CHAPTER EIGHT

8. FOLDS AND MECHANISM OF FOLDING

Contents
• Introduction
• Fold Geometry and Terminology
• Classification of Folds
• Superimposed Folding
• Mechanisms Folding
• Controlling Factors Folding
 8.1. INTRODUCTION
Folds
• Folds:- are bent/curved or wavy nature structures produced when
an originally set of horizontal rock layers subjected to Progressive
deformation by compressive force .
• Folds are expressions of a ductile type of deformation that
produced more gradual and continuous changes in a rock.
 8.2 FOLD GEOMETRY AND TERMINOLOGY
Parts of Fold
• Hinge line • Fold Median Surface
• Fold Limb • Fold Enveloping Surface
• Fold Axial Plane/Surface • Fold Amplitude and Wavelength
• Fold Axis • Fold Crest/Trough
• Inflection Point • Interlimb Angle
• Hinge line:- is the line joining points of greatest curvature on a folded surface
• Fold limb- the straighter or least curved segment of a fold.
• Axial surface/ Axial plane (if the surface is planar) - a plane that passes through
the hinge lines of successive layers.
• Axis of the fold: defined as line of intersection of axial plane of a fold with any
bed of the fold.
• Inflection point:- is a point on a folded surface that separates concave curvature
in one direction from convex curvature in the opposite direction.
• Median surface- a surface defined by joining adjacent inflection points.
• Fold amplitude- Distance between maximum or minimum height to median
surface
• Fold wavelength- the distance between adjacent hinge lines.
• Fold crest- the highest point of a fold
• Fold trough- the lowest point of a fold
• Interlimb angle- the smallest angle between two limbs.
Note that: A single fold is comprised of a hinge and 2-limbs.
 8.3. CLASSIFICATION OF FOLD
Based on the Different principles, folds can be classified as:-
Sense of curvature
Direction of Younging relative to sense of fold closure
The symmetry of fold
The nature of hinge line
The of attitude fold hinge line and axial surface
The plunge of fold axis
The interlimb angle
The basis of number of hinges
The shape of the hinge

The Fold amplitude and shape Orientation

The geometry of dip isogons (Ramsay Classification)
 Based on the sense of curvature
A. Antiform: Fold domains having upward closure or negative curvature.

B. Synform: Fold domains having downward closure or positive curvature.

C. Neutral fold: Fold closing sideways.

D. Vertical fold: All surfaces in a neutral fold vertically dipping.

 Based on the Direction of Younging relative to Sense of fold Closure
The younging direction = (also called fold facing).
➢Anticline: the strata is up arched & older rocks occupy a position at the core
of the fold and the youngest forming the outermost flank.
➢Syncline: The strata is down arched & younger rocks occupy a
position in core of the fold and older rocks form the outer flanks.
A. Synformal anticline: fold that closes downwards center of the
structure are older rather than younger.
B. Antiformal syncline: fold that closes upwards but the younging is
towards the center.
• Anticlinorium and Synclinorium : Major anticline or syncline on
whose limbs are found minor folds both anti- and synclines,
generally asymmetrical and of opposite sense on the two limbs.
• The regional fold belts containing very large anticlines and
synclines, kms across, that are themselves marked by the presence of
reasonably systematically spaced smaller anticlines and synclines
Large Anticline and syncline folds
 Based on the symmetry of fold
A. Symmetrical folds B. Asymmetrical folds
• The axial plane is vertical. • The axial plane is inclined.
• The limbs dip equally in • Limbs are dipping not same angle
opposite direction. on each side of axial plane.
• In short, two limbs are • two limbs are not mirror images
essentially mirror images of of each other.
each other. • It is one in which the axial plane
• It is which the axial plane is is inclined. ‘’S’’ type or ‘’Z’’ type
straight and ‘’M’’ type fold. fold.
C. Overturned folds: one or both sides of fold dipping beyond vertical
 Based on the nature of hinge line
• Cylindrical fold is a folds with hinge lines is straight and regular.
The trend and plunge of all lines in cylindrical are the same, aligning
with the fold axis orientation.
• Non-cylindrical fold is the hinge line, inflection lines, trough and
crest lines may be curved and irregular.
 Based on the plunge of the fold axis
• Horizontal fold: a fold whose axis is horizontal.
• Vertical fold: a fold whose axis is vertical.
• Inclined fold: fold in which axis is plunged (Not Horizontal).
 Based on the of attitude fold hinge line and axial surface
• Because of the manner in which “hinge line” and “axial surface”
are defined, the hinge line of a fold must lie with in the fold’s axial
surface.
• Generally, the fold attitude is described in terms of the attitude of
axial plane and the attitude of fold axis (hinge line).
Dip of the fold axial Dip of hinge surface (i.e. Plunge of hinge line (i.e.
surface or plunge of attitude of axial plane) attitude of fold axis)
the fold axis
00 Recumbent fold Horizontal fold
1-100 Recumbent fold Sub-horizontal fold
10-300 Gently inclined fold Gently plunging fold
30-600 Moderately inclined fold Moderately plunging fold
60-800 Steeply inclined fold Steeply plunging fold
80-890 Upright fold Sub-vertical fold
900 Upright fold Vertical fold
Figure: the classification of fold based on “hinge line” and “axial surface” based on Fleuty
(1964)
 Based on the fold Interlimb angle
• Interlimb angle is a measure of the degree of the tightness of a fold
and serves as a 2-dimensional classification method.
Tightness of a fold Interlimb angle
Gentle 1800 - 1200
Open 1200 - 700
Close 700 - 300
Tight 300 - 00
Isoclinal 00
Ptygmatic/Elastica -ve angle
 Based on the basis of number of hinges
• Single hinged fold: a fold with a single hinge between two points of
inflection.
• Conjugate fold: is composite fold characterized by with 2-hinges &
3-plannar limbs in which the central limb is exceptionally flattend.
• Box fold: double hinged fold with more or less rounded hinges. The
term is generally restricted to fold with flat tops and steeply dipping
limbs.
 Based on Fold amplitude and shape Orientation

