n the physical sciences, a particle (or corpuscle in older texts) is a separate part of a larger

system. Depending on the system they vary greatly in size or quantity, from subatomic particles
like the electron, to microscopic particles like atoms and molecules, to macroscopic particles like
powders and other granular materials. Particles can also be used to create scientific models of
large objects within very large systems, such as humans moving in a crowd, celestial bodies in
orbit, or galaxies in the expansion of the universe.

In some fields a particle is a small localized object which can be described by several physical
or chemical properties, such as volume, density, or mass.[1][2] The term particle is rather
general in meaning, and is refined as needed by various scientific fields. Anything that is
composed of particles may be referred to as being particulate.[3] However, the noun particulate
is most frequently used to refer to pollutants in the Earth's atmosphere, which are a suspension
of unconnected particles, rather than a connected particle aggregation.

Physics

Particles are often represented as dots. This figure could represent the movement of atoms in a
gas, people in crowds, or stars in the night sky.
In models
Main article: Point particle
In physics, the concept of particles can be used to make simplifying assumptions when
modelling nature. For example, to calculate the landing location and speed of a baseball thrown
in the air, the baseball can be idealized as a rigid smooth sphere, ignoring its rotation,
buoyancy, and friction, reducing the problem to the ballistics in classical mechanics.[4]

Size

Galaxies are so large that stars can be considered particles relative to them.
See also: Particle size
The term "particle" is usually applied differently to three classes of sizes. The term macroscopic
particle, usually refers to particles much larger than atoms and molecules. These are usually
abstracted as point-like particles, even though they have volumes, shapes, structures, etc.
Examples of macroscopic particles would include powder, dust, sand, pieces of debris during a
car accident, or even objects as big as the stars of a galaxy.[5][6]
Another type, microscopic particles usually refers to particles of sizes ranging from atoms to
molecules, such as carbon dioxide, nanoparticles, and colloidal particles. These particles are
studied in chemistry, as well as atomic and molecular physics.

The smallest particles are the subatomic particles, which refer to particles smaller than atoms.
[7] These would include particles such as the constituents of atoms – protons, neutrons, and
electrons – as well as other types of particles which can only be produced in particle
accelerators or cosmic rays. These particles are studied in particle physics.

Because of their extremely small size, the study of microscopic and subatomic particles falls in
the realm of quantum mechanics. They will exhibit phenomena demonstrated in the particle in a
box model,[8][9] including wave–particle duality,[10][11] and whether particles can be
considered distinct or identical[12][13] is an important question in many situations.

Particle physics
Main article: Particle physics
Mass
See also: Mass and Higgs mechanism
In particle physics, a massive particle is an elementary particle with non-zero rest mass while a
massless particle has zero rest mass.[14]: 436 The photon and gluon are massless. The
hypothetical graviton is expected to be massless. All other known elementary particles have
mass.[15][16]

The mass of atoms is overwhelmingly concentrated in their nuclei, made of protons and
neutrons, which each have over 1800 times more mass than electrons. Since protons and
neutrons are made of quarks and gluons, this mass primarily traced to the interactions of quarks
and gluons. The electrons and the electromagnetic binding of electrons to protons adds some
additional mass.[15]

Massive particles must move at a speed less than the speed of light. Massless particles, in
contrast, must move at the speed of light.[16]

Rest mass, mass observed in a frame at rest with a particle, is not conserved in particle
interactions. A massive particle can decay into massless particles and massless particles can
combine to produce massive particles. For example, a neutral pion is massive but can decay
into two photons in about 10−16 seconds.[14]: 436
Composition

A proton is composed of three quarks and held together with the strong interaction.
Particles may be elementary or composite. Composite particles are composed of other particles.
[17] For example, protons are composed of quarks. By contrast, elementary particles (also
called fundamental particles) are not made of other particles.[18] According to our current
knowledge, only a very small number of these exist, such as leptons, quarks, and gluons,
although it is possible that some are composite in currently unknown ways.[19][20][21] While
composite particles can very often be considered point-like, although having internal structure,
elementary particles have so far been found to have no structure.[22]

Stability
Both elementary (such as muons) and composite particles (such as uranium nuclei), are known
to undergo particle decay. Those that do not are called stable particles, such as electrons and
helium-4 nuclei. The lifetime of stable particles can be either infinite or large enough to hinder
attempts to observe such decays. In the latter case, those particles are called "observationally
stable". In general, a particle decays from a high-energy state to a lower-energy state by
emitting some form of radiation, such as the emission of photons.

