G RA D E 1 1 • SC I EN C E • CH A PT E R 9
🦕 The Evolutionary Process
Complete Study Notes
Note created by Nimesha Nanayakkara
The diversity of living organisms in our environment is a result of the evolutionary process. To
understand evolution, we must first understand the origin of the universe and of life itself.
1. Origin of the Earth
📖 KEY FACT
The origin of the Earth is believed to have taken place about 4.5 billion years ago.
Theory Explanation
The FIRST scientific explanation for the origin of the solar system.
Small particles of matter in the universe were drawn together by
Nebular Theory
gravity, clumped up, and formed the galaxies, the sun, and other
planets.
The MODERN theory. The universe was a source of great energy; a
giant explosion created large clouds of dust particles, which clumped
Big Bang Theory
together to form galaxies. Our solar system was created within the
Milky Way galaxy.
How the Young Earth Developed
● The Earth was initially very hot, with high volcanic activity.
● As it gradually cooled, dense, less volatile metals sank to form the Earth's core.
● The Earth's crust later formed from lighter silicon rocks.
● Elements at the Earth's centre reacted with each other, forming gases. The early atmosphere
contained Carbon dioxide (CO₂), Methane (CH₄), and Hydrogen sulphide (H₂S) — with NO
oxygen (O₂). This is a critical fact for exams.
● Extreme heat caused water to evaporate; this vapour condensed into clouds, and continuous heavy
rain fell for many years.
● This mineral-rich rainwater collected in low-lying areas, forming the oceans.
🎯 EXAM TIP
Remember the early atmosphere: CO₂, CH₄, H₂S — and crucially, NO OXYGEN. This
absence of oxygen is repeatedly tested and links directly to why the first life forms were
anaerobic.
2. Origin of Life on the Earth
📖 KEY FACT
Life is believed to have originated on Earth about 3.5 billion years ago.
Theory Explanation & Status
Theory of Special All living organisms were created by a supernatural power. NOT
Creation accepted by scientists — no scientific evidence supports it.
Life arose spontaneously from non-living things (e.g. "rats born from
Spontaneous Generation
clothes", "maggots born from rotten meat", "weevils born from
Theory
decayed wood"). DISPROVED by Louis Pasteur's experiments.
Living material may have reached Earth via a fallen meteor carrying
Cosmozoic Theory organisms, or via spacecraft from other planets. NOT scientifically
proven.
The TODAY-ACCEPTED theory. Atmospheric gases reacted
Theory of Biochemical (energised by lightning, volcanic eruptions, and UV radiation) to
Evolution form life's building blocks, which dissolved in rainwater and
collected in the ocean as the "primordial soup."
🧪 LOUIS PASTEUR'S EXPERIMENT — Disproving Spontaneous Generation
Two identical swan-neck flasks were filled with equal amounts of sterilised nutrient broth.
No microbial growth occurred in either (the curved neck trapped dust/microbes from the air).
After about a year, the neck of ONE flask was broken. That flask showed microbial growth;
the untouched swan-neck flask remained lifeless. Conclusion: living organisms do NOT arise
spontaneously — this was accepted as fact in 1862.
From Primordial Soup to the First Cell
● Scientists Haldane and Oparin first proposed the biochemical evolution theory; it was
scientifically supported by Stanley Miller's laboratory experiments.
● The first living cell, or pre-cell, appeared through a biochemical reaction in the primordial soup.
● This first organism was unicellular, anaerobic (no oxygen needed — remember, there was none!)
and heterotrophic (could not make its own food).
● The first form of life is considered to be a simple unicellular bacteria.
● Next, the first photosynthetic organisms — unicellular algae — formed, and gradually an oxygen-
containing atmosphere developed.
