SOUND

Complete Notes — Basic to Advanced

1. What is Sound?
Sound is a form of mechanical energy produced by a vibrating body and transmitted through a material medium.

• Sound is produced by vibrations.

• Sound needs a material medium such as solid, liquid or gas to travel.

• Sound cannot normally travel through vacuum.

• In air, sound travels mainly as a longitudinal wave.

• Human hearing range is approximately 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.

2. Production of Sound
A vibrating object causes nearby particles of the medium to vibrate. These vibrations are passed from particle to
particle, producing a sound wave.

• Examples: vibrating vocal cords, tuning fork, guitar string, loudspeaker cone.

3. Mechanical Nature of Sound

Sound is a mechanical wave because propagation requires particles of a medium.

• No medium → no ordinary sound propagation.

• Sound can travel through solids, liquids and gases.

4. Longitudinal Sound Waves

In a longitudinal wave, particles of the medium vibrate parallel to the direction of wave propagation.

• Compression: region of high pressure and high particle density.

• Rarefaction: region of low pressure and low particle density.

• One complete cycle consists of one compression and one rarefaction.

5. Transverse and Longitudinal Waves

• Longitudinal: particle vibration is parallel to propagation direction.

• Transverse: particle vibration is perpendicular to propagation direction.

• Sound in fluids is primarily longitudinal.

• Solids can support both longitudinal and transverse mechanical waves.

6. Important Characteristics of Sound

• Amplitude: maximum displacement of particles from mean position.

• Frequency: number of complete vibrations per second.

• Time period: time for one complete vibration.

• Wavelength: distance between two successive compressions or rarefactions.

• Speed: distance travelled by the disturbance per unit time.

7. Frequency

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f = number of vibrations / time

f = 1/T

SI unit: hertz (Hz).

Higher frequency means higher pitch.

8. Time Period
Time period is the time taken for one complete vibration.

T = 1/f

SI unit: second (s).

9. Wavelength
Wavelength (λ) is the distance between two successive points in the same phase, such as two consecutive
compressions or rarefactions.

SI unit: metre (m).

10. Wave Speed

v = fλ

v = λ/T

where v is wave speed, f is frequency, λ is wavelength, and T is time period.

11. What Changes with Medium?

When sound travels from one medium to another, its frequency is determined by the source and generally remains
unchanged at the boundary.

• Speed changes.

• Wavelength changes.

v = fλ

12. Speed of Sound

The speed of sound depends on the properties of the medium and its temperature.

• Sound generally travels fastest in solids, slower in liquids, and slowest in gases.

At about room temperature, the speed of sound in air is roughly 343 m/s, though the exact value depends on
temperature and conditions.

13. Factors Affecting Speed in Air

• Temperature: speed increases as temperature increases.

• Humidity: moist air generally allows sound to travel faster than dry air at the same temperature.

• Wind changes the speed relative to the ground depending on its direction.

14. Approximate Relation with Temperature

v ≈ 331 + 0.6T m/s

Here T is the air temperature in °C. This is an approximate relation near ordinary atmospheric conditions.

15. Speed in Solids

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For a thin rod, an approximate longitudinal wave speed is related to Young's modulus and density:

v = √(Y/ρ)

where Y is Young's modulus and ρ is density. More general solid-wave speeds depend on elastic constants and wave
type.

16. Speed in Liquids

v = √(K/ρ)

where K is the bulk modulus and ρ is density.

17. Loudness
Loudness is the auditory sensation related mainly to the intensity of sound and the sensitivity of the human ear.

• Greater amplitude generally produces a louder sound.

Loudness is subjective, whereas intensity is a measurable physical quantity.

18. Intensity of Sound

Sound intensity is the sound power transmitted per unit area perpendicular to the direction of propagation.

I = P/A

SI unit: W/m².

For a spherical wave from a point source in a lossless medium, intensity decreases approximately as 1/r².

19. Intensity and Amplitude

I ∝ A²

For a given medium and frequency, sound intensity is proportional to the square of the wave amplitude.

20. Pitch
Pitch is the auditory sensation that tells us how high or low a sound is.

• Pitch mainly depends on frequency.

• Higher frequency → higher pitch.

• Lower frequency → lower pitch.

21. Quality or Timbre

Quality, or timbre, is the characteristic that allows us to distinguish sounds having the same pitch and loudness but
produced by different sources.

It depends on the waveform and harmonic content.

22. Audible, Infrasonic and Ultrasonic Sound

• Infrasonic: frequency below about 20 Hz.

• Audible: approximately 20 Hz to 20 kHz for a typical young human ear.

• Ultrasonic: frequency above about 20 kHz.

23. Applications of Infrasound

• Monitoring earthquakes and volcanic activity.

• Detecting large atmospheric or oceanic events.

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• Communication and sensing in some animals.

