Lecture Notes: Fundamentals of Additive Manufacturing

1. Introduction
Manufacturing is the backbone of engineering. Traditionally, products have been made either
by removing material (machining), shaping material in molds (casting, forging, molding), or
joining material (welding, fastening).
A new revolution, called Additive Manufacturing (AM), is transforming the way we design,
prototype, and even mass-produce products. Unlike subtractive methods, which remove
material, AM adds material layer by layer to create objects directly from digital models.

AM is also popularly known as:

 3D Printing (general public, media)
 Rapid Prototyping (RP) (early engineering use, 1980s–1990s)
 Direct Digital Manufacturing (DDM) or Freeform Fabrication (modern industry
terms)

2. Core Principles of Additive Manufacturing

Additive Manufacturing is based on the following fundamental principles:

1. Layer-by-Layer Fabrication
o A CAD model is sliced into thin layers (usually 0.05–0.3 mm thick).
o Each layer is built sequentially until the full part is created.
2. Direct from Digital
o AM requires no intermediate tooling (like dies or molds).
o The part geometry comes directly from a digital 3D model (CAD → STL →
Slicer → Printer).
3. Complexity is Free
o The cost does not increase significantly with complexity.
o Internal cooling channels, lattice structures, or organic shapes are possible.
4. Customization at No Extra Cost
o Every part can be unique, unlike traditional manufacturing which requires
expensive retooling.

3. Additive vs. Subtractive vs. Formative Manufacturing

Subtractive Formative (Casting,
Feature Additive (AM)
(Machining) Forging, Molding)
Removes material using Shapes material using
Adds material
Method tools (CNC, milling, molds/dies and
layer by layer
turning) pressure/heat
High wastage (chips, Efficient for large High efficiency,
Material Use
scrap) volumes low waste
Tooling No special
Requires cutting tools Expensive dies, molds
Requirement tooling
Limited by mold Highly complex
Limited by tool access
Complexity removal and draft geometries
and cutter geometry
angles possible
Very costly for small Easy and low-
Customization Expensive, slow
batches cost
Very low (CAD
Lead Time Medium High (tooling time)
to part)
Example:
 Making a custom knee implant:
o Subtractive: CNC machining a titanium block (wasteful, slow).
o Formative: Casting in mold (requires costly mold for each patient).
o Additive: Print directly from patient’s CT scan (fast, customized, less waste).

4. Evolution of Manufacturing
Manufacturing has evolved through different eras:
1. Craft Production (Pre-1800s)
o Handmade by skilled craftsmen.
o Each product unique but expensive and slow.
2. Mass Production (1900s–1950s)
o Assembly lines (Henry Ford’s Model T).
o Economies of scale: cheap, uniform products.
o Limited customization.
3. Lean Manufacturing (1950s–1980s)
o Origin: Toyota Production System.
o Focus on waste reduction, efficiency, and quality.
4. Digital Manufacturing (1980s–2000s)
o CNC machines, robotics, CAD/CAM systems.
o Increased automation and accuracy.
5. Additive Manufacturing (1980s–Present)
o Direct production from digital models.
o “Economies of One” → personalized production at reasonable cost.
o Key enabler of Industry 4.0.

5. Historical Background of Additive Manufacturing

 1981: Hideo Kodama (Japan) proposes photopolymer-based layer manufacturing.
 1986: Charles Hull patents Stereolithography (SLA) and founds 3D Systems.
 1990s:
o Scott Crump developed Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) (Stratasys).
o The University of Texas develops Selective Laser Sintering (SLS).
 2000s: AM expands into metals and high-end industries.
 2010s: Desktop 3D printers became widespread due to the open-source RepRap
Project.
 2020s: Large-scale AM in aerospace, defence, and medical industries.

6. Why Additive Manufacturing Matters

Advantages
 Design Freedom: Organic shapes, lattice structures, hollow interiors.
 Lightweighting: essential for the aerospace/automotive industries.
 Rapid Prototyping: Reduces design cycle from months to days.
 Customization: Dental crowns, hearing aids, implants.
 Sustainability: Less material waste compared to machining.

Limitations
 Limited material availability compared to conventional processes.
 Slower for very high-volume production.
 Post-processing (finishing, heat treatment) is often needed.
 High initial machine cost.
7. Case Studies & Applications
 GE Aviation: AM-produced fuel nozzles (25 parts reduced to 1, lighter and stronger).
 Boeing & Airbus: Lightweight brackets and cabin components.
 Medical: Patient-specific hip and knee implants.
 Consumer Products: Customized shoes (Adidas 4D midsole), jewellery, eyewear.

Classification of Additive Manufacturing Processes (ASTM F42 Standard)

Additive Manufacturing (AM), commonly referred to as 3D printing, includes a family of

processes that create physical objects by adding material layer upon layer, directly from a
digital model (CAD file).
Because AM technologies vary widely in working principles, materials, energy sources, and
applications, the ASTM F42 Committee on Additive Manufacturing Technologies and ISO/TC
261 established a standard classification system.
This classification groups AM processes into seven major categories. Each category represents
a distinct method of building parts.

