Chapter 1: Chemical Reactions and Equations

A chemical reaction is a process in which one or more substances are transformed into new
substances with different properties. During chemical reactions, the law of conservation of mass
applies, meaning the mass of reactants equals the mass of products. A chemical equation
symbolically represents a reaction, showing the reactants on the left and products on the right
with an arrow indicating the direction of reaction.

Formulas & Key Reactions:

 Combination Reaction: A+B→ABA + B → ABA+B→AB

Example: N2+3H2→2NH3N_2 + 3H_2 → 2NH_3N2+3H2→2NH3
 Decomposition Reaction: AB→A+BAB → A + BAB→A+B
Example: 2H2O→2H2+O22H_2O → 2H_2 + O_22H2O→2H2+O2
 Displacement Reaction: A+BC→AC+BA + BC → AC + BA+BC→AC+B
Example: Zn+CuSO4→ZnSO4+CuZn + CuSO_4 → ZnSO_4 + CuZn+CuSO4→ZnSO4
+Cu
 Double Displacement Reaction: AB+CD→AD+CBAB + CD → AD +
CBAB+CD→AD+CB
Example: Na2SO4+BaCl2→BaSO4+2NaClNa_2SO_4 + BaCl_2 → BaSO_4 +
2NaClNa2SO4+BaCl2→BaSO4+2NaCl
 Redox Reaction: Oxidation and reduction happen together
Example: 2Fe+3Cl2→2FeCl32Fe + 3Cl_2 → 2FeCl_32Fe+3Cl2→2FeCl3

Diagram Explanation: Reactants and products are connected by arrows. Atomic rearrangement
can be shown with colored circles for atoms to visualize bonding changes.

NCERT Example: Magnesium reacts with oxygen:

2Mg+O2→2MgO2Mg + O_2 → 2MgO2Mg+O2→2MgO

This is a combination reaction forming magnesium oxide.

Chapter 2: Acids, Bases, and Salts

Acids release H⁺ ions in water, bases release OH⁻ ions, and salts are formed when acids
neutralize bases. The pH scale measures acidity or basicity: pH < 7 (acidic), pH = 7 (neutral),
pH > 7 (basic).

Key Formulas:
  Neutralization: Acid + Base → Salt + Water
Example: HCl+NaOH→NaCl+H2OHCl + NaOH → NaCl +
H_2OHCl+NaOH→NaCl+H2O
 pH: pH=−log⁡[H+]\text{pH} = -\log[H^+]pH=−log[H+]

Examples:

1. Na2CO3+2HCl→2NaCl+H2O+CO2↑Na_2CO_3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H_2O +

CO_2↑Na2CO3+2HCl→2NaCl+H2O+CO2↑ (carbon dioxide released)
2. Zn+2HCl→ZnCl2+H2↑Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl_2 + H_2↑Zn+2HCl→ZnCl2+H2↑ (metal
reacting with acid)

Diagram Explanation: A pH scale with acids on left, neutral in middle, bases on right;
indicators changing colors in acids/bases.

Chapter 3: Metals and Non-Metals

Metals are hard, shiny, malleable, ductile, and good conductors. Non-metals are brittle, dull, and
poor conductors. Reactivity determines displacement reactions. Corrosion is the slow
destruction of metals due to reaction with air and moisture.

Formulas & Reactions:

 Corrosion: 4Fe+3O2+6H2O→4Fe(OH)34Fe + 3O_2 + 6H_2O → 4Fe(OH)_34Fe+3O2

+6H2O→4Fe(OH)3
 Displacement Reaction Example: Fe+CuSO4→FeSO4+CuFe + CuSO_4 → FeSO_4 +
CuFe+CuSO4→FeSO4+Cu
 Metal + Acid: Zn+2HCl→ZnCl2+H2↑Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl_2 + H_2↑Zn+2HCl→ZnCl2
+H2↑

Diagram Explanation: Reactivity series showing metals from most reactive (K, Na) to least
reactive (Au, Pt).

Chapter 4: Carbon and its Compounds

Carbon forms covalent bonds and has the ability of catenation (bonding with itself). Carbon
compounds are classified as organic compounds, including alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, alcohols,
and acids.