Massless particle
This section is an excerpt from Massless [Link]
In particle physics, a massless particle is an elementary particle whose invariant mass is zero.
At present the only confirmed massless particle is the photon.

Statistical mechanics
Main article: Statistical mechanics
In physical systems with vast numbers of interacting particles analysis of individual motions is
impractical. For example, a single gram of O2 contains
2
×
10
22
{\displaystyle 2\times 10^{22}} molecules. For these cases, statistical approaches have been
developed which allow prediction of average quantities like the energy from the properties of the
particles.[23] The approach provides a theoretical basis for thermodynamics, the ideal gas laws,
and understanding brownian motion.[24]
Astrophysics
Astrophysics uses the idea of "particles" on many levels. Particle radiation is emitted by stars,
cosmic rays are high energy particles (primarily bare atomic nuclei), components in planetary
rings, components of solar wind, meteors, hydrogen nuclei inside the Sun, dust particles
aggregating into planets and interstellar gas collapsing to form a star.[25] Self-gravitating
systems of point particles representing stars are used to model galaxy formation.[26]: 85

N-body simulation
Main article: N-body simulation
In computational physics, N-body simulations (also called N-particle simulations) are simulations
of dynamical systems of particles under the influence of certain conditions, such as being
subject to gravity.[27] These simulations are common in cosmology and computational fluid
dynamics.

N refers to the number of particles considered. As simulations with higher N are more
computationally intensive, systems with large numbers of actual particles will often be
approximated to a smaller number of particles, and simulation algorithms need to be optimized
through various methods.[27]

Atmospheric science
In atmospheric science a particle is a small localized object which can be described by several
physical or chemical properties, such as volume, density, or mass.[1] Dust, soot, and smoke are
larger forms of particulate matter with smaller forms being atoms and molecules.[28]

Soil science
Soil is considered composed of particles. The discrete particles in soil are solid; they cannot
move relative to each other as easily as particles in a liquid. Force on the soil is transmitted by
points of contact between the soil particles, with some of the force deforming the particles. The
particles slide past each other in response to the force.[29]

Distribution of particles
Main article: Colloid

Examples of a stable and of an unstable colloidal dispersion.

Colloidal particles are the components of a colloid. A colloid is a substance microscopically
dispersed evenly throughout another substance.[30] Such colloidal system can be solid, liquid,
or gaseous; as well as continuous or dispersed. The dispersed-phase particles have a diameter
of between approximately 5 and 200 nanometers.[31] Soluble particles smaller than this will
form a solution as opposed to a colloid. Colloidal systems (also called colloidal solutions or
colloidal suspensions) are the subject of interface and colloid science. Suspended solids may
be held in a liquid, while solid or liquid particles suspended in a gas together form an aerosol.
Particles may also be suspended in the form of atmospheric particulate matter, which may
constitute air pollution. Larger particles can similarly form marine debris or space debris. A
conglomeration of discrete solid, macroscopic particles may be described as a granular
material.

See also

Wikiquote has quotations related to Particle.

