on it.
V ∝ 1/P (constant T, mass) → V = k × 1/P → PV = k
Where k = Boyle's law constant. If a gas changes from state 1 (P₁,V₁) to state 2 (P₂,V₂) at constant T:
P₁V₁ = P₂V₂
Alternative definition: the product of pressure and volume of a given mass of gas remains constant at constant
temperature.

3.1 Graphical Verification

A plot of Volume (y-axis) against Pressure (x-axis) for a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature gives a curve
called an isotherm (a hyperbola). The curve falls sharply then flattens, showing that V decreases as P increases, but
never in a straight line.

4. Charles' Law
Statement: At constant pressure, the volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature.
V ∝ T (constant P, mass) → V = kT → k = V/T
Where k = Charles' law constant. For a gas changing from state 1 to state 2 at constant pressure:
 V₁/T₁ = V₂/T₂
Alternative definition: the ratio of volume to absolute temperature of a given mass of gas is constant at constant
pressure.

4.1 Graphical Representation

A plot of Volume against Temperature at constant pressure gives a straight line (since V ∝ T is linear). Extending
this line backward, it touches zero volume at −273.16°C — this point is called absolute zero.

4.2 Graphical Explanation of Absolute Zero

In 1787, Jacques Charles and Joseph Gay-Lussac independently discovered that all gases expand by the same
fraction when heated through the same temperature change: the volume of a gas changes by 1/273 of its volume at
0°C for every 1°C rise or fall, at constant pressure.
• +1°C rise → volume increases by 1/273 of original volume
• +100°C rise → volume increases by 100/273 of original volume
• +273°C rise → volume increases by 273/273 — i.e. the volume doubles
• Cooling follows the same pattern in reverse: cooling from 0°C to −273°C would decrease volume by 273/273
— i.e. volume would become zero.
Since volume cannot actually become zero (matter cannot disappear), gases can never really be cooled to −273°C.
Before reaching that temperature, intermolecular forces exceed the molecules' kinetic energy, and the gas condenses
into a liquid or solid.
Note: This is why absolute zero is called a theoretical limit — it is the temperature predicted by the maths, but no real
gas actually reaches it.

5. Absolute Zero and Absolute Temperature

5.1 Absolute Zero

Definition: The theoretical minimum possible temperature (−273.15°C = 0 K), at which molecular kinetic energy
would become zero.
• It is a single, fixed point — never actually reached by any real gas.
• Found graphically by extending the Charles' Law line (V vs T) backward to V = 0.
• Real gases solidify at temperatures well above 0 K (e.g. nitrogen at 63 K, oxygen at 54 K) — condensation
always happens first.

5.2 Absolute Temperature (Kelvin Scale)

Definition: A temperature scale that starts counting from absolute zero (0 K), a true physical floor — not an
arbitrary reference point.
• Kelvin can never go negative, because 0 K already means zero molecular motion.
• Celsius and Fahrenheit can go negative because their zero points (0°C, 32°F) are arbitrary and do not
represent zero motion.
K = °C + 273
Note: Gas laws must always use absolute temperature (Kelvin). Using Celsius directly gives wrong answers, because
only Kelvin's zero is a true zero, which direct proportionality (V ∝ T) requires.
5.3 Difference: Absolute Zero vs Absolute Temperature
• Absolute zero = one fixed temperature point (0 K = −273.15°C). It never changes.
• Absolute temperature = the whole Kelvin scale, built starting from that point (e.g. 273 K, 298 K, 373 K —
values change depending on what is measured).

5.4 Comparison of Temperature Scales

Reference Point Fahrenheit Celsius Kelvin
Boiling point of water 212°F 100°C 373 K

Freezing point of water 32°F 0°C 273 K

Absolute zero −459°F −273°C 0K

• Celsius ↔ Kelvin: K = °C + 273

• Celsius ↔ Fahrenheit: °F = (9/5)(°C) + 32
• Fahrenheit ↔ Celsius: °C = (5/9)(°F − 32)
Celsius has 100 divisions between freezing and boiling of water; Fahrenheit has 180 divisions — this is why the 9/5
factor appears. Kelvin uses the same size degree as Celsius, only shifted by 273, so no multiplying is needed to
convert between them.

