IDENTIFYING VARIABLES AND FORMING A HYPOTHESIS

1.​ Independent Variable

a.​ The thing that you change or manipulate in the experiment.
2.​ Dependent Variable
a.​ The changes as a result of manipulating the independent
variable.
b.​ Usually found at the end of sentences.
3.​ Constant (Controlled) Variable
a.​ Factor that remains the same throughout an experiment
Format in making a Hypothesis: If _____________ (independent
variable), then ____________(dependent variable)
Hypothesis
●​ A hypothesis is a guess or prediction that scientists make about
what will happen in an experiment. It helps to guide the
investigation.
ANIMAL REPRODUCTION: ASEXUAL AND SEXUAL
1.​ Sexual
a.​ Two parent organisms are involved.
b.​ The female parent produces egg cells and the male parent
produces sperm cells.
c.​ When the egg cell unites with the sperm cell, the process is
called fertilization.
d.​ 2 Types of Fertilization
i.​ Internal
1.​ The eggs are fertilized in the environment outside
the body of the female. This occurs in most aquatic
invertebrates.
2.​ Birds, Reptiles, Mammals, Insects, Spiders
3.​ within the female's body
4.​ the embryo is either in shell or born alive
5.​ in land animals & sharks
6.​ 3 Types of Embryonic Development
ii.​ External
1.​ This occurs within the body of the female. It takes
place when a specialized sex organ transfers the
sperms from the body of the male into the body of
the female.
2.​ Fish, Frogs
3.​ Amplexus -
a.​ Amplexus is the mating embrace of
amphibians, primarily frogs and toads, where
the male grasps the female from behind,
stimulating her to release eggs while he
fertilizes them externally in the water. This
"mating hug" involves the male clinging to
the female's waist or pectoral region for
hours or even days, ensuring efficient
external fertilization as eggs are laid.
4.​ Spawning -
a.​ Spawning with external fertilization is a
reproductive method, common in aquatic
animals like fish, frogs, and corals, where
females release eggs and males release
sperm into the water, and fertilization
 happens outside the body, often in huge
numbers (broadcast spawning) to increase
chances in a watery environment, requiring
moisture for sperm to swim to eggs.
External VS. Internal Fertilization

Mouth Brooders
●​ Many fish and amphibians lay hundreds of eggs in very vulnerable
places. Mouthbrooders reduce that risk dramatically. By housing
their eggs and fry (juveniles) in their mouths.
2.​ Sexual
a.​ The mode of reproduction where cells from only one parent
are used and no reproductive organs are involved.
b.​ 3 Types:
i.​ Budding
1.​ A mode where the parent organism splits into two
unequal parts.
2.​ New organisms develop into small buds on the
outer surface of the parent organism
3.​ The buds may break off and live independently or
may remain attached to the parent forming a
colony.
4.​ Hydras, Sponges, Jellyfishes
ii.​ Regeneration
 1.​ Ability of an organism to regrow lost body parts.
2.​ Planarians, Starfishes, Earthworms
iii.​ Parthenogenesis
1.​ This mode of reproduction is usually found in
females and occurs naturally in some
invertebrates.
2.​ The growth and development of their embryos
occur without fertilization by a male.
3.​ Bees, ants, komodo dragons
Advantages and Disadvantages of Asexual Reproduction
1.​ Advantages
a.​ Animals that remain in one particular area and are unable to
look for mates would need to reproduce asexually.
b.​ Numerous offspring can be produced without costing the
parent a great amount of energy and time.
c.​ In a constant environment, a large number of offspring can be
produced in a short period of time.
2.​ Disadvantages
a.​ All of the organisms are genetically identical and therefore
share the same weaknesses.
b.​ If the stable environment changes, the consequences could be
fatal or deadly to all of the species.
PLANT REPRODUCTION: ASEXUAL AND SEXUAL
Sexual
1.​ Stamen
a.​ Male reproductive part of a flower.
b.​ Consists of:
i.​ Anther
1.​ Contains the pollen.
2.​ Pollen
a.​ Producing organ of the flower
ii.​ Filament
1.​ Holds the anther
2.​ Stalk that supports the anther.
2.​ Pistil
a.​ Female reproductive part of a flower.
b.​ Consists of:
i.​ Stigma
1.​ A sticky substance covers this part so that the
pollen grains can adhere to it.
2.​ Sticky bulb that collects the pollen.
ii.​ Style
 1.​ Connects the stigma and ovary and functions as a
conveyor for the pollen tube.
2.​ tube where pollen travels
iii.​ Ovary
1.​ Enlarged basal portion of the pistil that houses the
ovule.
2.​ Contains the ovule
iv.​ Ovule
1.​ Female reproductive cells

Pollination
●​ This occurs when the pollen grain of one flower reaches the stigma
of another flower.
●​ Two Types:
○​ Self - Pollination
■​ Occurs when the pollen is transferred from the stamen of
one flower to the pistil of the same flower.

○​ Cross - Pollination
 ■​ Occurs when the pollen grain is transferred from the
anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower of
the same kind.

