BIOLOGY MODULE IV

Introduction to Additive Manufacturing (AM) 1. Binder Jetting (BJT)

Additive Manufacturing (AM), commonly known as 3D printing, is a transformative approach Binder Jetting (BJT) is a process in which a
to industrial production that enables the creation of three-dimensional objects through liquid bonding agent is selectively deposited to
successive material layering. This innovative technology reshapes how we build products, join powder materials.
significantly reduces waste, and allows for intricate designs that traditional manufacturing
Binder jetting (BJT) produces parts by
processes cannot achieve.
selectively depositing a binding agent over a
The basic principle of Additive Manufacturing technology is that it uses a CAD-generated 3D powder bed. BJT uses the same powder-
model directly to fabricate a three-dimensional object by adding layer after layer of material spreading methods as powder bed fusion (PBF).
and fusing them. However, unlike PBF, a liquid binding agent
bonds parts instead of a laser and/or beam. A
History of Additive Manufacturing roller spreads a layer of powder over the build platform then the print head moves horizontally
Chuck Hull, an American engineer at 3D Systems Corporation, is accredited with inventing and sprays the binder agent onto certain areas of the powder layer. The printer creates the object
3D Printing in 1983, also known as a solid imaging process called stereolithography (3D by bonding the powder wherever the printhead has deposited the binder, layer by layer. After
Printing). He also invented the first commercial rapid prototyping technology and the STL file the build process, the product undergoes post-processing. This process differs from most other
format. Thanks to Hull, his contributions to the STL file format, digital layer slicing, and infill AM technologies because it doesn’t use heat to fuse the material.
strategies are still being used today in many additive manufacturing processes. Advantages of Binder Jetting
• Can produce complex, high-precision parts at a high resolution nearly matching PBF
Since then, many companies have invented and introduced new techniques. Because the
• Fast and affordable
technology is relatively new, companies that develop and introduce different techniques under • Can achieve different mechanical properties
new marketing terms, even though the core technique might be the same. • Can produce multi-color parts (only for non-metal parts)
• A wide range of powdered materials is available.
A technical committee under ASTM international finally defined these processes appropriately • Minimal material waste
as Additive Manufacturing (AM), as the technology builds 3D parts by adding material • Relatively large build area
compared to subtractive manufacturing. • Can be integrated with most traditional foundry processes
• The powder isn’t melted, so there are few issues related to residual stress
According to ISO/ASTM standards, additive manufacturing technologies are divided into
seven types according to the techniques used to create the layers, energy source, and fuse Disadvantages of Binder Jetting
material. • Needs to be infiltrated and sintered, which causes shrinkage
• Before post-processing, parts are fragile and can crumble easily
The Seven Categories of Additive Manufacturing Technologies • Even after post-processing, mechanical properties don’t meet the quality of
traditionally manufactured parts or PBF prints
Additive manufacturing (AM) has revolutionized part design and fabrication across numerous
industries. As new techniques emerge, so do new terms – although the underlying processes Applications of Binder Jetting
are often similar. To shed light on this rapidly-evolving field, we've put together a • Often used for sand-casting molds
comprehensive guide to the seven key AM technologies as defined by ISO ASTM 52900. • Ideal for full-color/high-fidelity prototyping
• Producing complex, high-precision metal, and ceramic parts
Discover the advantages and disadvantages of each method and stay ahead of the curve in this
game-changing industry.
2. Directed Energy Deposition (DED) 3. Material Extrusion (MEX)
Directed energy deposition (DED) fuses materials (usually metal) by melting them as Material extrusion (MEX) is a process in
they’re being deposited. which material is selectively dispensed
through a nozzle or orifice.
With DED, powder or wire is pushed through a
nozzle and melted by an intensely focused energy Material extrusion (MEX) is the least
source (usually a laser) at the point of deposition. expensive AM method and can only use
The molten material is incorporated into the plastic polymer as the raw material. It’s
energy flow, melting and depositing at the same usually called fused deposition modeling
time. The nozzle can move in multiple directions (FDM) because it’s a famous registered
(five-axis), which gives it freedom of movement trademark. MEX/FDM varies from other AM
not seen in most other AM technologies. This processes because the material is added
process can deposit the molten material onto a through a heated extrusion nozzle under constant pressure and in a continuous stream. With
build platform or alternatively onto a component MEX/FDM, the material feeds into the printer from a coil/spool, and the machine produces
that needs to be repaired and/or modified. DED is similar to the traditional welding process parts by layering extrusions of molten thermoplastic filament. The molten plastic is
but, unlike welding, can produce fine detail. continuously deposited at specific locations, where it then cools and solidifies. The fusion of
the layers is achieved by precise temperature control or with chemical bonding agents.
Types of Directed Energy Deposition
The DED process can be subdivided into categories based on the energy source for making the Types of Metal Extrusion
material molten, but they’re all based on similar principles: • Fused deposition modeling (FDM) – this process name is a registered trademark
• Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS) • Fused filament fabrication (FFF) is another term used but is similar to FDM
• Electron Beam Additive Manufacturing (EBAM)
• Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM), which is plasma or electric-based Advantages of Material Extrusion
• Other names include Directed Light Fabrication (DLF), Direct Metal Deposition • Affordable, entry-level pricing is available for desktop MEX printers
(DMD), or 3D Laser Cladding • The equipment is usually small, user-friendly, and affordable
• Low-temperature process
Advantages of Directed Energy Deposition • Fast printing times for single/small parts
• Can add material to existing parts because it can deposit material from many angles • Wide selection of inexpensive print material
• A wide selection of inexpensive print material is available, which are also used for • Easy-to-handle raw material
welding • Minimal post-processing required
• Large build area
• Creates dense, strong parts that have great mechanical properties Disadvantages of Material Extrusion
• Fast build times and minimal material waste • Heating method uses low temperatures, limiting the process to plastic polymers
• Can utilize multiple materials • No economies of scale, so high-volume runs are slow
• Low accuracy that often leaves visible layer lines
Disadvantages of Directed Energy Deposition • The resolution relates to the filament, which isn’t thin enough for fine detail
• Expensive equipment, so costly initial outlay compared to most other AM processes • The component strength is weak in the vertical direction.
• Support structures are difficult because the large liquid melt pool at the point of • Parts are susceptible to warping and shrinkage
deposition doesn’t allow for overhang • Parts are anisotropic
• The energy required to maintain the melting point creates thermal gradients that can • Some materials can be toxic
cause residual stress Applications of Material Extrusion
• Parts may require post-processing due to poor process resolution • Prototyping, especially proof of concept and rapid prototyping.
Applications of Directed Energy Deposition • Buildings can be made with concrete extrusion machines
• Repair, maintenance, and feature additions of functional or structural parts, especially • Human tissues and organs
in heavy industry and machinery • Small-scale production of functional parts and prototypes
• Useful for applications in space because the process doesn’t require gravity • Jigs and fixturing
• Near-net-shape part production
• Parts produced using specialist hybrid manufacturing machines
4. Material Jetting (MJT) • Materials are limited and expensive, with wax-like substances being the most common
Material jetting (MJT) is a process in which option, which may result in fragile prints
droplets of feedstock material are selectively • Due to their poor mechanical properties, these parts are not typically suitable for
deposited. functional use since they tend to be brittle and unable to bear significant loads