The Seven Categories of AM (ASTM F42)

1 Vat Photopolymerization
 Working Principle:
o A liquid photopolymer resin is cured (solidified) layer by layer using a light
source (ultraviolet laser or digital light projector).
 Major Techniques:
o Stereolithography (SLA)
o Digital Light Processing (DLP)
o Continuous Liquid Interface Production (CLIP)
 Materials:
o Photopolymer resins (epoxy, acrylic).
 Applications:
o Dental aligners, jewellery, hearing aids, and prototypes requiring fine details.
 Advantages:
o Very high accuracy, excellent surface finish.
 Limitations:
o Brittle materials, limited strength, need for post-curing.

2 Material Extrusion
 Working Principle:
o Material (usually a thermoplastic filament) is pushed through a heated
nozzle and deposited layer by layer along a toolpath.
 Major Technique:
o Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) / Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF).
 Materials:
o Thermoplastics (ABS, PLA, PETG, Nylon), composites, and some
ceramics/food pastes.
 Applications:
o Prototyping, low-cost models, jigs/fixtures, DIY desktop 3D printing.
 Advantages:
o Low cost, easy to use, variety of materials.
 Limitations:
 o Visible layer lines, lower accuracy, weaker mechanical strength.

3 Powder Bed Fusion (PBF)

 Working Principle:
o A laser or electron beam selectively fuses powdered material layer by
layer. The powder bed acts as both a build material and a support.
 Major Techniques:
o Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) (polymers)
o Selective Laser Melting (SLM) or Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS)
(metals)
o Electron Beam Melting (EBM) (metals, high vacuum)
 Materials:
o Polymers (Nylon, TPU), Metals (Titanium, Aluminium, Stainless Steel).
 Applications:
o Aerospace (turbine blades, brackets), medical implants, automotive
lightweight parts.
 Advantages:
o Strong, functional parts, no support needed (powder supports the structure).
 Limitations:
o Expensive equipment, safety concerns (powder handling).

4 Binder Jetting
 Working Principle:
o A liquid binding agent is selectively deposited onto a powder bed, bonding
particles together layer by layer.
 Major Techniques:
o 3D Printing with binders (metal binder jetting, sand binder jetting).
 Materials:
o Metals (after sintering), sand, ceramics.
 Applications:
o Sand molds for casting, metal parts (after sintering & infiltration), full-colour
prototypes.
 Advantages:
o Fast, scalable, multi-colour printing is possible.
 Limitations:
o Parts are often weak before post-processing, and mechanical properties depend
on sintering.

5 Material Jetting
 Working Principle:
o Droplets of build material (usually photopolymer) are jetted from nozzles
and cured with UV light.
 Major Techniques:
o PolyJet, MultiJet Printing (MJP).
 Materials:
o Photopolymers, wax-like materials.
 Applications:
o Dental molds, medical models, and prototypes with multiple colours/materials.
 Advantages:
o High accuracy, multiple materials/colours in one build.
  Limitations:
o Expensive, parts are brittle, and materials are not durable for long-term use.

6 Sheet Lamination
 Working Principle:
o Sheets of material are laminated layer by layer and cut to shape using a laser
or blade.
 Major Techniques:
o Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)
o Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing (UAM) (for metals).
 Materials:
o Paper, plastics, composites, metals.
 Applications:
o Low-cost prototypes, laminated tooling, and embedding sensors in metal parts
(UAM).
 Advantages:
o Relatively low cost, fast for large parts.
 Limitations:
o Poor surface finish, limited mechanical properties.

7 Directed Energy Deposition (DED)

 Working Principle:
o Focused energy source (laser, electron beam, or plasma arc) melts material
as it is deposited, typically as a powder or wire.
 Major Techniques:
o Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS)
o Electron Beam Additive Manufacturing (EBAM)
o Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM)
 Materials:
o Metals (titanium, steel, nickel alloys).
 Applications:
o Aerospace (repair of turbine blades), large-scale structures, and defence.
 Advantages:
o Ability to repair or add features to existing parts, strong metallic structures.
 Limitations:
o Expensive, requires shielding gas/vacuum, and often has a poor surface finish.

Summary Table of AM Classification

Example
AM Category Materials Key Features
Processes
Vat High accuracy,
SLA, DLP Photopolymer resins
Photopolymerization brittle parts
Thermoplastics, Low-cost, easy, low
Material Extrusion FDM/FFF
composites accuracy
SLS, SLM, Strong, functional,
Powder Bed Fusion Polymers, metals
DMLS, EBM costly
Sand, Metal Metals, ceramics, Fast, requires post-
Binder Jetting
binder jetting sand processing
High resolution,
Material Jetting PolyJet, MJP Photopolymers
multi-material
 Low cost, poor
Sheet Lamination LOM, UAM Paper, plastic, metals
finish
Directed Energy LENS, WAAM,
Metals (wire/powder) Repairs, large builds
Deposition EBAM