6. Avogadro's Law
Statement: At the same temperature and pressure, equal volumes of different gases contain the same number of
molecules.
It follows that the volume of a gas is proportional to the number of moles (n) of gas present, at constant T and P:
V∝n → V=K×n
Where K is the proportionality constant. This means gas identity/mass does not matter — only the number of moles
determines volume, at fixed T and P.

6.1 Molar Volume

• 1 mole of any gas contains 6.022 × 10²³ molecules (Avogadro's number).
• Experimentally, 1 mole of any gas occupies 22.4 dm³ at STP (0°C, 1 atm) — this volume is called the molar
volume.
• H₂ (mass 2.015 g), O₂ (mass 32 g), and CO₂ (mass 44.01 g) each occupy exactly 22.4 dm³ at STP when
taken as 1 mole — despite very different masses, because they contain the same number of molecules.
• This works because gas molecules are extremely far apart (about 300 times their own diameter apart at room
temperature) — the empty space dominates volume, not molecule size or mass.
Note: The 22.4 dm³ rule applies to GASES ONLY. Liquids and solids have tightly packed molecules, so their volume
depends on the specific substance (e.g. 1 mole of liquid water occupies only about 18 cm³, not 22.4 dm³).

7. Ideal Gas Equation (General Gas Equation)

Ideal gas: A gas that behaves exactly as described by the assumptions of the kinetic molecular theory.
The equation relating pressure, volume, number of moles, and temperature of an ideal gas is called the ideal gas
equation.

7.1 Derivation
Combine the three proportionalities:
Boyle's Law: V ∝ 1/P (constant T)
Charles' Law: V ∝ T (constant P)
Avogadro's Law: V ∝ n (constant T, P)
Combining all three (since V depends on all of them simultaneously):
V ∝ Tn/P → V = R·(T/P)·n
Where R is called the universal gas constant (same for every gas). Cross-multiplying:
PV = nRT — the Ideal Gas Equation
For exactly 1 mole (n = 1), this simplifies to:
PV/T = R

7.2 Combined (Generalized) Gas Equation

Since PV/T = R is constant for a fixed amount of gas, comparing an initial state (P₁,V₁,T₁) and final state
(P₂,V₂,T₂) of the same gas sample:
P₁V₁ / T₁ = P₂V₂ / T₂
This lets P, V, and T all change simultaneously — unlike Boyle's or Charles' law alone, which each hold one
variable fixed.

Example 4.2: 750 cm³ of gas at 300 mmHg and 50°C is heated until volume becomes 2000 cm³ at 700 mmHg.
Find the final temperature.
Given: V₁ = 750 cm³, P₁ = 300 mmHg, T₁ = 50 + 273 = 323 K
V₂ = 2000 cm³, P₂ = 700 mmHg, T₂ = ?
Using P₁V₁/T₁ = P₂V₂/T₂, rearranged for T₂:
T₂ = (P₂V₂ × T₁) / (P₁V₁)
T₂ = (700 mmHg × 2000 cm³ × 323 K) / (300 mmHg × 750 cm³)
T₂ = 2009.77 K
Note: Units of P and V cancel as long as P₁/P₂ use the same unit and V₁/V₂ use the same unit. Only temperature must
be converted to Kelvin.

8. The Gas Constant ‘R’ and Its Units

The ideal gas equation can be rearranged to find R, and can also be used to determine: mass of gas, density of gas,
and concentration of gas.
R = PV / nT
8.1 Value of R at STP
At STP: T = 273 K, P = 1 atm, n = 1 mol, V = 22.4 dm³ (experimentally, 1 mole of an ideal gas occupies 22.414
dm³ at these conditions).
R = (1 atm × 22.4 dm³) / (1 mol × 273 K) = 0.0821 dm³·atm·mol⁻¹·K⁻¹

8.2 Value of R in SI Units

Using P in Nm⁻² (Pascal) and V in m³: P = 1 atm = 101325 Nm⁻², V = 22.4 dm³ = 0.0224 m³ (since 1 dm³ = 10⁻³
m³), n = 1 mol, T = 273 K.
R = (101325 Nm⁻² × 0.0224 m³) / (1 mol × 273 K) = 8.313 Nm·mol⁻¹·K⁻¹
Since Newton-metre (Nm) = Joule (J): R = 8.313 J·K⁻¹·mol⁻¹

8.3 Value of R in Calories

Since 1 calorie = 4.184 Joule:
R = 8.3143 / 4.184 = 1.987 cal·K⁻¹·mol⁻¹
Value of R Unit System