Material jetting (MJT) is one of the fastest, most Applications of Material Jetting
accurate AM technologies. Although MJT is • Highly realistic prototypes
relatively new, it has a ton of potential. The MJT • Injection mold manufacturing
• Patterns for investment castings, specifically in the jewelry industry
process begins by melting a photoreactive resin
• Medical devices, surgical tools, and anatomical models
into a liquid photopolymer. A print head moves
horizontally across the print bed and sprays
precise micro-droplets of the liquid polymer onto the build platform either continuously or on 5. Powder Bed Fusion (PBF)
demand. They are then cured, usually by UV light, to become solid. One printhead can house
jets for multiple materials, which means multi-material printing, full-color printing, and Powder bed fusion (PBF) is a process in which thermal energy selectively fuses regions of
a powder bed.
disposable support structures in another material, such as wax, are possible.
Powder bed fusion (PBF) uses an energy force
Types of Material Jetting to selectively melt or sinter powdered material.
The MJT category can be subdivided into several distinct printing technologies. Components A large bed of powdered material is heated to
produced by nanoparticle jetting (NPJ) and drop-on-demand (DOD) processes have better just below its melting point and spread over the
mechanical properties than PolyJet components. However, the basic principles for all of them build platform in a fine layer. The energy source
are the same: (usually a laser or electron beam) is then directed
• PolyJet: In this process, the printer selectively jets a micro-thin layer of photopolymer across the powder’s surface, which bonds the
powder, forming a thin layer of combined
material onto the platform, and the UV light immediately cures the layer. PolyJet is by
material. Most PBF processes happen in a near-
far the most popular MJT process. vacuum chamber with an inert gas that protects
the object from corrosion/oxidation. PBF is the
• Nanoparticle jetting (NPJ): This process is unique because it uses cartridges
most common technology for the additive manufacturing of metallic parts for aerospace and
containing solid metal nanoparticles suspended in a liquid. Two printheads jet fine biomedical applications.
droplets of build and support materials simultaneously to form a layer. The print bed
has a high temperature of around 300 C and immediately evaporates the liquid, leaving Types of Powder Bed Fusion (Proprietary)
behind the solid nanoparticles. The parts are cured once all the layers are deposited.
• Selective laser sintering (SLS): Produces parts using a laser to sinter particles together
• Drop on demand (DOD): This process is similar to PolyJet but only deposits dots as selectively. It differs from the other PBF processes in the material powder used
required (on demand) and not continuously. The printhead is unique because it can print (thermoplastics like nylon and Alumide).
curves in high resolution.
• MJF (by HP): Very similar to SLS.
Advantages of Material Jetting
• This AM process offers the highest resolution and accuracy available • Selective laser melting (SLM): A similar process to SLS, but the laser doesn’t sinter;
• Can print incredibly realistic objects with intricate shapes and sharp edges it actually melts particles together, which takes more heat.
• Can layer multiple materials so multicolor is possible
• Very smooth surfaces • Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS): In broader terms, DMLS is similar to SLS.
• While not achieving the same level of tolerance as PBF, still produces parts with very However, DMLS is optimized for 3D printing metals and alloys.
high tolerances
• Large build area • Electron beam melting (EBM): Uses electron beams which are more powerful than a
laser beam, which makes the process faster. However, parts processed by EBM have a
Disadvantages of Material Jetting higher surface roughness than parts produced using a laser beam.
• The equipment is expensive, and build time is slow because it constructs one droplet at
a time
• Support structures must be solid, which creates significant material waste
 • Selective heat sintering (SHS): Similar to SLS, however, SHS uses a thermal print brazing. Thin layered materials like aluminum foil or paper-based filaments are bonded and
head to sinter powder rather than a laser. SHS was developed by a team of doctors at cut into shaped layers by lasers or sharp blades. The most common SHL technology is
the University of Texas in the 1980s and is not used often today. ultrasonic consolidation (UC) or ultrasonic additive manufacturing (UAM). In this technique,
room-temperature metal sheets are bonded together by the application of ultrasonic waves and
• High-speed sintering (HSS): Combines the advantages of two AM technologies: SLS mechanical pressure. The final object is made by laser/knife cutting/CNC machining.
and binder jetting (BJT). In this process, the whole building platform is printed in one
go. A layer of powder is deposited, an inkjet printhead then deposits a radiation- Types of Sheet Lamination
absorbing material (RAM) onto the desired area, and an infrared lamp then irradiates Several different proprietary SHL technologies have different materials, lamination, and
the entire surface. cutting methods. In most cases, the process is a simple variation of paper laminated object
manufacturing (LOM). UC is the only technology that’s different from LOM because it uses
Advantages of Powder Bed Fusion ultrasonic welding rather than a bonding agent.
• Parts have tolerances equal to VPP, but PBF parts are generally stronger
• Can produce parts with complex shapes • Laminated object manufacturing (LOM): This process laminates sheets with a
• Mechanical properties of metal parts are comparable to machining and casting bonding adhesive and subtracts features layer by layer.
• Capable of functional plastic parts • Selective lamination composite object manufacturing (SLCOM)
• A wide range of materials is available • Plastic sheet lamination (PSL)
• Multiple materials in one build are possible • Computer-aided manufacturing of laminated engineering materials (CAM-LEM)
• More than one part can be produced simultaneously • Selective deposition lamination (SDL)
• No minimum support structures are needed for the build (plastic) • Composite-based additive manufacturing (CBAM)
• Used powder can be recycled • UC/UAM: Follows the same process at LOM, except the lamination is achieved
through ultrasonic vibrations as a form of friction welding
Disadvantages of Powder Bed Fusion • Composite fiber (SLCOM)
• Long print time and costly post-processing
• Expensive material and lots of electricity used, especially when the raw material is Advantages of Sheet Lamination
metal • Little to no pre-production; fast print time; relatively low cost
• Since it requires a bed of powder, it's unsuitable for an office environment • Easy material handling
• Parts have varied surface texture quality • No support structures needed
• Parts can have thermal distortion – primarily with polymer parts • Large build area
• Ability to layer multiple materials so multicolor is possible
Applications of Powder Bed Fusion • Minimal energy consumption
• Low volumes of functional parts across all industries, especially medical and defense- • Ability to integrate into a hybrid manufacturing system
related, and aerospace • In some instances, cut material can be recycled easily
• Common applications include one-off industrial hardware such as machine parts, jigs,
grips, and fixtures, and low-volume production runs of customized plastic components
• Rapid prototyping of complex parts Disadvantages of Sheet Lamination
• Heavily used for production parts • Parts with complex shapes aren't possible
• Architecture models (SLS) • Parts with internal voids and cavities are difficult to produce
• Adhesive bonds deteriorate over time, so the process isn’t ideal for parts that will be
6. Sheet Lamination (SHL) used long-term
Sheet lamination (SHL) is a process in • Generates a lot of material waste if the part is smaller than the sheet size or build area
which sheets of material are bonded to • Requires time-consuming post-processing
form a part. • Limited to materials that can come in sheets
• Layer height can’t be changed without changing the sheet thickness
Sheet lamination (SHL) is a simple method of • The finish achieved is sometimes variable
AM. It’s mainly used to produce colored
Applications of Sheet Lamination
objects in a high resolution. SHL is essentially
• Building models for architectural projects
a process of stacking very thin sheets of • Colored objects for proof-of-concept and look-and-feel prototyping
material and laminating them together • Rapid prototyping for parts without complex geometries
through ultrasonic welding, bonding, or
7. Vat Photopolymerization (VPP) How does Additive Manufacturing Technology work?
Vat photopolymerization (VPP) is a
process in which liquid photopolymer in a Although the process flow of the 7 different additive manufacturing technologies used to create
vat is selectively cured by light-activated the 3D parts varies, each broadly follows these common steps to create the final part.
polymerization.
3D Model creation step
Vat photopolymerization (VPP) was the first
industrial AM technology and is generally First, the designer creates a 3D model of the object to be printed using computer-aided design
considered one of the fastest AM (CAD) software or a 3D object scanner. Since the part is a replica of the 3D model, every detail
technologies. It can create incredibly detailed needs to be correct and fully defined in its external geometry.
parts. Micro-stereolithography, for instance,
precisely prints parts on the nanometric scale. Although AM can print complex parts and give the product designer more design flexibility
Some resins used in VPP are biocompatible, so it’s one of the best technologies for printing than conventional manufacturing processes, there are still limitations and rules to adhere to
medical implants. Photopolymerization is essentially a process in which photopolymer liquid when designing to achieve the best results.
resins in a vat are selectively exposed to UV light. When exposed, these materials undergo a
chemical reaction and become solid. Conventionally, this light is a laser beam that draws the The design guides vary according to the type of additive manufacturing technology and
shape of each layer into the resin-filled vat. Once the part is complete, it is post-processed in a material selection. Equipment manufacturers and AM technology service providers have
chamber with additional UV light. VPP is like MJT, except the material rests in a vat rather extensive design guides for designing parts. To learn more, refer to the types of AM technology
than being jetted.
and their manufacturers.
Types of Vat Photopolymerization
There are three categories of VPP that differ in the light source and how light is directed. STL file creation step
Stereolithography is the most popular.
• Stereolithography (SLA): uses a single-point laser to trace a thin line along the surface Once the designer is happy with the design, the user converts the CAD file to a standard AM
of the resin, filling in the shape of the cross-sectional layer to be cured. format called standard tessellation language (STL), which 3D Systems developed in the late
• Digital light processing (DLP): Uses a digital light projector to flash a single image
80s for use in its Stereolithography (SLA) machines.
of an entire layer all at once.
• Continuous digital light processing (CLIP): The same as DLP, except the build
Most CAD software, such as SolidWorks, Inventor, and Catia, can save any model as an STL
platform moves in a continuous motion.
Advantages of Vat Photopolymerization file. However, all printer manufacturers have software that can convert any CAD format into
• One of the fastest AM technologies an STL file.
• Parts can have incredibly small complex features with a very realistic finish
• Can be watertight and/or airtight once cured
As the name suggests, this will tessellate the 3D shape and slice the part into digital layers. The
• Parts have a smooth surface finish layer thickness dictates the final quality and depends on the machine and process.
• Consistent repeatability
• Large build area
STL file stores information about 3D models. This format describes only the surface geometry
• Resin drained after the build can be used again of a three-dimensional object without representing color, texture, or other common model
• Biocompatible materials available attributes.