Antiparticle
Brownian motion
Corpuscularianism
Fluid parcel
List of particles
Matter
Mechanics
Particle counter
Particle detector
Particle segregation
Self-propelled particle
Wave–particle duality
References
"particle - Glossary of Meteorology". [Link]. Retrieved 2026-03-09.
"Particle". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005.
Lambe, T. W.; Whitman, R. V. (1969). Soil Mechanics. John Wiley & Sons. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-
471-51192-2. The word 'particulate' means 'of or pertaining to a system of particles'.
F. W. Sears; M. W. Zemansky (1964). "Equilibrium of a Particle". University Physics (3rd ed.).
Addison-Wesley. p. 27. LCCN 63015265. A body whose rotation is ignored as irrelevant is
called a particle. A particle may be so small that it is an approximation to a point, or it may be of
any size, provided that the action lines of all the forces acting on it intersect in one point.
Dubinski, J. (2003). "Galaxy Dynamics and Cosmology on Mckenzie". Canadian Institute for
Theoretical Astrophysics. Archived from the original on 2021-11-02. Retrieved 2011-02-24.
Coppola, G.; La Barbera, F.; Capaccioli, M. (2009). "Sérsic galaxy with Sérsic halo models of
early-type galaxies: A tool for N-body simulations". Publications of the Astronomical Society of
the Pacific. 121 (879): 437. arXiv:0903.4758. Bibcode:2009PASP..121..437C.
doi:10.1086/599288.
"Subatomic particle". [Link]. Archived from the original on 2011-03-05. Retrieved
2010-02-08.
Eisberg, R.; Resnick, R. (1985). "Solutions of Time-Independent Schroedinger Equations".
Quantum Physics of Atoms, Molecules, Solids, Nuclei, Ions, Compounds and Particles (2nd
ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 214–226. ISBN 978-0-471-87373-0.
Reif, F. (1965). "Quantum Statistics of Ideal Gases – Quantum States of a Single Particle".
Fundamentals of Statistical and Thermal Physics. McGraw-Hill. pp. vii–x. ISBN 978-0-07-
051800-1.
Eisberg, R.; Resnick, R. (1985). "Photons—Particlelike Properties of Radiation". Quantum
Physics of Atoms, Molecules, Solids, Nuclei, and Particles (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp.
26–54. ISBN 978-0-471-87373-0.
Eisberg, R.; Resnick, R. (1985). "de Broglie's Postulate—Wavelike Properties of Particles".
Quantum Physics of Atoms, Molecules, Solids, Nuclei, and Particles (2nd ed.). John Wiley &
Sons. pp. 55–84. ISBN 978-0-471-87373-0.
Reif, F. (1965). "Quantum Statistics of Ideal Gases – Identical Particles and Symmetry
Requirements". Fundamentals of Statistical and Thermal Dynamics. McGraw-Hill. pp. 331ff.
ISBN 978-0-07-051800-1.
Reif, F. (1965). "Quantum Statistics of Ideal Gases – Physical Implications of the Quantum-
Mechanical Enumeration of States". Fundamentals of Statistical and Thermal Dynamics.
McGraw-Hill. pp. 353–360. ISBN 978-0-07-051800-1.
Penrose, Roger (2005). The road to reality: a complete guide to the laws of the universe (1st
ed.). New York: A.A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-679-45443-4.
Wilczek, Frank (2003). "The Origin of Mass" (PDF). The MIT Physics Annual. pp. 24–35.
O'Keefe, Madeleine (23 July 2019). "Massless particles can't be stopped". Symmetry
Magazine.
"Composite particle". [Link]. Archived from the original on 2010-11-15. Retrieved
2010-02-08.
"Elementary particle". [Link]. Archived from the original on 2010-10-14. Retrieved
2010-02-08.
D'Souza, I. A.; Kalman, C. S. (1992). Preons: Models of Leptons, Quarks and Gauge Bosons
as Composite Objects. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-02-1019-9.
Weinberg, Steven (1997). "What is an elementary particle?". Beam Line. 27 (1): 17–21.
Quigg, Chris (1997). "Elementary Particles: Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow". Beam Line. 27
(1): 22–29.
US National Research Council (1990). "What is an elementary particle?". Elementary-Particle
Physics. US National Research Council. p. 19. ISBN 0-309-03576-7.
Sachs, Ivo; Sen, Siddhartha; Sexton, James (May 11, 2006). Elements of Statistical
Mechanics: With an Introduction to Quantum Field Theory and Numerical Simulation (1 ed.).
Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511755620. ISBN 978-0-521-84198-6.
Reif, F. (1965). "Statistical Description of Systems of Particles". Fundamentals of Statistical and
Thermal Physics. McGraw-Hill. pp. 47ff. ISBN 978-0-07-051800-1.
Demtröder, Wolfgang (2024). Astrophysics. Undergraduate lecture notes in physics. Cham:
Springer. ISBN 978-3-031-22135-4.
Longair, Malcolm S. (2023). "Galaxy Formation". Astronomy and Astrophysics Library.
doi:10.1007/978-3-662-65891-8. ISBN 978-3-662-65890-1. ISSN 0941-7834.
Graps, A. (20 March 2000). "N-Body / Particle Simulation Methods". Archived from the original
on 5 April 2001. Retrieved 2019-04-18.
US EPA, OAR (April 19, 2016). "Particulate Matter (PM) Basics". [Link]. Retrieved
2026-03-09.
Lambe, T. W.; Whitman, R. V. (1969). Soil Mechanics. John Wiley & Sons. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-
471-51192-2. The word 'particulate' means 'of or pertaining to a system of particles'.
"Colloid". Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 July 2014. Retrieved 2026-02-19.
Levine, I. N. (2001). Physical Chemistry (5th ed.). McGraw-Hill. p. 955. ISBN 978-0-07-231808-
1.
Further reading
"What is a particle?". University of Florida, Particle Engineering Research Center. 23 July 2010.
Archived from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 10 September 2015.
Griffiths, D. J. (2008). Introduction to Particle Physics (2nd ed.). Wiley-VCH. ISBN 978-3-527-
40601-2.
Alonso, M.; Finn, E. J. (1967). "Dynamics of a particle". Fundamental University Physics,
Volume 1. Addison-Wesley. LCCN 66010828.
Alonso, M.; Finn, E. J. (1967). "Dynamics of a system of particles". Fundamental University
Physics, Volume 1. Addison-Wesley. LCCN 66010828.
Segal, S. (n.d.). "What is a Particle? – Definition & Theory". High School Chemistry: Help and
Review. [Link]. Chapter 4, Lesson 6.
"A basic guide to particle characterization" (PDF). Malvern Instruments. 2015. Archived from the
original (PDF) on 2020-09-20. Retrieved 2016-11-04.
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n the physical sciences, a particle (or corpuscle in older texts) is a separate part of a larger
system. Depending on the system they vary greatly in size or quantity, from subatomic particles
like the electron, to microscopic particles like atoms and molecules, to macroscopic particles like
powders and other granular materials. Particles can also be used to create scientific models of
large objects within very large systems, such as humans moving in a crowd, celestial bodies in
orbit, or galaxies in the expansion of the universe.