From Unicellular to Complex Life — The Evolutionary Sequence
Stage Detail
First multicellular organisms Cnidarians, some annelids, and some arthropods
Stage Detail
First vertebrates Fish
First vertebrates on land Amphibians (evolved from fish)
Reptiles (evolved from amphibians; fully adapted to terrestrial
More land-adapted
life)
Later vertebrates Birds and mammals evolved from reptiles
Began about 12 million years ago; modern humans originated
Human evolution
about 5 million (5,000,000) years ago
Photosynthetic algae in oceans → less-developed early plants
Plant evolution
→ non-flowering plants → flowering plants
💡 ANALOGY
Think of the fish→amphibian→reptile→bird/mammal sequence like a relay race, where
each "runner" (group) becomes better adapted to a NEW environment (water → both water
& land → fully land → land & air) before passing the baton to the next.
3. Evolution and the Evidence for It
📖 DEFINITION — EVOLUTION
The gradual development of simple organisms into modern, complex organisms is called
evolution.
Three main types of evidence are used to draw conclusions about evolution:
● Evidence from geographical animal distribution (biogeography)
● Evidence from comparative anatomy
● Evidence from fossil study (paleontology) — this gives the most detailed evidence
Fossils
📖 DEFINITION
A fossil is the preserved remains of an organism, a part of an organism, or traces (footprints,
shell prints) of a dead organism. Fossils are found in rocks, ice, peat bogs, volcanic ash, and
mud.
How Different Types of Fossils Form
Fossil Type How It Forms
Hard parts (skeleton, teeth, shells) slowly decompose; sludge/mud seeps
Bony rock
into the bone's pores; under high pressure, it turns into a bony rock.
A dead animal buried in mud decays and is removed as gas, leaving a
Cavity/mould fossil cavity in its exact shape; this cavity fills with material such as silica
(sand), forming a fossil with the original shape.
The external skeletons of some insects are preserved inside tree resin
Resin fossil
(amber).
Whole bodies of extinct animals (e.g. mammoth) preserved within polar
Ice-preserved fossil
ice.
Footprints of animals (e.g. dinosaurs) preserved due to extreme
Trace fossil
environmental conditions.
How Fossils Are Arranged & Dated
● Rocks formed at different stages of Earth's history are arranged in layers; each layer contains
fossils of the plants/animals from that period.
● Older rocks (and older fossils) are at the BOTTOM; more recent fossils are found in the TOP
layers.
● Studying fossils across rock layers reveals which plants and animals lived in different periods,
giving insight into bio-evolution.
☢️ EXTRA KNOWLEDGE
Radioactive carbon (¹⁴C, an isotope of carbon) is used to determine the age of fossils.
Living Fossils
📖 DEFINITION
Organisms that survive today with their physical properties largely unchanged, despite
millions of years passing without significant evolution, are called living fossils.
Living Fossil Notes
A fish discovered near South Africa in 1938, believed extinct for ~70
Coelacanth
million years; its features matched million-year-old fossils exactly.
Lingula Found around 'Thambalagamuwa' bay in Trincomalee, Sri Lanka.
Dragonfly, Cockroach,
All considered living (animal) fossils.
Lungfish
'Ginihota' (Tree fern) Considered a living PLANT fossil.
Evolution of the Horse — A Fossil Case Study
Drawing conclusions about evolution purely from fossils is often difficult because not every stage of
an organism's evolution is preserved — fossil evidence has been compared to "a story book with torn
pages." The horse is a rare exception: its evolutionary history is completely documented through
abundant fossil records.
🐴 KEY FACTS — HORSE EVOLUTION
The ancestor of the modern horse lived in North America about 54 million (54 × 10⁶) years
ago. It was about 40cm tall, dog-like in body shape, and could run. It had small legs with
three toes on the front feet, with the fingers positioned vertically. Over its evolutionary
history, gradual changes occurred especially in its locomotion (leg/foot structure) and
feeding system.
4. Importance of Evolution in Bio-diversity
There is constant competition among organisms for an environment's limited resources. Organisms
that succeed in this competition are naturally selected and become established — their population
increases, and they become pioneers that build up the environment's bio-diversity.
📖 DEFINITION — SPECIATION
The formation of novel (new) species that have evolved from earlier/former species during
the process of evolution is known as speciation. Speciation further increases bio-diversity.
👨🔬 CHARLES DARWIN
Charles Darwin is considered the "father of evolution." He proposed the Theory of Natural
Selection, which is the scientifically accepted theory explaining evolution.