Disadvantages of Vat Photopolymerization These files are typically created by a computer-aided design (CAD) program as an end product
• Relatively expensive resin and limited materials are available of the 3D modeling process. You can identify STL files by the “.stl” file extension.
• Long post-processing time
• Can become brittle, especially when exposed to prolonged sunlight Here’s a primer on where they come from, what the file type contains, how they work, the
advantages and disadvantages of their use, plus alternative file formats to consider.
Applications of Vat Photopolymerization
• Jewelry (short runs/prototyping) The STL file format is the most commonly used file format for 3D printing. When used with a
• Dental applications 3D slicer, it allows a computer to communicate with the 3D printer hardware.
• Medical applications
• Aerospace (short runs/prototyping)
• Automotive (short runs/prototyping)
Since its humble beginnings, many CAD software packages have adopted and supported the How is an STL File 3D Printed?
STL file format. Today it is widely used for rapid prototyping, 3D printing, and computer-
aided manufacturing. Hobbyists and professionals alike use it. For 3D printing, you must open the STL file in slicing software, often known simply as a
“slicer.” What’s a slicer? It’s a piece of 3D printing software that converts digital 3D models
It’s widely believed that STL is an abbreviation of the word STereoLithography, a 3D printing into printing instructions for your 3D printer to create an object.
process and corresponding file type created by Chuck Hull at 3D Systems in the 1980s. There
are plausible sounding backronyms attached to the STL file type, including “Standard Triangle Based on your chosen settings, the slicer chops up your STL file into hundreds (sometimes
Language,” “Standard Tessellation Language,” and “Surface Tesselation Language.” thousands) of flat horizontal layers and calculates how much material your printer will need to
extrude and how long it will take.
How Does the STL File Format Store a Model?
All of this information is written into a G-code file, the native language of your 3D printer.
The primary purpose of the STL file format is to encode the surface geometry of a 3D object. Slicer settings impact your print quality, so having the right software and settings is essential
It encodes this information using a simple concept called “tessellation.” to get you the best quality print possible.