In some fields a particle is a small localized object which can be described by several physical
or chemical properties, such as volume, density, or mass.[1][2] The term particle is rather
general in meaning, and is refined as needed by various scientific fields. Anything that is
composed of particles may be referred to as being particulate.[3] However, the noun particulate
is most frequently used to refer to pollutants in the Earth's atmosphere, which are a suspension
of unconnected particles, rather than a connected particle aggregation.

Physics
Particles are often represented as dots. This figure could represent the movement of atoms in a
gas, people in crowds, or stars in the night sky.
In models
Main article: Point particle
In physics, the concept of particles can be used to make simplifying assumptions when
modelling nature. For example, to calculate the landing location and speed of a baseball thrown
in the air, the baseball can be idealized as a rigid smooth sphere, ignoring its rotation,
buoyancy, and friction, reducing the problem to the ballistics in classical mechanics.[4]

Size

Galaxies are so large that stars can be considered particles relative to them.
See also: Particle size
The term "particle" is usually applied differently to three classes of sizes. The term macroscopic
particle, usually refers to particles much larger than atoms and molecules. These are usually
abstracted as point-like particles, even though they have volumes, shapes, structures, etc.
Examples of macroscopic particles would include powder, dust, sand, pieces of debris during a
car accident, or even objects as big as the stars of a galaxy.[5][6]

Another type, microscopic particles usually refers to particles of sizes ranging from atoms to
molecules, such as carbon dioxide, nanoparticles, and colloidal particles. These particles are
studied in chemistry, as well as atomic and molecular physics.

The smallest particles are the subatomic particles, which refer to particles smaller than atoms.
[7] These would include particles such as the constituents of atoms – protons, neutrons, and
electrons – as well as other types of particles which can only be produced in particle
accelerators or cosmic rays. These particles are studied in particle physics.