Key Formulas:
  Alkanes: CnH2n+2C_nH_{2n+2}CnH2n+2
 Alkenes: CnH2nC_nH_{2n}CnH2n
 Alkynes: CnH2n−2C_nH_{2n-2}CnH2n−2
 Photosynthesis: 6CO2+6H2O→C6H12O6+6O26CO_2 + 6H_2O → C_6H_{12}O_6 +
6O_26CO2+6H2O→C6H12O6+6O2

Examples:

1. Combustion of Methane: CH4+2O2→CO2+2H2OCH_4 + 2O_2 → CO_2 + 2H_2OCH4

+2O2→CO2+2H2O
2. Esterification: CH3COOH+C2H5OH→CH3COOC2H5+H2OCH_3COOH +
C_2H_5OH → CH_3COOC_2H_5 + H_2OCH3COOH+C2H5OH→CH3COOC2H5
+H2O

Diagram Explanation: Structural formulas of methane (CH₄), ethene (C₂H₄), ethyne (C₂H₂).

Chapter 5: Life Processes (Class 10 Science)

Definition:
Life processes are essential biological processes that help organisms maintain life. They include
nutrition, respiration, transportation, excretion, and reproduction. These processes allow
organisms to obtain energy, grow, repair tissues, and remove waste products.

1. Nutrition
Definition: Nutrition is the process by which organisms obtain food, break it down, and use it to
generate energy and build body components.

Types of Nutrition:

1. Autotrophic Nutrition
o Organisms make their own food using simple substances.
o Example: Plants use sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water to make glucose via
photosynthesis.
o Photosynthesis Equation:

6CO2+6H2O→lightC6H12O6+6O26CO_2 + 6H_2O \xrightarrow{\text{light}}

C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_26CO2+6H2OlightC6H12O6+6O2
 oDiagram Explanation: Leaf showing chloroplasts, sunlight absorption, CO₂
intake from air, and O₂ release.
2. Heterotrophic Nutrition
o Organisms depend on other organisms for food.
o Types:
 Holozoic (ingestion of solid food) – Humans, animals
 Saprophytic (feeding on decayed matter) – Fungi, bacteria
 Parasitic (feeds on host) – Tapeworms, Plasmodium
 Symbiotic (mutual benefit) – Lichens, Mycorrhiza

NCERT Example: Humans eat carbohydrates, proteins, and fats which are digested and
absorbed in the small intestine.

2. Respiration
Definition: Respiration is the process of breaking down food molecules to release energy in the
form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate).

Types of Respiration:

1. Aerobic Respiration
o Requires oxygen.
o Glucose is completely broken down into CO₂ and H₂O.
o Equation:

C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+Energy (ATP)C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2 → 6CO_2 + 6H_2O + \

text{Energy (ATP)}C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+Energy (ATP)

2. Anaerobic Respiration
o Does not require oxygen.
o Glucose is partially broken down, producing less energy.
o Equation (in humans):

C6H12O6→2C2H5OH+2CO2+EnergyC_6H_{12}O_6 → 2C_2H_5OH + 2CO_2 + \

text{Energy}C6H12O6→2C2H5OH+2CO2+Energy

o Equation (in humans/muscles during exercise):

C_6H_{12}O_6 → 2C_3H_6O_3 + \text{Energy} \] (Lactic acid formation)

Diagram Explanation:

 Aerobic respiration: Glucose enters mitochondria → CO₂ + H₂O + ATP released

  Anaerobic respiration: Glucose → Lactic acid (in muscles)

NCERT Example: During vigorous exercise, muscles perform anaerobic respiration, causing
lactic acid accumulation and fatigue.

3. Transportation
Definition: Transportation is the movement of substances like water, nutrients, and gases within
an organism.

In Humans:

 Circulatory System: Heart, blood, and blood vessels transport nutrients and oxygen to
cells.
 Blood Components: Red blood cells (oxygen transport), plasma (nutrients), white blood
cells (defense).
 Diagram Explanation: Heart showing atria, ventricles, arteries, and veins.

In Plants:

 Xylem: Transports water and minerals from roots to leaves.

 Phloem: Transports food (sugars) from leaves to other parts.
 Diagram Explanation: Plant showing xylem upward flow and phloem downward flow.

NCERT Example: Human circulatory system transports oxygen from lungs to tissues and CO₂
back to lungs.

4. Excretion
Definition: Excretion is the process of removing metabolic waste products from the body to
maintain internal balance.