Tessellation Once the G-code is on your 3D printer, the machine follows the instructions in order. The
separate two-dimensional layers are printed one by one to produce a three-dimensional object
Tessellation is the process of tiling a surface with one or more geometric shapes so there are on your print bed.
no overlaps or gaps. If you have ever seen a tiled floor or wall, that is an excellent example of
tessellation. Is Every STL File 3D Printable?

The basic idea was to tessellate the two-dimensional outer surface of 3D models using tiny Unfortunately not. Only a 3D design specifically made for 3D printing is 3D printable. The
triangles (also called “facets”) and store information about the facets in a file. STL file is just the container for the data, not a guarantee that something is printable.

Let’s look at a few examples to understand how this works. For example, if you have a simple 3D models suitable for 3D printing need a wall thickness that’s within the print resolution and
3D cube, this can be covered by 12 triangles, as shown in the image below. As you can see, “watertight” surface geometry. Even if a model is visible on a computer screen and looks like
there are two triangles per face. Since the cube has six faces, it adds up to 12 triangles. a three-dimensional object, there might be errors in the geometry that make it not solid or non-
manifold, meaning that it cannot be folded into a 2D surface with all normals pointing in the
If you have a 3D model of a sphere, then it can be covered by many small triangles, also shown same direction.
in the same image. Because the triangles always consist of three straight edges, the only way
to approximate curved geometries is to increase mesh density and decrease the individual There’s also the consideration of overhanging elements in the model. Look at the ALL3DP
triangles’ size. logo in the picture above; if the model is printed upright, then overhanging elements with more
than a 45-degree angle will require support structures (which you can see in green).

When downloading an STL file that you haven’t created yourself, it’s worth verifying that it is
indeed 3D printable. This will save you a lot of time and frustration (and filament).

STL File Alternatives

The STL file format is not the only format used in 3D printing. There are over 30 file formats
for 3D printing. Most important is the OBJ file format, which can store color and texture
profiles. Another option is the Polygon file format (PLY), initially used for storing 3D scanned
objects.

More recently, there have been efforts to launch a new file type by The 3MF Consortium,
The cube’s geometry is perfectly represented with 12 triangles, while the sphere needs to be approximated proposing a new 3D printing file format called 3MF. They claim it will streamline and improve
(Source: Protolabs) the 3D printing process.
Short for 3D Manufacturing Format, this open-source file extension contains further relevant STL Repair Software and Services
information, including duplicates, printer profile settings, supports, layer heights,
modifications, units, color, texture, and even a thumbnail. Remember the section where we discussed the rules that STL files must satisfy? For example,
adjacent triangles must share two vertices and the right-hand rule applied to the vertices should
Despite its benefits, it doesn’t seem to have gained enough traction to topple STL just yet as result in the same orientation as the normal vector. If these conditions are violated in an STL
the 3D printing file type of convenience. Still, it has undoubtedly gained popularity over the file, it’s broken or corrupt.
years, with many 3D printer manufacturers offering it as their default scene file.
There are several programs that can help with repairing a broken STL file. For example,
Advantages & Disadvantages Meshmixer is an excellent free tool for fixing the most common STL file

Since there are many 3D printing file formats, the obvious question is, “Which one should you Guide to 3D Printing Materials: Types, Applications, and Properties
use for your prints?” As it turns out, the answer depends a lot on your use case.
3D printing empowers you to prototype and manufacture parts for a wide range of applications
When Not to Use an STL File quickly and cost-effectively. But choosing the right 3D printing process is just one side of
the coin. Ultimately, it'll be largely up to the materials to enable you to create parts with the
As we saw earlier, the STL file format cannot store additional information such as color, desired mechanical properties, functional characteristics, or looks.
material, facets, or triangles. It only stores information about the vertices and the normal vector.
If you want to use multiple colors or materials for your prints, then the STL file format is not This comprehensive guide to 3D printing materials showcases the most popular plastic and
the right choice. The OBJ or 3MF formats are popular and well-supported formats that can metal 3D printing materials available, compares their properties, applications, and describes a
specify color and material. Therefore, either is the right choice for this task. framework that you can use to choose the right one for your project.