Because of their extremely small size, the study of microscopic and subatomic particles falls in
the realm of quantum mechanics. They will exhibit phenomena demonstrated in the particle in a
box model,[8][9] including wave–particle duality,[10][11] and whether particles can be
considered distinct or identical[12][13] is an important question in many situations.

Particle physics
Main article: Particle physics
Mass
See also: Mass and Higgs mechanism
In particle physics, a massive particle is an elementary particle with non-zero rest mass while a
massless particle has zero rest mass.[14]: 436 The photon and gluon are massless. The
hypothetical graviton is expected to be massless. All other known elementary particles have
mass.[15][16]

The mass of atoms is overwhelmingly concentrated in their nuclei, made of protons and
neutrons, which each have over 1800 times more mass than electrons. Since protons and
neutrons are made of quarks and gluons, this mass primarily traced to the interactions of quarks
and gluons. The electrons and the electromagnetic binding of electrons to protons adds some
additional mass.[15]

Massive particles must move at a speed less than the speed of light. Massless particles, in
contrast, must move at the speed of light.[16]

Rest mass, mass observed in a frame at rest with a particle, is not conserved in particle
interactions. A massive particle can decay into massless particles and massless particles can
combine to produce massive particles. For example, a neutral pion is massive but can decay
into two photons in about 10−16 seconds.[14]: 436

Composition

A proton is composed of three quarks and held together with the strong interaction.
Particles may be elementary or composite. Composite particles are composed of other particles.
[17] For example, protons are composed of quarks. By contrast, elementary particles (also
called fundamental particles) are not made of other particles.[18] According to our current
knowledge, only a very small number of these exist, such as leptons, quarks, and gluons,
although it is possible that some are composite in currently unknown ways.[19][20][21] While
composite particles can very often be considered point-like, although having internal structure,
elementary particles have so far been found to have no structure.[22]

Stability
Both elementary (such as muons) and composite particles (such as uranium nuclei), are known
to undergo particle decay. Those that do not are called stable particles, such as electrons and
helium-4 nuclei. The lifetime of stable particles can be either infinite or large enough to hinder
attempts to observe such decays. In the latter case, those particles are called "observationally
stable". In general, a particle decays from a high-energy state to a lower-energy state by
emitting some form of radiation, such as the emission of photons.
Massless particle
This section is an excerpt from Massless [Link]
In particle physics, a massless particle is an elementary particle whose invariant mass is zero.
At present the only confirmed massless particle is the photon.

Statistical mechanics
Main article: Statistical mechanics
In physical systems with vast numbers of interacting particles analysis of individual motions is
impractical. For example, a single gram of O2 contains
2
×
10
22
{\displaystyle 2\times 10^{22}} molecules. For these cases, statistical approaches have been
developed which allow prediction of average quantities like the energy from the properties of the
particles.[23] The approach provides a theoretical basis for thermodynamics, the ideal gas laws,
and understanding brownian motion.[24]

Astrophysics
Astrophysics uses the idea of "particles" on many levels. Particle radiation is emitted by stars,
cosmic rays are high energy particles (primarily bare atomic nuclei), components in planetary
rings, components of solar wind, meteors, hydrogen nuclei inside the Sun, dust particles
aggregating into planets and interstellar gas collapsing to form a star.[25] Self-gravitating
systems of point particles representing stars are used to model galaxy formation.[26]: 85

N-body simulation
Main article: N-body simulation
In computational physics, N-body simulations (also called N-particle simulations) are simulations
of dynamical systems of particles under the influence of certain conditions, such as being
subject to gravity.[27] These simulations are common in cosmology and computational fluid
dynamics.