In Humans:

 Organs: Kidneys, lungs, skin, liver

 Kidney Function: Filters blood, removes urea, water, salts → urine formation.
 Equation (Simplified):
Protein metabolism → Urea formation:

NH3+CO2→(NH2)2CO+H2ONH_3 + CO_2 → (NH_2)_2CO + H_2ONH3+CO2→(NH2)2CO+H2O

In Plants:

 Excretion occurs via stomata, guttation, and root exudates.

Diagram Explanation: Human excretory system showing kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra.

NCERT Example: Kidneys filter nitrogenous wastes and regulate water and salt balance in the
body.

5. Summary Table of Life Processes

Life Process Function Key Organ/System Example

Obtain & utilize Digestive system (humans), Photosynthesis in plants, digestion

Nutrition
food chloroplasts (plants) in humans

Respiration Release energy Lungs, mitochondria Aerobic respiration in humans

Blood circulation, water transport

Transportation Move substances Circulatory system, xylem/phloem
in plants

Excretion Remove wastes Kidneys, lungs, skin Urine formation, sweating

Produce Human reproduction, flowering

Reproduction Gonads, reproductive organs
offspring plants

Important Notes:
 All life processes are interrelated: Food (nutrition) provides energy for respiration;
blood transports nutrients and wastes; excretion maintains internal balance.
 Diagram Tips: Diagrams for human digestive system, respiratory system, excretory
system, plant transport system are frequently asked in exams.

✅ NCERT-style Examples to Remember:

1. Photosynthesis: Light + CO₂ + H₂O → Glucose + O₂

2. Aerobic Respiration: Glucose + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O + Energy
3. Excretion: Protein metabolism → NH₃ → Urea
Chapter 6: Control and Coordination
Definition: Control and coordination in organisms involve the nervous and hormonal systems,
which regulate body activities and responses to stimuli. The nervous system transmits messages
via neurons, while hormones act as chemical messengers.

Key Points & Formulas:

 Neuron Structure: Dendrites → Cell Body → Axon → Synapse

 Reflex Action: A rapid, involuntary response to a stimulus.
 Hormonal Regulation: Endocrine glands release hormones into the bloodstream to
control growth, metabolism, and reproduction.

Examples:

1. Reflex Action: Touching a hot object causes the hand to withdraw immediately.
2. Hormonal Action: Insulin from the pancreas regulates blood sugar.

Diagram Explanation: Neuron diagram showing dendrites, cell body, axon, myelin sheath, and
synapse; reflex arc illustrating stimulus → sensory neuron → spinal cord → motor neuron →
effector.

Chapter 7: How Do Organisms Reproduce?

Definition: Reproduction is the biological process by which new organisms are produced,
ensuring the continuation of species. It can be asexual (single parent) or sexual (two parents).

Key Points & Formulas:

 Asexual Reproduction: Binary fission, budding, vegetative propagation.

 Sexual Reproduction: Fusion of male and female gametes → zygote → embryo.

Examples:

1. Asexual: Amoeba reproduces by binary fission.

2. Sexual: Flowering plants reproduce via pollination and fertilization.

Diagram Explanation: Binary fission in amoeba showing nucleus division and splitting;
diagram of flower showing ovule, pollen, fertilization.

Chapter 8: Heredity and Evolution

Definition: Heredity is the transmission of genetic traits from parents to offspring. Evolution is
the gradual change in species over generations.

Key Points & Formulas:

 Mendel’s Laws:
o Law of Segregation: Alleles separate during gamete formation.
o Law of Independent Assortment: Traits are inherited independently.
 Hardy-Weinberg Equation: p2+2pq+q2=1p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1p2+2pq+q2=1 for gene
frequency.

Examples:

1. Pea plants: Tall (T) × dwarf (t) → F1 generation shows dominant trait.
2. Evolution: Development of antibiotic resistance in bacteria.

Diagram Explanation: Punnett square showing monohybrid cross; evolutionary tree showing
species change over time.

Chapter 9: Light – Reflection and Refraction

Definition: Light is a form of energy that enables vision. Reflection is bouncing off a surface;
refraction is bending of light through different media.

Key Formulas:

 Mirror Formula: 1f=1v+1u\frac{1}{f} = \frac{1}{v} + \frac{1}{u}f1=v1+u1

 Lens Formula: 1f=1v−1u\frac{1}{f} = \frac{1}{v} - \frac{1}{u}f1=v1−u1
 Magnification: M=hiho=vuM = \frac{h_i}{h_o} = \frac{v}{u}M=hohi=uv

Examples:

1. Concave mirror forms real, inverted image of an object placed beyond F.

2. Refraction: Light bends entering water from air.

Diagram Explanation:

 Ray diagram for concave mirror showing object, focal point, and image.
 Refraction through glass prism showing dispersion into colors.