When to Use an STL File There are dozens of plastic materials available for 3D printing, each with its unique qualities
that make it best suited to specific use cases. To simplify the process of finding the material
On the other hand, if you want to print with a single color or material, which is most often the best suited for a given part or product, let’s first look at the main types of plastics and the
case, STL is better than OBJ since it is more straightforward, leading to smaller file sizes and different 3D printing processes.
faster processing.
Types of Plastic Materials
Advantages of the STL File Type
There are the two main types of plastics:
Universal: Another significant advantage of the STL file format is that it is universal and
supported by nearly all 3D printers. This cannot be said for the OBJ format, even though it also • Thermoplastics are the most commonly used type of plastic. The main feature that sets
enjoys reasonable adoption and support. The VRML, AMF, and 3MF formats are not as widely them apart from thermosets is their ability to go through numerous melt and
supported at this point. solidification cycles. Thermoplastics can be heated and formed into the desired shape.
The process is reversible, as no chemical bonding takes place, which makes recycling
Mature ecosystem: Most 3D printable models you can find online are in the STL file format. or melting and reusing thermoplastics feasible. A common analogy for thermoplastics
This ecosystem, combined with STL-based software investments made by 3D printer is butter, which can be melted, re-solidify, and melted again. With each melting cycle,
manufacturers, has given rise to a large user base heavily invested in the format. This means the properties change slightly.
there’s plenty of third-party software dealing with STL files, which is not the case with the
other file formats. • Thermosetting plastics (also referred to as thermosets) remain in a permanent solid
state after curing. Polymers in thermosetting materials cross-link during a curing
Disadvantages of the STL File Type process that is induced by heat, light, or suitable radiation. Thermosetting plastics
There are some glaring disadvantages to using STL as well. decompose when heated rather than melting, and will not reform upon cooling.
Recycling thermosets or returning the material back into its base ingredients is not
Fidelity: As the fidelity of printing processes embraces micron-scale resolution, the number of possible. A thermosetting material is like cake batter, once baked into a cake, it cannot
triangles required to describe smooth curved surfaces can result in massive file sizes. be melted back into batter again.