Evidence for Human Evolution Found in Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka holds important evidence for the evolution of mankind, found at the following sites
(associated with the 'Balangoda Man'):
Site Location
'Batadomba' Cave Kuruwita
'Pahiyangala' Cave Bulathsinhala
'Ibbankatuwa' (Ancient burial site)
'Rawana' Falls (Associated site)
'Pomparippu' (Ancient burial site)
Together, these sites provide facts related to the 'Balangoda' human, one of Sri Lanka's key pieces of
evidence for early human evolution.
SUMMARY
● The origin of the Earth took place about 4.5 billion years ago; the origin of life took place about
3.5 billion years ago.
● "Origination of life is a result of a process of biochemical reactions" (biochemical evolution
theory) is the theory accepted today.
● Life originated from a unicellular organism that lived in the sea and developed into multicellular
organisms.
● Gradual development of simple organisms into modern complex organisms is called evolution.
● Fossil records are the main detailed evidence of evolution.
● Animals that do not undergo the evolution process are known as living fossils.
● The horse is an organism with complete fossil evidence documenting its evolution.
● Important evidence about the evolution of mankind has been found in Sri Lanka.
KEY POINTS TO MEMORISE BEFORE THE EXAM
1. Earth formed ~4.5 billion years ago; life originated ~3.5 billion years ago.
2. Nebular theory = first scientific theory; Big Bang theory = modern theory.
3. Early atmosphere: CO₂, CH₄, H₂S — NO oxygen.
4. Spontaneous generation theory was DISPROVED by Louis Pasteur's swan-neck flask experiment
(accepted 1862).
5. Biochemical evolution theory (Haldane & Oparin, proved by Stanley Miller) is the ACCEPTED
theory today — life arose from the "primordial soup."
6. First cell = pre-cell: unicellular, anaerobic, heterotrophic.
7. Order: unicellular bacteria → photosynthetic algae → oxygen atmosphere → multicellular
organisms (cnidarians, annelids, arthropods) → fish → amphibians → reptiles → birds &
mammals.
8. Human evolution began ~12 million years ago; modern humans ~5 million years ago.
9. Evolution = gradual development from simple to complex organisms.
10. 3 evidence types: biogeography, comparative anatomy, paleontology (fossils = most detailed).
11. Living fossils = unchanged over millions of years — e.g. Coelacanth, Lingula, dragonfly,
cockroach, lungfish, Ginihota (tree fern).
12. Horse = most complete fossil evolutionary record; ancestor lived in North America 54 million
years ago.
13. Charles Darwin = "father of evolution"; proposed the Theory of Natural Selection.
14. Speciation = new species evolving from earlier species, increasing bio-diversity.
15. Sri Lankan evolution evidence sites: Batadomba Cave (Kuruwita), Pahiyangala Cave
(Bulathsinhala), Ibbankatuwa, Rawana Falls, Pomparippu — linked to 'Balangoda Man'.
QUESTION & ANSWER SECTION — EXAM PREPARATION
Part A — Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
Q1. The correct sentences about the origin of the Earth are: a — Origin of the Earth
took place 4.5 billion years ago from now. b — The first scientific theory about
origin of the universe is the Nebular theory. c — Big Bang theory is considered a
modern theory on origin of the Earth. 1. a and b 2. a and c 3. b and c 4. a, b and c
Answer: 4. a, b and c — all three statements are correct: Earth formed 4.5 billion years ago,
Nebular theory was the first scientific theory, and Big Bang theory is the modern theory.
Q2. The FALSE statement about the early Earth is: 1. As there was oxygen in the
atmosphere, there was life on the Earth. 2. Gases such as carbon dioxide and
methane were formed as a result of reactions between elements. 3. Heavy rain fell
on the Earth for many years. 4. The rain water rich with minerals collected to form
oceans.
Answer: 1 is false — the early atmosphere had NO oxygen; oxygen only appeared later after
photosynthetic algae evolved. The other three statements are true.