Chapter 10: The Human Eye and the Colourful World

Definition: The human eye is an organ that detects light and forms images on the retina. The
colourful world results from light dispersion and scattering.

Key Points & Formulas:

 Power of Lens: P=100f(cm)P = \frac{100}{f(\text{cm})}P=f(cm)100

 Magnification: M=vuM = \frac{v}{u}M=uv

Examples:

1. Dispersion of white light through a prism forms a spectrum.

2. Correction of myopia using concave lens, hypermetropia using convex lens.

Diagram Explanation:

 Structure of the human eye with cornea, lens, retina, optic nerve.
 Prism diagram showing refraction of light and color spectrum.

Chapter 11: Electricity

Definition: Electricity is the flow of electric charge, measured in amperes. Conductors allow
flow, insulators resist it.

Key Formulas:

 Ohm’s Law: V=IRV = IRV=IR

 Electrical Power: P=VIP = VIP=VI
 Resistance in Series: Rs=R1+R2+R3R_s = R_1 + R_2 + R_3Rs=R1+R2+R3
 Resistance in Parallel: 1Rp=1R1+1R2+1R3\frac{1}{R_p} = \frac{1}{R_1} + \frac{1}
{R_2} + \frac{1}{R_3}Rp1=R11+R21+R31

Examples:

1. A bulb of 10Ω resistance connected to 220V: I=VR=22010=22AI = \frac{V}{R} = \

frac{220}{10} = 22AI=RV=10220=22A
2. Series circuit: total resistance is sum of individual resistances.

Diagram Explanation: Simple circuit showing battery, bulb, and switch; series vs parallel
arrangement.

Chapter 12: Magnetic Effects of Electric Current

Definition: Electric current produces magnetic fields, which can exert force on other currents or
magnets.

Key Formulas:

 Magnetic Force: F=BILF = BILF=BIL (on current-carrying conductor)

 Magnetic Field of Solenoid: B=μ0nILB = \mu_0 \frac{nI}{L}B=μ0LnI

Examples:

1. A compass needle deflects near a current-carrying wire.

2. Electromagnet: Soft iron wrapped with coil carrying current attracts iron objects.

Diagram Explanation: Magnetic field lines around a straight wire; solenoid showing field
pattern inside and outside coil.

Chapter 13: Our Environment

Definition: The environment consists of all living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components
interacting in ecosystems.

Key Points & Formulas:

 Biogeochemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen cycles.

 Energy Flow: Sun → Producer → Consumer → Decomposer.

Examples:

1. Decomposers like fungi recycle nutrients into soil.

2. Excess fertilizer leads to water pollution (eutrophication).

Diagram Explanation: Carbon cycle showing CO₂ in atmosphere → plants → animals →

decomposers. Nitrogen cycle showing nitrogen fixation and denitrification.
SUMMERY

CLASS 10 SCIENCE – CHAPTERWISE SUMMARY

CHEMISTRY
1. Chemical Reactions and Equations

 Definition: Transformation of reactants into products with new properties.

 Types of Reactions: Combination, Decomposition, Displacement, Double Displacement,
Redox.
 Law of Conservation of Mass: Mass of reactants = Mass of products.
 Indicators: Color change, gas evolution, precipitate formation.
 Energy: Exothermic (releases heat), Endothermic (absorbs heat).
 Examples:
o Combustion of methane: CH4+2O2→CO2+2H2O+EnergyCH_4 + 2O_2 →
CO_2 + 2H_2O + \text{Energy}CH4+2O2→CO2+2H2O+Energy
o Zn + CuSO₄ → ZnSO₄ + Cu (Displacement)

2. Acids, Bases and Salts

 Acid: Substance releasing H⁺ ions in water (e.g., HCl).

 Base: Substance releasing OH⁻ ions in water (e.g., NaOH).
 Neutralization: Acid + Base → Salt + Water (e.g., HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O).
 Indicators: Litmus, phenolphthalein, methyl orange.
 pH Scale: 0–14, <7 acidic, 7 neutral, >7 basic.
 Common salts: NaCl, Na₂CO₃, NaHCO₃, CaSO₄·2H₂O.