R = 0.0821 dm³·atm·mol⁻¹·K⁻¹ (at STP)

R = 8.313 J·K⁻¹·mol⁻¹ (SI units; Nm = Joule)

R = 1.987 cal·K⁻¹·mol⁻¹ (since 1 cal = 4.184 J)

8.4 Significance of R
• R connects energy, temperature, and amount of gas in one equation: it represents the energy associated with 1
mole of gas per unit of absolute temperature.
• R is ‘universal’ — it has the same value for every ideal gas, regardless of identity, mass, or molecular size.
• Since PV has units of energy (Pa × m³ = Joule), R is the proportionality constant that makes PV = nRT
dimensionally correct — it converts ‘moles × temperature’ into actual energy units.
• R does not physically change between 0.0821, 8.313, and 1.987 — these are the same constant expressed in
different unit systems (atm·dm³, Joules, calories).
Note: If R (as a constant of nature) were hypothetically larger, gases would show a stronger pressure/volume response
for the same temperature rise; if smaller, a weaker response. In reality R is fixed for our universe.

9. Applications of the Ideal Gas Equation

9.1 Calculation of Mass of Gas (m)

Starting from PV = nRT, and knowing mole (n) = mass (m) / molecular mass (M):
PV = (m/M)RT → PVM = mRT → m = PVM / RT
Example 4.3: Calculate the mass of 1 dm³ of NH₃ gas at 30°C and 1000 mmHg (ideal behaviour).
T = 30 + 273 = 303 K
P = 1000 mmHg / 760 = 1.316 atm
R = 0.0821 dm³·atm·mol⁻¹·K⁻¹, M (NH₃) = 17 g/mol, V = 1 dm³
m = PVM / RT = (1.316 × 1 × 17) / (0.0821 × 303) = 0.8993 g
Note: Practice Problem 4.3: Calculate the molecular mass of butane gas if 3.69 g occupy 1.53 dm³ at 20.0°C and 1.00
atm. (Use m = PVM/RT rearranged to find M.)

9.2 Calculation of Density of Gas (d)

Starting from PV = (m/M)RT, and rearranging to group m and V:
PM = (m/V)RT , and since density d = m/V: PM = dRT → d = PM / RT
Example 4.4: Find the density (g/dm³) of SO₂ at 20°C and 750 mmHg.
P = 750/760 = 0.98 atm; T = 20 + 273 = 293 K
M (SO₂) = 64 g/mol; R = 0.0821 dm³·atm·K⁻¹·mol⁻¹
d = PM / RT = (0.98 × 64) / (0.0821 × 293) = 2.60 g·dm⁻³
Note: Practice Problem 4.4: Calculate the density (g/dm³) of NH₃ at 25°C and 1.2 atm, using d = PM/RT.

9.3 Calculation of Concentration of Gas (c)

Starting from PV = nRT, and concentration c = n/V:
P = (n/V)RT → P = cRT → c = P / RT
If P and T are known, molar concentration can be found directly, without separately measuring moles and volume.

10. Deviation from Ideal Gas Behaviour

All gas laws are based on ideal gas behaviour — a gas that follows the laws exactly at every value of P, V, and T.
Most real gases behave very close to ideal over a wide range of conditions.
• Deviation occurs when gas molecules are forced close together — under high pressure and/or low
temperature.
• The amount of deviation depends on: pressure, temperature, and the nature of the gas.
Real gas: A gas that does not behave completely according to the assumptions of the kinetic molecular theory.
Deviation is studied graphically by measuring P, V, T, n experimentally and plotting the quantity PV/nRT against
pressure. For a perfectly ideal gas, PV/nRT always equals 1. Deviation of the real-gas curve away from 1 shows
exactly when and how much the gas breaks the ideal gas assumptions.

11. Quick Formula Summary

Quantity / Law Formula

Pressure P=F/A

Boyle's Law (constant T) P₁V₁ = P₂V₂

Charles' Law (constant P) V₁/T₁ = V₂/T₂

Avogadro's Law (constant T, P) V∝n

Combined / General Gas Law P₁V₁/T₁ = P₂V₂/T₂

Ideal Gas Equation PV = nRT

Mass of gas m = PVM / RT

Quantity / Law Formula

Density of gas d = PM / RT

Concentration of gas c = P / RT

Temperature conversion K = °C + 273