N refers to the number of particles considered. As simulations with higher N are more
computationally intensive, systems with large numbers of actual particles will often be
approximated to a smaller number of particles, and simulation algorithms need to be optimized
through various methods.[27]

Atmospheric science
In atmospheric science a particle is a small localized object which can be described by several
physical or chemical properties, such as volume, density, or mass.[1] Dust, soot, and smoke are
larger forms of particulate matter with smaller forms being atoms and molecules.[28]

Soil science
Soil is considered composed of particles. The discrete particles in soil are solid; they cannot
move relative to each other as easily as particles in a liquid. Force on the soil is transmitted by
points of contact between the soil particles, with some of the force deforming the particles. The
particles slide past each other in response to the force.[29]

Distribution of particles
Main article: Colloid

Examples of a stable and of an unstable colloidal dispersion.

Colloidal particles are the components of a colloid. A colloid is a substance microscopically
dispersed evenly throughout another substance.[30] Such colloidal system can be solid, liquid,
or gaseous; as well as continuous or dispersed. The dispersed-phase particles have a diameter
of between approximately 5 and 200 nanometers.[31] Soluble particles smaller than this will
form a solution as opposed to a colloid. Colloidal systems (also called colloidal solutions or
colloidal suspensions) are the subject of interface and colloid science. Suspended solids may
be held in a liquid, while solid or liquid particles suspended in a gas together form an aerosol.
Particles may also be suspended in the form of atmospheric particulate matter, which may
constitute air pollution. Larger particles can similarly form marine debris or space debris. A
conglomeration of discrete solid, macroscopic particles may be described as a granular
material.

See also

Wikiquote has quotations related to Particle.