24. Applications of Ultrasound

• Medical ultrasonography.

• Industrial flaw detection.

• Cleaning delicate components.

• SONAR.

• Certain medical therapies and procedures.

25. Reflection of Sound

When sound strikes a hard surface and returns into the original medium, it is called reflection of sound.

• Hard, smooth surfaces are generally better reflectors.

• Soft, porous materials tend to absorb more sound.

26. Laws of Reflection of Sound

• The incident sound direction, reflected sound direction and normal lie in the same plane.

• Angle of incidence equals angle of reflection.

27. Echo
An echo is a distinct repetition of a sound caused by reflection from a distant surface.

For a distinct echo, the reflected sound must reach the listener after a sufficiently long delay; in ordinary conditions,
about 0.1 s is commonly used as the minimum persistence-of-hearing interval.

Distance of reflector = vt/2

The factor 2 occurs because sound travels to the reflector and back.

28. Reverberation
Reverberation is the persistence of sound in an enclosed space due to repeated reflections after the source has
stopped.

• Too much reverberation reduces clarity.

• Some reverberation is desirable in certain performance spaces.

29. Reverberation Time

Reverberation time is the time required for sound intensity level to decrease by 60 dB after the source stops.

Sabine formula: T = 0.161 V/A

For SI units, V is room volume in m³ and A is total equivalent absorption area in sabins.

30. Applications of Sound Reflection

• Megaphones and horns.

• Stethoscopes and sound tubes.

• Auditorium design.

• Soundboards and acoustic reflectors.

31. Forced Vibrations

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When a body is made to vibrate by an external periodic force, the resulting vibration is called forced vibration.

The body tends to vibrate at the frequency of the external force.

32. Natural Frequency

Every vibrating system has one or more natural frequencies at which it tends to oscillate freely.

Natural frequency depends on the system's physical properties.

33. Resonance
Resonance occurs when the frequency of an external periodic force is equal or very close to a natural frequency of the
system, producing a large amplitude response.

• Examples: resonance of air columns, tuning forks, musical instruments.

• Resonance can be useful or harmful.

34. Harmonics
Harmonics are frequency components that are integer multiples of a fundamental frequency.

f■ = n f■

where n = 1, 2, 3, ... and f■ is the fundamental frequency.

35. Fundamental Frequency

The lowest natural frequency of a vibrating system is called the fundamental frequency or first harmonic.

36. Beats
Beats are periodic variations in loudness produced when two sound waves of slightly different frequencies interfere.

f■ = |f■ − f■|

where f■ is beat frequency.

37. Doppler Effect

The Doppler effect is the apparent change in frequency of a wave due to relative motion between the source and the
observer.

• Approaching source/observer → apparent frequency increases.

• Receding source/observer → apparent frequency decreases.

38. Doppler Formula for Sound

f' = f (v ± v■)/(v ■ v■)

Here v is speed of sound in the medium, v■ is observer speed and v■ is source speed. Signs are selected according
to the direction of motion.

39. Applications of Doppler Effect

• Speed measurement by radar and acoustic systems.

• Medical blood-flow measurements using Doppler ultrasound.

• Astronomy: motion of stars and galaxies through frequency shifts.

• Weather and atmospheric measurements.

40. SONAR

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SONAR stands for Sound Navigation and Ranging. It uses sound waves, especially ultrasound, to detect objects and
measure underwater distances.

Depth or distance = vt/2

The factor 2 accounts for the outgoing and returning paths.

41. Medical Ultrasound

Ultrasound imaging sends high-frequency sound waves into the body and uses returning echoes to form images.

• Used for observing organs and developing foetuses.

• It does not use ionizing radiation.

42. Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonic testing sends high-frequency sound pulses into a material and analyses reflected waves to locate internal
defects.

• Used for welds, rails, pipes, aircraft components and other engineering structures.

43. Musical Sound

A musical sound is generally periodic and has a definite pitch.

A noise is generally irregular and lacks a definite periodic pitch.

44. Musical Instruments

• String instruments: sound from vibrating strings.

• Wind instruments: sound from vibrating air columns.

• Percussion instruments: sound from vibrating membranes, plates or bodies.

45. Vibrating Strings

For a stretched string, the fundamental frequency depends on length, tension and linear mass density.

f = (1/2L) √(T/µ)

Here L is string length, T is tension and µ is mass per unit length.

46. Open Organ Pipe

For an ideal open pipe, both ends are displacement antinodes.

f■ = nv/(2L), n = 1,2,3,...

All integer harmonics are present.

47. Closed Organ Pipe

For an ideal pipe closed at one end, the closed end is a displacement node and the open end is an antinode.

f■ = (2n−1)v/(4L), n = 1,2,3,...

Only odd harmonics occur in the ideal model.

48. Standing Waves in Sound

When two waves of the same frequency and amplitude travel in opposite directions, they can form a standing wave.