Based on Fold amplitude and

Fold shape, folds are
classified into the following
six basic fold shapes are
recognized
A. Box fold
B. Curved double hinged
fold
C. Semi-ellipses
D. Parabolas
E. Semi-chevron folds
F. Chevron folds
 SHAPE OF FOLDS
❖ Box folds / Conjugate folds: - are folds that have
axial surfaces that are inclined to one another at a
high angle.

❖ Chevron fold are a structural feature characterized

by repeated well behaved folded beds with straight
limbs and sharp hinges. They are developed
repeated set of v-shaped beds.

❖ Kink folds:- are common in well-laminated and

anisotropic rocks rich in phyllosilicate minerals.
• Where kinks are markedly asymmetrical, the long
narrow zone defined by the short limb may be
referred to as a kink band and the axial plane
traces may be referred to as kink boundaries.
 Based on the shape of the hinge

❖Concentric Folds:- are parallel folds

in which folded surface defines circular
arc and maintain the same Centre of
curvature.

❖ Convolute folds: - are

characteristics of high grade rocks
that have markedly curviplanar
axial surfaces.

❖ Polyclinal fold: - are folds with

more than one axial
surface/plane.
❖ Disharmonic folds: - are folds that is in-persistent on the scale of
observation having discontinuous axial planes; they can form
during parallel folding by the over tightening and crumpling of
thinner layers between thicker layers.

❖ Harmonic folds: - similar folds tend to be persistent in profile; that

is, the fold outline of a given layer is repeated by all other layers
visible in the out crop with the same amplitude and wavelength.
• The hinge zone and limbs of larger folds often display folds of
smaller wavelength and amplitude, thus larger and the smaller folds
together are Poly-harmonic folds. The smaller folds are Parasitic or
Subsidiary Folds with respect to larger ones.
❖ Poly-harmonic folds: - are folds that
have a wavy nature through out the
folded surface.
▪ They are like similar folds but the
limb of the fold is intensely folded.
▪ The fold geometry of the larger fold
and the subsidiary folds is the same.

Ptygmatic folds: - occur mostly in

migmatites, they generally involve a
single layer contortion or zigzag shape.
• The folds have a lobate appearance
and tend to be polyclinal.
• They are commonly concentric.
Quartz or quartz-feldspar veins in
weak schist frequently produce
ptygmatic folds.
Isoclinal folds: - are tight folds with
parallel limbs i.e. limbs show the same
slope and slope direction.

Monoclinal folds: - are folds which have

horizontal or nearly horizontal layers
forming steeper bend.

Intrafolial folds: - these are small

isolated folds found with in unfolded
material.