Fruits and Seeds

●​ Fruit - The enlarged ovary.
●​ Seed - The ripened ovule.
Seed Dispersal
●​ This refers to the process by which seeds are scattered, moved, or
transported away from the parent plant to a much wider area.
●​ What for?
○​ To prevent overcrowding of the same plants in a specific area.
○​ To prevent competition among the same types of plants in
order to increase the chances of survival for their species
●​ Ways to disperse seeds:
○​ Animals
○​ Air / Wind
○​ Water
Asexual
●​ This is a type of reproduction wherein seeds are not needed
therefore there is no union of male reproductive cell and female
reproductive cell that takes place. This is done through their stems,
roots or leaves.
Vegetative Reproduction
1.​ Natural
a.​ A process by which structural modification is done on the
stems, roots or leaf of a herbaceous or woody plant.
b.​ Two Types:
 i.​ Bulb
1.​ A round, fleshy stem found underneath the ground
surrounded by fleshy leaves.
ii.​ Tuber
1.​ An enlarged portion of an underground stem that
contains stored food.
2.​ Artificial
a.​ A type of plant reproduction that involves human intervention.
These methods are employed by many farmers to produce
healthier crops with more desirable qualities.
b.​ Two Types:
i.​ Cutting
1.​ Roses
2.​ Grapevines
3.​ Snake plants
ii.​ Grafting
1.​ Oranges
2.​ Grapes

Advantages of Asexual Reproduction

●​ This ensures that the production of new plants is exactly like the
parent.
●​ The development of a plant through asexual reproduction often
takes less time than the development from the seed.
●​ Plants bearing seedless fruits can be grown only by vegetative
propagation.
ANIMAL ADAPTATIONS
●​ Adaptations are special features or changes that help animals
survive in their environment. They can be physical, behavioral, or
physiological, making life easier and safer!
●​ Animals need adaptations to meet their basic survival needs for
food, safety, and environmental challenges. These special features
help them thrive in their habitats.
1.​ Structural / Physical Adaptations
 a.​ Physical adaptations help an animal survive in its
environment.
b.​ Examples:
i.​ Polar bear’s thick fur that keeps them warm in the Arctic.
ii.​ Giraffe’s long neck that helps them reach tall leaves
iii.​ Cactus Wren Camouflage - camouflage feathers blend
into desert surroundings.
iv.​ Mimicry
2.​ Behavioral Adaptations
a.​ Behavioral adaptation is an action or behavior an organism
performs to survive and reproduce in its environment, helping
it find food, stay safe, attract mates, or cope with changes,
including instinctive actions (like migration, hibernation) or
learned behaviors.
b.​ Examples:
i.​ Birds travel south for warmth - Migration
ii.​ Meerkats take turns watching for danger - Meerkat
Guard Duty
iii.​ Octopuses squirt ink to escape from predators - Octopus
Ink
3.​ Physiological Adaptations
a.​ Physiological adaptation is an organism's internal, functional
adjustment to environmental changes or stressors, helping
maintain homeostasis (stable internal conditions) for survival.
b.​ Examples:
i.​ Camels store fat in their humps which provides energy
when food is scarce.
ii.​ Frogs create poison for protection against predators.
1.​ The more colorful, the more poisonous.
iii.​ Arctic fish have special protein to survive the cold
(antifreeze)
Adaptations in Different Environments
Unique Features for Challenging Climates
 ●​ Animals like the camel and penguin have evolved specific
adaptations to thrive in their environments. Camels store water for
the desert heat, while penguins have insulation for arctic cold.
Summary
Structural Adaptations
●​ Physical features help animals survive in environments.
Behavioral Adaptations
●​ Actions animals take for food, safety, or shelter.
Physiological Adaptations
●​ Internal processes aid survival in challenging conditions.
PLANT ADAPTATIONS
●​ Plants can survive even in extreme environments because they
develop special adaptations. Without these adaptations, they would
struggle to survive, become endangered, and may eventually
become extinct.
:: Why certain plants are found in one area but not in all areas ::
●​ Because plants adapt in specific environments.
1.​ Leaves
a.​ Large leaves collect sunlight efficiently.
2.​ Roots
a.​ Buttress roots support tall trees.
3.​ Vines
a.​ Climbing vines reach for sunlight.
4.​ Coatings
a.​ Waxy coatings protect the plant from moisture.
PLANT GROWTH
1.​ Rapid
a.​ Grows fast to reach sunlight.
2.​ Bright
a.​ Colorful flowers attract pollinators.
3.​ Competition
a.​ Plants compete for light and space.
b.​ Plants of the same species cannot be together because they
will fight over nutrients and sunlight.
 4.​ Survival
a.​ Adaptations ensure survival in rainforests.
PROTECTIVE STRUCTURES OF PLANTS
●​ Poisonous coatings
○​ Poison Ivy, Poison Oak

PLANTS IN SPECIFIC ENVIRONMENT

1.​ Hydrophytes (Aquatic)
a.​ Plants that have adapted to live either completely or partially
submerged in water or in waterlogged soil.
b.​ They thrive in environments with an abundance of water, such
as ponds, lakes, marshes, and swamps.
2.​ Xerophytes (Little to no water)
a.​ Plants specifically adapted to survive in environments with
little liquid water, such as deserts and semi-arid regions.
(water intake, conservation, storage)
3.​ Epiphytes (Air)
a.​ Grow on the surface of other plants for physical support.
b.​ Deriving their moisture and nutrients from the air, rain, and
accumulated organic debris, rather than from their host or the
soil.
PLANT TROPISMS
ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES: RAINFOREST ECOSYSTEM
1.​ Rain
a.​ Heavy rainfall floods the forest.
2.​ Light
a.​ Low sunlight limits photosynthesis success
3.​ Soil
a.​ Poor soil lacks essential nutrients
4.​ Competition
a.​ Plants compete for limited resources.
ADAPTATION FOR SEED DISPERSAL
●​ Specialized traits that help move seeds away from the parent plant
to new locations, reducing competition and increasing the chances
of survival.
●​ Coco de Mer - Largest and heaviest seed
●​ Coconut - Can float in water