1. Vat Photopolymerization

1.1 Definition
 Vat photopolymerization is an additive manufacturing (AM) process in which liquid
photopolymer resin is selectively cured (hardened) using a light source (UV laser or
projector) to form solid layers.
 Most common methods:
o Stereolithography (SLA)
o Digital Light Processing (DLP)

1.2 Stereolithography (SLA)

Working Principle
1. A vat/tank is filled with liquid photopolymer resin (photosensitive material).
2. A UV laser beam is directed onto the resin surface, tracing the cross-section of the
CAD model.
3. The resin solidifies upon exposure (polymerization).
4. The build platform moves down (or up, depending on printer design) by one layer
thickness.
5. A recoating blade/spreader ensures a fresh resin layer.
6. The process repeats until the full part is built.
7. Parts are cleaned and undergo post-curing in a UV oven for full strength.
Process Parameters
 Laser type: UV laser (355–405 nm).
 Layer thickness: 25–100 μm (high accuracy).
 Laser scanning speed: Affects resolution and build time.
 Resin properties: Viscosity, curing depth, and shrinkage.
 Support structures: Required for overhangs.
Material Properties
 High resolution and fine surface finish (smooth).
 Parts are dimensionally accurate.
 Limited mechanical strength (brittle resins).
Advantages
 Excellent accuracy (±0.05 mm).
 Smooth surface finish (good for visual models, dental use).
 Wide range of photopolymer resins (transparent, flexible, high-temp).
 Ability to create complex geometries.
Disadvantages
 Materials are brittle and UV sensitive.
 Requires support structures.
 Post-processing is mandatory (cleaning + UV curing).
 Resin handling requires safety precautions (toxic chemicals).
 Expensive equipment and consumables.

1.3 Digital Light Processing (DLP)

Working Principle
 Similar to SLA, but instead of a scanning laser, a digital projector flashes an entire
layer image onto the resin vat at once.
 The entire cross-section cures simultaneously.
 Layer-by-layer process continues until the object is complete.
Key Differences from SLA
 SLA: Point-by-point laser scanning → slower.
 DLP: Whole layer cured in one shot → faster build speed.
 Resolution: SLA can achieve finer detail (depends on laser spot size). DLP resolution
depends on the projector pixel size.
 Cost: DLP systems tend to be cheaper and compact (desktop-friendly).
Applications
 Jewellery casting models.
 Dental aligners and crowns.
 Small, intricate consumer parts.

2. Material Extrusion
2.1 Definition
 Material extrusion is an AM process where material is selectively deposited through a
nozzle and solidifies upon cooling.
 The most common technique: Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM), also known as
Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF).

2.2 Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM)

Working Principle
1. A thermoplastic filament (ABS, PLA, PETG, Nylon, etc.) is fed into a heated nozzle.
2. The nozzle melts the filament and extrudes it in thin strands.
3. Extruded material is deposited layer by layer, fusing to the previous layer.
4. The build platform lowers (or nozzle rises) after each layer.
5. Part cooling fans help solidify material quickly.
System Components
 Extruder/nozzle (usually 0.2–0.8 mm diameter).
 Heated bed (to prevent warping).
 Stepper motors for motion in X-Y-Z directions.
 Filament spool (1.75 mm or 2.85 mm standard).
 Slicing software (Cura, PrusaSlicer, Simplify3D).
Process Parameters
 Nozzle temperature: 180–260 °C, depending on material.
 Bed temperature: 50–110 °C (helps adhesion).
 Layer height: 0.1–0.3 mm.
 Print speed: 30–120 mm/s.
 Infill density: 0–100% (affects strength & weight).
 Cooling rate: Impacts layer bonding & quality.
Material Properties
 Thermoplastic polymers (ABS, PLA, PETG, Nylon, TPU).
 Mechanical strength depends on layer bonding.
 Anisotropy: Stronger in XY direction, weaker in Z direction.
Advantages
 Low cost, widely available.
  Large material choice (including composites, carbon fiber, wood-filled).
 Easy to operate, suitable for beginners.
 Scalable from desktop to industrial.
Disadvantages
 Lower resolution compared to SLA/DLP.
 Visible layer lines (requires finishing).
 Warping/cracking issues (especially with ABS).
 Weak inter-layer bonding → anisotropic strength.
 Slow for large builds.

3. Case Studies
Case Study 1: Dental Aligners (SLA/DLP)
 The dental industry uses SLA/DLP printers to make highly accurate dental molds.
 Aligners (like Invisalign) are thermoformed over SLA-printed molds.
 Advantages: Accuracy, biocompatible resins, fast turnaround.
 Impact: Revolutionized orthodontics → customized, patient-specific aligners.
Case Study 2: Desktop Prototyping (FDM)
 Startups and product design firms use FDM printers for low-cost prototypes.
 Example: Consumer product designers test form/fit before injection molding.
 Advantages: Affordable, quick iterations.
 Limitations: Not suitable for high-strength functional parts.