No metadata: It’s also impossible to include metadata (such as authorship and copyright
information) in an STL file.
FDM 3D Printing Materials SLA 3D Printing Materials
SLA 3D printing is highly versatile, offering resin formulations with a wide range of optical,
The most common FDM 3D printing materials are ABS, PLA, and their various blends. More mechanical, and thermal properties to match those of standard, engineering, and industrial
advanced FDM printers can also print with other specialized materials that offer properties like thermoplastics. Resin 3D printing also offers the broadest spectrum of biocompatible
higher heat resistance, impact resistance, chemical resistance, and rigidity. materials.
Material Features Applications
The specific material availability is highly dependent on the manufacturer and printer.
Tough and durable
ABS
Heat and impact-resistant Functional Materials Features Applications
(acrylonitrile
Requires a heated bed to print prototypes
butadiene styrene) High resolution Concept models
Requires ventilation Standard Resins
Smooth, matte surface finish Looks-like prototypes
The easiest FDM materials to print The only truly clear material for
Rigid, strong, but brittle Concept models plastic 3D printing Parts requiring optical transparency
PLA Clear Resin
Less resistant to heat and chemicals Looks-like Polishes to near optical Millifluidics
(polylactic acid)
Biodegradable prototypes transparency
Odorless One of the fastest materials for 3D
Compatible with lower printing printing Initial Prototypes
Fast Model Resin
PETG temperatures for faster production Waterproof 2-3x faster than standard resins, Rapid Iterations
up to 10x faster than FDM
(polyethylene Humidity and chemical resistant applications
terephthalate glycol) High transparency Snap-fit components Rapid prototyping with matching
Custom colors color, material, and finish (CMF)
Can be food safe Color Resin
Bright, colorful parts Color-coded jigs and fixtures
Strong, durable, and lightweight Custom-colored end-use parts
Functional
Tough and partially flexible Strong, robust, functional, and
Nylon prototypes
Heat and impact resistant dynamic materials
Wear resistant parts Housings and enclosures
Very complex to print on FDM Can handle compression,
Tough and Jigs and fixtures
TPU Flexible and stretchable stretching, bending, and impacts
Durable Resins Connectors
(thermoplastic Impact resistant Flexible prototypes without breaking
Wear-and-tear prototypes
polyurethane) Excellent vibration dampening Various materials with properties
similar to ABS or PE
PVA Soluble support material
Support material Highly filled, strong and stiff Jigs, fixtures, and tooling
(polyvinyl alcohol) Dissolves in water
materials that resist bending Turbines and fan blades
HIPS Soluble support material most Rigid Resins Thermally and chemically Fluid and airflow components
(high impact commonly used with ABS Support material resistant Electrical casings and automotive
polystyrene) Dissolves in chemical limonene Dimensionally stable under load housings
Functional Clean burnout In-house production of industrial
Composites Rigid, strong, or extremely tough
prototypes Clear Cast Resin Low thermal expansion investment casting patterns for end-
(carbon fiber, kevlar, Compatibility limited to some
Jigs, fixtures, and Highly accurate use metal parts
fiberglass) expensive industrial FDM 3D printers
tooling Excellent long-term durability High performance automotive,
UV, temperature, and humidity aerospace, and machinery
Polyurethane stable components
Resins Flame retardancy, sterilizability, Robust and rugged end-use parts
and chemical and abrasion Tough, longer-lasting functional
resistance prototypes
 Materials Features Applications SLS 3D Printing Materials
Hot air, gas, and fluid flow The material selection for SLS is limited compared to FDM and SLA, but the available
High temperature resistance Heat resistant mounts, housings, and materials have excellent mechanical characteristics, with strength resembling injection-molded
High Temp Resin
High precision fixtures parts. The most common material for selective laser sintering is nylon, a popular engineering
Molds and inserts thermoplastic with excellent mechanical properties. Nylon is lightweight, strong, and flexible,
Flexibility of rubber, TPU, or as well as stable against impact, chemicals, heat, UV light, water, and dirt. Other popular SLS
Consumer goods prototyping
silicone 3D printing materials include polypropylene (PP) and the flexible TPU.
Compliant features for robotics
Flexible and Can withstand bending, flexing,
Medical devices and anatomical
Elastic Resins and compression
models Material Description Applications
Holds up to repeated cycles
Special effects props and models Strong, stiff, sturdy, and durable
without tearing
Functional prototypes, validation
Impact-resistant and can endure
Functional prototyping
units, and small batches of silicone repeated wear and tear
The first accessible 100% silicone Nylon 12 End-use parts
parts Resistant to UV, light, heat,
Silicone 40A 3D printing material Medical devices
Customized medical devices moisture, solvents, temperature,
Resin Superior material properties of
Flexible fixtures, masking tools, and and water
cast silicone
soft molds for casting urethane or Similar properties to Nylon 12, but
resin Functional prototyping
with a higher elasticity, elongation
A wide range of biocompatible Dental and medical appliances, Nylon 11 End-use parts
Medical and at break, and impact resistance, but
resins for producing medical and including surgical guides, dentures, Medical devices
dental resins lower stiffness
dental appliances and prosthetics
Nylon materials reinforced with
Materials for investment casting Nylon Functional prototyping
Try-on pieces glass, aluminum, or carbon fiber
and vulcanized rubber molding composites Structural end-use parts
Jewelry resins Masters for reusable molds for added strength and rigidity
Easy to cast, with intricate details
Custom jewelry
and strong shape retention Ductile and durable
Functional prototyping
Tooling & fixturing for electronics Chemically resistant
Polypropylene End-use parts
manufacturing Watertight
ESD-safe material to improve Medical devices
Anti-static prototypes and end-use Weldable
ESD Resin electronics manufacturing
components Flexible, elastic, and rubbery Functional prototyping
workflows
Custom trays for component handling Resilient to deformation Flexible, rubber-like
and storage TPU
High UV stability end-use parts
Interior parts in airplanes, Great shock absorption Medical devices
Flame retardant, heat-resistant, automobiles, and railways
stiff, and creep-resistant material Custom jigs, fixtures, and
Flame Retardant
for indoor and industrial replacement parts for industrial
(FR) Resin Compare Plastic 3D Printing Materials and Processes
environments with high environments
temperatures or ignition sources Protective and internal consumer or
Different 3D printing materials and plastic 3D printing processes have their own strengths and
medical electronics components
weaknesses that define their suitability for different applications. The following table provides
99.99% pure alumina technical Heat and electrical insulators
a high level summary of some key characteristics and considerations.
Alumina 4N ceramic Heavy-duty tools
Resin Exceptional thermal, mechanical, Chemically resistant and wear-
and conductive properties resistant components
 FDM SLA SLS Requirement Description Recommendation
Great value For validation or pre-production uses,
Strong functional parts
Low-cost consumer machines High accuracy printed parts must behave as closely
Pros Design freedom
and materials available Smooth surface finish
No need for support structures
to final production parts as possible
Range of functional materials for functional testing but do not have
Low accuracy strict lifetime requirements. FDM: ABS
Low details Moderate SLA: Engineering Resins
Limited design compatibility Sensitive to long exposure to UV More expensive hardware performance Example: A housing for electronic SLS: Nylon 11, nylon 12,
Cons
High cost industrial machines if light Limited material options components to protect against sudden polypropylene, TPU
accuracy and high performance impact. Performance requirements
materials are needed include ability to absorb impact,
Low-cost rapid prototyping Functional prototyping housing needs to snap together and
Basic proof-of-concept models Patterns, molds, and tooling Functional prototyping hold its shape.
Applications Select end-use parts with high- Dental applications Short-run, bridge, or custom
end industrial machines and Jewelry prototyping and casting manufacturing For end-use parts, final 3D printed
materials Models and props production parts must stand up to
Standard thermoplastics, such Varieties of resin (thermosetting significant wear for a specific time
as ABS, PLA, and their various plastics). Standard, engineering Engineering thermoplastics. period, whether that’s one day, one
blends on consumer level (ABS-like, PP-like, flexible, heat- Nylon 11, nylon 12, glass or week, or several years. FDM: Composites
Materials
machines. High performance resistant), castable, dental, and carbon-filled nylon composites, High SLA: Engineering, Medical,
composites on high cost medical (biocompatible). Pure polypropylene, TPU (elastomer). performance Example: Shoe outsoles. Performance Dental, or Jewelry Resins
industrial machines silicone and ceramic. requirements include strict lifetime SLS: Nylon 12, nylon 11, nylon c
testing with cyclic loading and
Framework for Choosing the Right Plastic 3D Printing Material unloading, color fastness over periods
Here’s our three-step framework to choose the right 3D printing material and plastic 3D printer of years, amongst others like tear
for your application. resistance.