3. Metals and Non-Metals

 Physical properties: Luster, malleability, ductility, conductivity.

 Chemical properties: Reaction with oxygen, water, acids.
 Reactivity series: Displacement reactions.
 Corrosion: Slow reaction with environment; prevent using paints, oil.
 Alloys: Combination of metals for strength, e.g., Brass (Cu + Zn).
 Extraction: Ore → Metal (e.g., reduction with carbon or electrolysis).
4. Carbon and its Compounds

 Unique properties: Catenation, tetravalency, forms covalent compounds.

 Types: Hydrocarbons – Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes.
 Functional groups: Alcohol (-OH), Acids (-COOH), Aldehydes (-CHO), Ketones
(>C=O).
 Important Compounds: Ethanol, Ethanoic acid, Soap, Detergents, Polymers.
 Reactions: Combustion, Oxidation, Substitution, Addition.

5. Periodic Classification of Elements

 Mendeleev’s Periodic Table: Based on atomic mass.

 Modern Periodic Table: Based on atomic number.
 Periods & Groups: Horizontal → periods, Vertical → groups.
 Trends: Atomic size, ionization energy, electronegativity.
 Metals, Non-Metals, Metalloids: Physical & chemical properties.

PHYSICS
6. Light – Reflection and Refraction

 Reflection: Laws – Angle of incidence = angle of reflection.

 Spherical mirrors: Concave, convex; mirror formula 1/f=1/v+1/u1/f = 1/v +
1/u1/f=1/v+1/u.
 Refraction: Bending of light; Snell’s law n=sini/sinrn = sin i / sin rn=sini/sinr.
 Lenses: Convex, concave; lens formula 1/f=1/v−1/u1/f = 1/v - 1/u1/f=1/v−1/u.
 Applications: Cameras, magnifying glasses, microscopes.

7. Human Eye and Colourful World

 Structure: Cornea, lens, retina, optic nerve.

 Defects & Correction: Myopia, Hypermetropia, Presbyopia, Cataract.
 Dispersion of Light: Rainbow formation.
 Scattering: Blue sky, red sunset.

8. Electricity

 Current, Voltage, Resistance: Ohm’s law V=IRV = IRV=IR.

  Series & Parallel Circuits: Total resistance, current distribution.
 Power & Energy: P=VIP = VIP=VI, E=PtE = PtE=Pt.
 Heating Effect of Current: Fuses prevent damage.

9. Magnetic Effects of Electric Current

 Magnetic field: Produced around current-carrying wire.

 Electromagnet: Solenoid carrying current.
 Applications: Electric motor, generator, electromagnetic induction.

10. Sources of Energy

 Renewable: Solar, wind, hydro.

 Non-renewable: Coal, petroleum, nuclear.
 Environmental impacts: Pollution, global warming.

BIOLOGY
11. Life Processes

 Nutrition: Autotrophic & heterotrophic.

 Respiration: Aerobic & anaerobic.
 Transport: Xylem, phloem, blood circulation.
 Excretion: Human kidneys, plant stomata.

12. Control and Coordination

 Nervous System: Brain, spinal cord, neurons.

 Reflex Action: Rapid automatic response.
 Hormones: Endocrine system; plant tropisms.

13. How do Organisms Reproduce

 Asexual: Binary fission, budding, vegetative propagation.

 Sexual: Fertilization, reproductive organs, menstrual cycle.
 Reproductive health: Contraception, STD prevention.
14. Heredity and Evolution

 Mendel’s Laws: Dominant & recessive traits.

 Genetics: Genes, chromosomes, DNA.
 Evolution: Natural selection, adaptation, fossils.

15. Our Environment

 Ecosystem: Producers, consumers, decomposers.

 Food chain & web: Energy flow.
 Biodiversity & conservation: Endangered species, protection methods.
 Pollution: Air, water, soil, noise.

16. Sustainable Management of Natural Resources

 Resources: Water, forests, soil, minerals.

 Sustainable methods: Rainwater harvesting, afforestation, soil conservation.
 Renewable vs Non-renewable: Responsible usage for future generations.

✅ Key Tips for Exams:

1. Learn definitions & formulas for Chemistry and Physics.

2. Practice diagrams for Biology and Physics.
3. Observe reactions (color change, gas, precipitate).
4. Remember laws and periodic trends.
5. Revise examples from NCERT for numerical & conceptual clarity.