• Nodes: points of zero displacement.

• Antinodes: points of maximum displacement.

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49. Fundamental Relationships
v = fλ

f = 1/T

T = 1/f

I = P/A

I ∝ A²

f■ = |f■ − f■|

Echo/SONAR distance = vt/2

50. Sound Level in Decibels

Sound intensity level is commonly expressed relative to a reference intensity.

β = 10 log■■(I/I■) dB

A common reference for air is I■ = 10■¹² W/m².

A 10 dB increase corresponds to a tenfold increase in intensity, while a 20 dB increase corresponds to a hundredfold

increase.

51. Speed, Frequency and Wavelength — Key Idea

For a fixed medium, if frequency increases, wavelength decreases because v = fλ and v is approximately fixed.

When a wave enters another medium, frequency stays tied to the source while speed and wavelength adjust.

52. Advanced Concept: Energy Transport

A sound wave transports energy through the medium without causing bulk transport of the medium itself.

Particles oscillate around their equilibrium positions while the disturbance and energy propagate.

53. Advanced Concept: Acoustic Impedance

Acoustic impedance describes how strongly a medium resists particle motion produced by a sound wave.

Z = ρc

where ρ is density and c is sound speed in the medium.

Differences in acoustic impedance strongly influence reflection and transmission at boundaries.

54. Advanced Concept: Intensity from a Point Source

For an ideal point source radiating uniformly in a lossless medium:

I = P/(4πr²)

Therefore intensity decreases with the square of distance from the source.

55. Advanced Concept: Mach Number

Mach number is the ratio of the speed of an object to the local speed of sound.

M = u/c

• M < 1: subsonic.

• M = 1: sonic.

• M > 1: supersonic.

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At sufficiently high speeds, shock waves can form.

56. Shock Waves

A shock wave is a strong disturbance produced when a source moves faster than the local speed of sound in a
medium.

• It is associated with a sudden change in pressure, density and temperature.

• Aircraft travelling supersonically can produce sonic booms.

57. Noise Pollution

Unwanted or excessive sound is called noise. Prolonged exposure to high noise levels can cause discomfort and
hearing damage.

• Sources: traffic, machinery, construction, loudspeakers and aircraft.

• Control methods: barriers, sound-absorbing materials, equipment maintenance, distance and hearing protection.

58. Soundproofing vs Sound Absorption

• Soundproofing: reduces sound transmission from one space to another.

• Sound absorption: reduces reflections inside a space.

They are related but not identical acoustic treatments.

59. Quick Comparison

• Loudness → mainly related to intensity/amplitude.

• Pitch → mainly related to frequency.

• Quality/timbre → waveform and harmonics.

• Echo → distinct reflected sound.

• Reverberation → prolonged sound due to multiple reflections.

• Resonance → large response near natural frequency.

• Beats → interference of close frequencies.

• Doppler effect → apparent frequency change due to relative motion.

60. Exam-Focused Questions

1. Why can't sound travel through vacuum? Because sound is a mechanical wave and requires particles of a
medium.

2. What determines pitch? Mainly frequency.

3. What determines loudness? Mainly sound intensity, with human hearing sensitivity also involved.

4. What is an echo? A distinct repetition of sound due to reflection.

5. What is resonance? Large-amplitude forced vibration when driving frequency is equal or close to a natural
frequency.

6. What is the principle of SONAR? Reflection of sound/ultrasound and measurement of the return time.

7. What are ultrasound waves? Sound waves with frequency above about 20 kHz.

8. What is the Doppler effect? Apparent change in observed frequency due to relative motion of source and observer.

61. Formula Sheet

v = fλ

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f = 1/T

T = 1/f

I = P/A

I ∝ A²

v ≈ 331 + 0.6T m/s

v = √(Y/ρ) (thin rod approximation)

v = √(K/ρ) (liquid)

Echo/SONAR distance = vt/2

T■ = 0.161V/A (Sabine formula)

f■ = |f■ − f■|

f' = f(v ± v■)/(v ■ v■)

String: f = (1/2L)√(T/µ)

Open pipe: f■ = nv/(2L)

Closed pipe: f■ = (2n−1)v/(4L)

β = 10 log■■(I/I■) dB

Z = ρc

I = P/(4πr²)

Mach number: M = u/c

62. Final Revision Order

Study in this order: production of sound → wave terms → longitudinal waves → speed of sound →
characteristics → reflection → echo → reverberation → resonance → harmonics → beats → Doppler effect →
ultrasound → SONAR → musical instruments → standing waves → sound level → acoustic impedance →
Mach number → noise control.

For exams, prioritize definitions, v = fλ, echo and SONAR calculations, speed of sound, resonance, beats, Doppler
effect, open/closed pipes, vibrating strings, decibel calculations, and applications of ultrasound.

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