Step 1: Define Performance Requirements

Plastics used for 3D printing have different chemical, optical, mechanical, and thermal Step 2: Translate Performance Requirements to Material Requirements
characteristics that determine how the 3D printed parts will perform. As the intended use Once you’ve identified the performance requirements for your product, the next step is
approaches real-world usage, performance requirements increase accordingly. translating them into material requirements—the properties of a material that will satisfy those
performance needs. You’ll typically find these metrics on a material’s data sheet.
Requirement Description Recommendation
For form and fit prototyping,
conceptual modeling, and research
and development, printed parts only
FDM: PLA
need to meet low technical
SLA: Standard Resins, Clear
Low performance requirements.
Resin (transparent parts), Fast
performance
Model Resin (fast printing), Color
Example: A form prototype of a soup
Resin (custom colors)
ladle for ergonomic testing. No
functional performance requirements
needed besides surface finish.
 Requirement Description Recommendation
Requirement Description Recommendation
and flexible materials, such as
Resistance of a material to breaking
FDM: PLA rubber.
under tension. High tensile strength
SLA: Clear Resin, Rigid Resins, Creep Creep is the tendency of a material FDM: ABS
Tensile strength is important for structural, load
Alumina 4N Resin to deform permanently under the SLA: Polyurethane Resins, Rigid
bearing, mechanical, or statical
SLS: Nylon 12, nylon composites influence of constant stress: tensile, Resins, Alumina 4N Resin
parts.
compressive, shear, or flexural. SLS: Nylon 12, nylon 11, nylon
FDM: PLA (high), ABS (medium)
Resistance of a material to bending Low creep indicates longevity for composites, polypropylene
SLA: Rigid Resins (high), Tough
under load. Good indicator for hard plastics and is crucial for
Flexural and Durable Resins (medium),
either the stiffness (high modulus) structural parts.
modulus Flexible and Elastic Resins (low)
or the flexibility (low modulus) of a Compression Permanent deformation after FDM: TPU
SLS: Nylon composites (high),
material. set material has been compressed. SLA: Flexible Resin, Elastic Resin,
nylon 12 (medium)
Important for soft plastics and Silicone 40A Resin
FDM: ABS (medium), TPU (high)
elastic applications, tells you if a SLS: TPU
SLA: Tough and Durable Resins
Resistance of a material to breaking material will return to its original
(medium), Polyurethane Resins
when stretched. Helps you compare shape after the load is removed.
(medium), Flexible and Elastic
flexible materials based on how
Elongation Resins (high), Silicone 40A Resin
much they can stretch. Also
(high) Step 3: Make a Selection
indicates if a material will deform
SLS: Nylon 12 (medium), nylon 11
first, or break suddenly. Once you translate performance requirements to material requirements, you’ll most likely end
(medium), polypropylene
(medium), TPU (high) up with a single material or a smaller group of materials that could be suitable for your
Ability of a material to absorb application.
FDM: ABS, Nylon
shock and impact energy without If there are multiple materials that fulfil your basic requirements, you can then look at a wider
SLA: Tough 2000 Resin, Tough
breaking. Indicates toughness and range of desired characteristics and consider the pros, cons, and trade-offs of the given
1500 Resin, Grey Pro Resin,
Impact strength durability, helps you figure out how materials and processes to make the final choice.
Durable Resin, Polyurethane Resins
easily a material will break when
SLS: Nylon 12, nylon 11,
dropped on the ground or crashed Metal 3D Printing
polypropylene, nylon composites Beyond plastics, there are multiple 3D printing processes available for metal 3D printing.
into another object.
Temperature at which a sample SLA: High Temp Resin, Rigid • Metal FDM
Heat deflection deforms under a specified load. Resins, Alumina 4N Resin
temperature Indicates if a material is suitable for SLS: Nylon 12, Nylon 11, nylon Metal FDM printers work similarly to traditional FDM printers, but use extrude metal rods
high temperature applications. composites held together by polymer binders. The finished “green” parts are then sintered in a furnace to
Resistance of a material to surface remove the binder.
FDM: TPU
deformation. Helps you identify the • Selective Laser Melting (SLM) and Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS)
Hardness SLA: Flexible Resin, Elastic Resin,
right “softness” for soft plastics,
(durometer) Silicone 40A Resin
like rubber and elastomers for SLM and DMLS metal 3D printers work similarly to SLS printers, but instead of fusing
SLS: TPU
certain applications. polymer powders, they fuse metal powder particles together layer by layer using a laser. SLM
Tear strength Resistance of a material to growth FDM: TPU and DMLS 3D printers can create strong, accurate, and complex metal products, making this
of cuts under tension. Important to SLA: Flexible Resin, Elastic Resin, process ideal for aerospace, automotive, and medical applications.
assess the durability and the Silicone 40A Resin
Popular Metal 3D Printing Materials
resistance to tearing of soft plastics SLS: TPU
 • Titanium is lightweight and has excellent mechanical characteristics. It is strong, hard provide an early means of validation of in silico trial outputs. With these tools, greater
and highly resistant to heat, oxidation, and acid. confidence can be gained in new developments before expensive physical testing or in vivo
studies are deployed.
• Stainless steel has high strength, high ductility, and is resistant to corrosion.
How Does Medical 3D Printing Work?
• Aluminum is a lightweight, durable, strong, and has good thermal properties. To develop a patient-specific 3D print, digitization of a patient’s real anatomical structures
must first take place. This method leverages 3D scanning techniques such as MRI, X-ray CT
• Tool steel is a hard, scratch-resistant material that you can use to print end-use tools or 3D ultrasound to produce a volumetric image of the anatomy. The images must be labelled,
and other high-strength parts.. via a process called segmentation, to isolate structures of interest and develop a 3D computer
model. The techniques used here are highly varied depending on the scanning modality,
• Nickel alloys have high tensile, creep and rupture strength and are heat and corrosion anatomical subject, and image quality. Traditional approaches require significant time and
resistant. expertise but programs with advanced segmentation capability such as Simpleware software
can expedite this process.
Alternatives to Metal 3D Printing
The 3D models, which may be multi-part, are converted to a series of surface meshes and
Compared to plastic 3D printers, metal 3D printing is substantially more costly and complex, prepared for 3D printing through the addition of connectors and surface colour information.
limiting its accessibility to most businesses. The surfaces may also be partitioned to allow disassembly of the resulting print, making it
easier to view pathologies or structures of interest. The surfaces are finally exported to the 3D
Alternatively, SLA 3D printing is well-suited for casting workflows that produce metal parts printer, typically as STL files for interpretation by the printer software, which adds support
at a lower cost, with greater design freedom, and in less time than traditional methods. material and calculates and executes the printer head paths needed to layer material and
reproduce the computer model as a physical object.
Another alternative is electroplating SLA parts, which involves coating a plastic material in a
layer of metal via electrolysis. This combines some of the best qualities of metal—strength, Where and when does medical 3D printing fit in the product portfolio?
electrical conductivity, and resistance to corrosion and abrasion—with the specific properties Medical 3D printing currently fits into the Synopsys product portfolio through Simpleware
of the primary (usually plastic) material. software products that carry FDA 510(k)-clearance and CE marking for point-of-care (POC)
uses. The software enables users to import and process patient-specific images, add landmarks
What is Medical 3D Printing? and other measurements, and combine anatomical image data with CAD-designed models.
Medical 3D printing is increasingly deployed in both clinical and research-based healthcare Files can be exported to compatible and validated 3D printers for manufacturing. These models
activities. It involves the creation of physical replicas of anatomical structures using 3D are cleared for use for diagnostic purposes in the field of orthopedic, cardiovascular, and
printing (also known as additive manufacturing) processes. A digital computer model is maxillofacial processes.
developed to describe the structures to be printed, where patient-specific models for 3D
printing are derived from 3D imaging processes such as MRI and X-Ray CT. Small (even Going Beyond Medical 3D Printing?
single unit) batches can then be manufactured due to the flexibility, speed, and relatively low- As well as providing a straightforward and accurate workflow for exporting models to 3D
cost of the 3D printing process. The models themselves facilitate hospitals and other point-of- printers, Simpleware software is also used to prepare models for further CAD design work,
care (POC) organizations in planning surgeries, and to serve as an aid for teaching or such as for medical device manufacturers carrying out implant analysis and iterative design. In
explanation of complex medical concepts, for example to a patient due to receive surgery. addition, models may be converted into volume meshes for Finite Element Analysis (FE) and
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations of physical forces such as implant loading.
What are the Benefits of Medical 3D Printing? In combination with a variety of automation strategies, this provides an opportunity for in silico
The ability to visualize and explore complex anatomy as a real three-dimensional object affords trials.
medical professionals with a luxury of decision support not previously available. In a clinical
setting, the 3D printed models provide opportunity for increased comprehension of anatomical Putting Medical 3D Printing into Practice
and pathological structures. Models serve as convenient tools to trial the placement of implants 3D LifePrints use Simpleware software as part of services for providing 3D anatomical models
and other medical devices, and to envisage surgical activities. Advancements such as multi- for clinical situations. For example, models have been used for looking at liver tumors and
color and multi-material printing can also help to better simulate the surgical environment for potential radiation treatment methods. The 3D printed models provide an additional option for
pre-surgical planning and intra-operative reference. These models offer a dynamic complement clinicians to better understand patient anatomies prior to treatment.
to on-screen visualizations to build confidence in healthcare decisions.