Antiparticle
Brownian motion
Corpuscularianism
Fluid parcel
List of particles
Matter
Mechanics
Particle counter
Particle detector
Particle segregation
Self-propelled particle
Wave–particle duality
References
"particle - Glossary of Meteorology". [Link]. Retrieved 2026-03-09.
"Particle". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005.
Lambe, T. W.; Whitman, R. V. (1969). Soil Mechanics. John Wiley & Sons. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-
471-51192-2. The word 'particulate' means 'of or pertaining to a system of particles'.
F. W. Sears; M. W. Zemansky (1964). "Equilibrium of a Particle". University Physics (3rd ed.).
Addison-Wesley. p. 27. LCCN 63015265. A body whose rotation is ignored as irrelevant is
called a particle. A particle may be so small that it is an approximation to a point, or it may be of
any size, provided that the action lines of all the forces acting on it intersect in one point.
Dubinski, J. (2003). "Galaxy Dynamics and Cosmology on Mckenzie". Canadian Institute for
Theoretical Astrophysics. Archived from the original on 2021-11-02. Retrieved 2011-02-24.
Coppola, G.; La Barbera, F.; Capaccioli, M. (2009). "Sérsic galaxy with Sérsic halo models of
early-type galaxies: A tool for N-body simulations". Publications of the Astronomical Society of
the Pacific. 121 (879): 437. arXiv:0903.4758. Bibcode:2009PASP..121..437C.
doi:10.1086/599288.
"Subatomic particle". [Link]. Archived from the original on 2011-03-05. Retrieved
2010-02-08.
Eisberg, R.; Resnick, R. (1985). "Solutions of Time-Independent Schroedinger Equations".
Quantum Physics of Atoms, Molecules, Solids, Nuclei, Ions, Compounds and Particles (2nd
ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 214–226. ISBN 978-0-471-87373-0.
Reif, F. (1965). "Quantum Statistics of Ideal Gases – Quantum States of a Single Particle".
Fundamentals of Statistical and Thermal Physics. McGraw-Hill. pp. vii–x. ISBN 978-0-07-
051800-1.
Eisberg, R.; Resnick, R. (1985). "Photons—Particlelike Properties of Radiation". Quantum
Physics of Atoms, Molecules, Solids, Nuclei, and Particles (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp.
26–54. ISBN 978-0-471-87373-0.
Eisberg, R.; Resnick, R. (1985). "de Broglie's Postulate—Wavelike Properties of Particles".
Quantum Physics of Atoms, Molecules, Solids, Nuclei, and Particles (2nd ed.). John Wiley &
Sons. pp. 55–84. ISBN 978-0-471-87373-0.
Reif, F. (1965). "Quantum Statistics of Ideal Gases – Identical Particles and Symmetry
Requirements". Fundamentals of Statistical and Thermal Dynamics. McGraw-Hill. pp. 331ff.
ISBN 978-0-07-051800-1.
Reif, F. (1965). "Quantum Statistics of Ideal Gases – Physical Implications of the Quantum-
Mechanical Enumeration of States". Fundamentals of Statistical and Thermal Dynamics.
McGraw-Hill. pp. 353–360. ISBN 978-0-07-051800-1.
Penrose, Roger (2005). The road to reality: a complete guide to the laws of the universe (1st
ed.). New York: A.A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-679-45443-4.
Wilczek, Frank (2003). "The Origin of Mass" (PDF). The MIT Physics Annual. pp. 24–35.
O'Keefe, Madeleine (23 July 2019). "Massless particles can't be stopped". Symmetry
Magazine.
"Composite particle". [Link]. Archived from the original on 2010-11-15. Retrieved
2010-02-08.
"Elementary particle". [Link]. Archived from the original on 2010-10-14. Retrieved
2010-02-08.
D'Souza, I. A.; Kalman, C. S. (1992). Preons: Models of Leptons, Quarks and Gauge Bosons
as Composite Objects. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-02-1019-9.
Weinberg, Steven (1997). "What is an elementary particle?". Beam Line. 27 (1): 17–21.
Quigg, Chris (1997). "Elementary Particles: Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow". Beam Line. 27
(1): 22–29.
US National Research Council (1990). "What is an elementary particle?". Elementary-Particle
Physics. US National Research Council. p. 19. ISBN 0-309-03576-7.
Sachs, Ivo; Sen, Siddhartha; Sexton, James (May 11, 2006). Elements of Statistical
Mechanics: With an Introduction to Quantum Field Theory and Numerical Simulation (1 ed.).
Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511755620. ISBN 978-0-521-84198-6.
Reif, F. (1965). "Statistical Description of Systems of Particles". Fundamentals of Statistical and
Thermal Physics. McGraw-Hill. pp. 47ff. ISBN 978-0-07-051800-1.
Demtröder, Wolfgang (2024). Astrophysics. Undergraduate lecture notes in physics. Cham:
Springer. ISBN 978-3-031-22135-4.
Longair, Malcolm S. (2023). "Galaxy Formation". Astronomy and Astrophysics Library.
doi:10.1007/978-3-662-65891-8. ISBN 978-3-662-65890-1. ISSN 0941-7834.
Graps, A. (20 March 2000). "N-Body / Particle Simulation Methods". Archived from the original
on 5 April 2001. Retrieved 2019-04-18.
US EPA, OAR (April 19, 2016). "Particulate Matter (PM) Basics". [Link]. Retrieved
2026-03-09.
Lambe, T. W.; Whitman, R. V. (1969). Soil Mechanics. John Wiley & Sons. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-
471-51192-2. The word 'particulate' means 'of or pertaining to a system of particles'.
"Colloid". Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 July 2014. Retrieved 2026-02-19.
Levine, I. N. (2001). Physical Chemistry (5th ed.). McGraw-Hill. p. 955. ISBN 978-0-07-231808-
1.
Further reading
"What is a particle?". University of Florida, Particle Engineering Research Center. 23 July 2010.
Archived from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 10 September 2015.
Griffiths, D. J. (2008). Introduction to Particle Physics (2nd ed.). Wiley-VCH. ISBN 978-3-527-
40601-2.
Alonso, M.; Finn, E. J. (1967). "Dynamics of a particle". Fundamental University Physics,
Volume 1. Addison-Wesley. LCCN 66010828.
Alonso, M.; Finn, E. J. (1967). "Dynamics of a system of particles". Fundamental University
Physics, Volume 1. Addison-Wesley. LCCN 66010828.
Segal, S. (n.d.). "What is a Particle? – Definition & Theory". High School Chemistry: Help and
Review. [Link]. Chapter 4, Lesson 6.
"A basic guide to particle characterization" (PDF). Malvern Instruments. 2015. Archived from the
original (PDF) on 2020-09-20. Retrieved 2016-11-04.
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Particles in physics
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Aerosol terminology
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Elements of nature
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Category: Particles
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