Q3. Today's accepted theory on the origin of life on Earth is: 1. Theory of special
creation 2. Spontaneous generation theory 3. Cosmozoic theory 4. Theory of bio-
chemical evolution
Answer: 4. Theory of bio-chemical evolution — this is the currently accepted scientific theory,
supported by Stanley Miller's experiments.
Q4. The TRUE statement on the origin of life is: a — First living organism on Earth
was a unicellular algae. b — Multicellular organisms originated from the evolution
of unicellular organisms. c — Origin of modern human took place 4.5 billion years
ago. 1. a and b 2. a and c 3. b and c 4. a, b and c
Answer: Statement b is the correct one: multicellular organisms did originate from the evolution of
unicellular organisms. Statement a is false (the first living organism was a unicellular BACTERIA,
not algae — algae came later as the first photosynthetic organisms), and statement c is false (modern
humans originated about 5 million years ago, not 4.5 billion years ago — that is the age of the
Earth). Check with your teacher which listed option your syllabus expects, since only statement b is
fully correct on its own.
Part B — True (√) or False (X)
Q1. The first organism that originated in the primordial soup was a unicellular
bacteria.
Answer: True (√) — the first form of life on Earth is considered to be a simple unicellular bacteria.
Q2. Gradual development of complex organisms from modern simple organisms is
known as evolution.
Answer: False (X) — evolution is the gradual development of simple organisms into modern
COMPLEX organisms (the direction in the statement is reversed).
Q3. To come to a conclusion on biological evolution, only fossil evidence is sufficient.
Answer: False (X) — three types of evidence are used: biogeography, comparative anatomy, AND
fossil study (paleontology). Fossil evidence alone is not sufficient, and is even incomplete ("like a
story book with torn pages").
Q4. Lingula is a living fossil found in Sri Lanka.
Answer: True (√) — Lingula is found around 'Thambalagamuwa' bay in Trincomalee, Sri Lanka,
and is considered a living fossil.
Q5. The main reason for bio-diversity is the process of evolution.
Answer: True (√) — natural selection and speciation, both part of the evolutionary process, are the
main drivers that have created bio-diversity in the natural environment.
Part C — Give Short Answers
Q1. Write two examples for living fossils.
Answer: Coelacanth (fish) and Lingula. (Other acceptable answers: dragonfly, cockroach, lungfish,
or 'Ginihota'/tree fern.)
Q2. Simply describe the contribution of fossils to studying the evolutionary process.
Answer: Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of organisms found in rock layers. Since older
rocks (and fossils) lie at the bottom and newer ones at the top, studying fossils across these layers
reveals which plants and animals lived during different periods of Earth's history, giving detailed
evidence of how organisms have changed over time (bio-evolution).
Q3. Write five places in Sri Lanka that give evidence on the evolution of mankind.
Answer: 'Batadomba' cave (Kuruwita), 'Pahiyangala' cave (Bulathsinhala), 'Ibbankatuwa', 'Rawana'
Falls, and 'Pomparippu'.
Q4. Write a modification on the feet of the horse that occurred during its evolution.
Answer: The ancestor of the modern horse had small legs with three toes on the front feet (fingers
positioned vertically); through gradual evolutionary change, this developed into the single-toed hoof
of the modern horse, along with changes suited to running (locomotion) and grazing (feeding).
Q5. Write three examples of organisms that are extinct from the Earth but whose
fossils were found.
Answer: Dinosaurs, mammoths, and trilobites. (Any three extinct organisms with known fossil
evidence are acceptable.)
Technical Terms
The modern theory that the universe began from
Big Bang theory
a giant explosion of energy
Bio-diversity The variety of living organisms and ecosystems
The mineral-rich ocean mixture from which the
Primordial soup
first life is believed to have formed
The theory that life's building blocks formed
Bio-chemical evolution from chemical reactions of early atmospheric
gases
The disproven theory that life arises
Spontaneous generation theory
spontaneously from non-living matter
The preserved remains or traces of a once-living
Fossil
organism
An organism that has remained physically
Living fossil
unchanged for millions of years
Darwin's theory that better-adapted organisms
Theory of natural selection
survive and reproduce more successfully
The formation of new species from earlier
Speciation
species during evolution