Drag folds: - uniformly folded

incompetent layer imbedded within
unfolded competent layer
❖Similar Folds:- are folds that maintain
their shape through out a section, folds
in which the dimension of the layers
measured parallel to the axial surface is
constant.

❖ Parallel Folds:- are folds that

maintain constant layer thickness
throughout the folded surface.
• Folds in which the thickness of the
layer, measured normal to the bed is
constant.
Harmonic folds Disharmonic folds

Monoclinal fold Drag fold

 Chevron fold

Refolded Isoclinal folds

Ptygmatic folds
Kink Band in Slate
 Based on geometrical elements (Dip isogon, axial plane
thickness, Orthogonal thickness) of fold
• The geometrical classification of fold is given by Johan Ramsay in
1967. The criteria for Ramsay classification:
✓Nature of dip isogon,
✓Orthogonal thickness
✓axial plane thickness
✓Outer and inner curvature,
✓Interlimb angle,
• Dip isogons are lines joining point of equal dip on either side of the
folded layer.
• Orthogonal thickness is the distance between two tangents at outer
surface and inner surface.
• Axial plane thickness is the intercept between the two tangents, of
line parallel to axial surface trace.
• Inner curvature: bending of hinge area of inner layer
• Outer curvature: bending of hinge area of outer layer
• Interlimb angle: angle between line joining limbs of the fold.
Based on Nature of dip isogon, there are three fundamental classes of folds.

Class 1 :
➢Curvature of the inner arc is greater than
that of the outer arc.
➢Dip isogons are convergent(the isogons
dip towards the axial trace).
➢Thickness parallel to the axial surface
(T) is less at the hinge than at the limb
(Th<Tl).
Class1
 Cont.…
• It has three subclasses based on the nature of the
orthogonal thickness (t)
Class 1A folds:
➢Orthogonal thickness is minimum at the hinge. i.e. , tl > th
➢Dip isogons are strongly convergent.
 Cont.…

Class 1B
• Moderately convergent dip
isogons,
• t is constant (tl = th)
• they are also called parallel
folds
Subclass 1C
• Weakly convergent dip
isogons
• t l < th
 Cont.…

Class 2
• Curvature of the inner arc is
the same as the outer arc.
• Dip isogons are parallel.
• T is constant through the fold
(Th=T ,hence similar fold.
Class 3
• Curvature of the inner arc is
less than that of the outer arc.
• Dip isogons are divergent.
• T is less at the limb than at the
hinge (Th> Tl ).
 8.5. Fold interference patterns and refolded folds

• In areas affected by two or more deformation phases, the first

generation of fold is refolded by second generation and by all
subsequent generations.
• Folds modified by a later fold phase are known as refolded folds and
the resulting patterns are referred to as fold interference patterns.
• Various fold interference patterns can occur, depending on the initial
orientation of the F1 fold hinge and its axial surface relative to the F2
fold.
• There are four basic patterns that result from fold superposition.
• In each case the F2 fold has a vertical axial surface and a horizontal
hinge line.
• Type 0 Pattern - Redundant superimposition

• Type 1 Pattern - Dome and basin (or ‘Egg-box’) pattern

• Type 2 Pattern - Dome-crescent or / ‘mushroom’ pattern

• Type 3 Pattern - Hook or / ‘convergent-divergent’ pattern

Type 0 Pattern
• is a type of superposed folding does not produce a recognizable new interference
pattern.
• It is defined by initially, cylindrical planar and after deformation, also cylindrical
planar; i.e., Identical fold morphology before and after deformation.
• The result of Type 0 interference is simply a tighter fold structure.
• both fold generations have parallel hinge lines and axial surfaces.
• Type 0 is so named because this type of superposed folding does not produce a
recognizable interference pattern in the field
Type 1 Pattern involves two sets of upright folds; the F1 hinge lines and
axial surfaces are perpendicular to the F2 hinge lines and axial surfaces.
• It is defined by initially, cylindrical planar and after deformation, turns to
non- cylindrical planar. Such interference pattern resulting in a dome-and-
basin (also called ‘‘egg-carton’’) interference pattern.
Type 2 Pattern:- the F1 folds have sub-horizontal axial surfaces (recumbent
folds); the F2 hinge lines are oriented perpendicular to the F1 hinge lines.
• This type of fold superposition defined by initial fold (cylindrical planar)
and after deformation (Non-cylindrical non-Planar); is called Dome-crescent
or / ‘mushroom’ pattern.
Type 3 Pattern:- the F1 folds are also recumbent; however, in this case the
F2 hinge lines are parallel to the F1 hinge lines. It is defined by initially;
cylindrical planar and after deformation, cylindrical non-planar, which is
called Hook or / ‘convergent-divergent’ pattern.
 Type 1 Dome- and- basin Type 2 dome-crescent-mushroom
interference pattern interference pattern

Type 3 convergent-divergent
interference pattern
 8.6. MECHANISMS OF FOLDING

The following are the main

Mechanisms of folding
• Buckling/Bending [Neutral
Surface Folding]
• Flexural-Slip Folding
[Layer-parallel Slip]
• Flexural-Flow Folding
[Layer-parallel Flow,
Flexural-Shear Folding]
• Passive (Ductile Flow)
Folding [Oblique Shear
Folding]
• Kink Folding
 Buckling
• Folds form by buckling where force is applied parallel to layering in rocks.
The product of buckling is buckled fold.
▪ Product layers shortening and have Thin sheet under lateral pressure
▪ Strain produced with in the layer is determined by extension around the
outer arc and compression in the inner arc.
▪ Folds form by buckling where force is applied parallel to layering in rocks
and the easiest direction of relief is normal to the direction of force
application (Fig 15-9).

Figure: Buckled multilayers. Note how the

largest folds affect the entire layer package
 Bending
• Rock layers may be subjected to bending, a mechanism that
involves application of force across layers.
• Generally, produce folds that are very gentle with large inter limb
angles.
• Layers in bending are bent like an elastic beam the has been
supported at the ends and loaded in the middle.
 Flexural Slip Folding
• It Involves layer-parallel slip between successive layers.
• Act usually in low Temperature and Pressure found at shallow depth
within the Earths crust.
• Parallel concentric folds form by buckling or bending slip in these
folds is parallel to the layering and characterized by slickens, fiber.
They have constant layer thickness.
• For layers to maintain constant thickness a mass of uniformly layered
strong rocks- such as thickly bedded carbonate or sandstone- they must
slip past one another.

Flexural Slip Fold

 Kink Folding
▪ This process forms folds of the kink band or chevron type which typically
have straight limbs and narrow (sharp) angular hinges.
▪ Kink folds requires local slippage (flexural slip) between layers.
▪ The fold is produced by the rotation of set of layers on either side of kink-
plane (Axial plane)the layer deform partly by flexural slip.
▪ Kink bands are asymmetric structures and usually occur in conjugate pairs where the
deformation is essentially confined to the material within the kink band.

Kink Fold
 Flexural flow folding
• Flexural flow requires moderate- to high ductility contrast between layers.
• In flexural fold amplitude and wavelength may be controlled by the original
thickness, spacing and strength of the strong layers.
• Form in from low and moderate metamorphic grade, they are a form of
similar folds.
• A layered sequence is said to deform by flexural flow if some layers flow
ductilely while others remain brittle and buckle. Flexural flow requires
moderate-to-high ductility contrast between layers.
 Passive flow ( Oblique-Shear) folding
❖ Passive flow involves uniform ductile flow of an entire rock mass
(Plastic deformation). The layering acts as only as a displacement
marker.
• If passive-flow folds are to form, there must be little or no ductility
contrast between layers. E.g. salt, glacial ice and water saturated
unconsolidated sediment.
 8.6 Controlling factors of Fold Geometry

1. Composition and rheological properties of the competent layer

2. Change in rheological properties of the layer as P-T change during
folding
3. Nature of the matrix
4. Competence contrast (viscosity ratio) b/n the layer and the matrix
5. Mechanical properties of the interface b/n competent layers (welded
or detached)
6. Thickness of the competent layer
7. Thickness contrast b/n the competent and the incompetent layers
8. Presence (or absence) of multi-layer sequence
9. Orientation of the layer (with respect to the strain ellipse)
10. Magnitude of stress and scale of folding
 8.7. Why studying folds are important?

❖Folds are the most spectacular natural structures… they are

beautiful.
❖Folds are studied to reveal their 2D and 3D geometries.
❖The shape, orientation and extent of folds are critical importance
in finding economically valuable deposits and predicting their
continuity.
✓ Folded rock strata commonly form traps for the
accumulation and concentration of fluids such as petroleum
and natural gas.
❖Studying folds and associated structures (foliations, in particular)
are also important in revealing the tectonic processes of earth.