For medical device manufacturers and research-based healthcare activities, medical 3D

printing can provide an economical tool for progressing iterative design or process
improvements due to its capacity for rapid prototyping. 3D printing also has the potential to
 when in contact with a biological system. Biocompatibility is crucial for implants, dentures,
organ/bone replacement, pacemakers, and other medical products that contact human tissues.
Sterilisability: The extremely high sanitary demands of the medical industry make sterilisation
is critical in most cases. This makes sterilisability a vital property of medical 3D printing
materials.

Bio Usability: For body part replacement such as prosthetics, dentures, implants, and artificial
organs, it is not enough for the materials to be biocompatible. They also need to possess similar
physical properties with the original body part. For example, bone replacement materials have
to be hard and strong, with high compressive strength. Likewise, a material to be used in
printing a human ear would have to be relatively soft.
Note the required characteristics may vary based on the application of the product to be
manufactured.

Suitable Plastics for the Medical Industry

DICOM from MRI scan of a liver imported into Simpleware ScanIP PA 12 (Nylon)
Steps: This is a highly versatile lightweight, corrosion-resistant, and chemical resistant material. It is
1. Patient-specific MRI data were obtained also tough and flexible with high tensile and impacts strengths. Nylon PA12 can be sterilised
2. Scans were imported to Simpleware software for segmentation of the liver using ethylene oxide, chemical, gamma irradiation, gas plasma, and steam autoclave. It is
3. Files were then exported for further processing to mimic different-sized tumors, printed using MJF or SLS 3D printing. As a medical-grade material, Nylon PA12 is ISO
including different chambers for holding radioisotope samples certified and USP Class I – IV and is commonly used in prosthetics.
4. The processed model was 3D printed using a PolyJet machine
5. The 3D printed phantom was scanned (Phillips PET/CT) in the correct anatomical ABS M30i
orientation and used as part of a surgical plan ABS M30i is another widely used thermoplastic in the medical industry. In addition to being
6. Clinicians used the measured dosage and known cavity volume for a patient to biocompatible, it is also sterilisable using gamma irradiation, ethylene oxide, and gas plasma.
estimate the surrounding exposure on the liver ISO certified and USP Class I – IV, this material is often used to produce medical equipment
and detailed anatomical models. It may also be used for prosthetics. ABS M30i is tough and
3D Printing Materials for the Medical Industry has high tensile and impact strengths. It is printed using FDM.
The application of 3D printing in the medical industry has led to colossal innovations,
discoveries, and industry growth. This manufacturing process, once considered novel, is now PC ISO
indispensable and widely used in the medical industry. 3D printing has numerous This material is commonly used to create moulds, prototypes, and custom surgical guides.
characteristics that are immensely crucial and beneficial in the medical industry. Some of these While PC ISO has a lesser quality finish than Nylon PA12, it is strong and heat resistant with
are speed, versatility, the ability to work with various materials, customisation, repeatability, high tensile strength. PC ISO is also biocompatible, albeit short term, and can be sterilised via
and the ability to manufacture highly complex parts. gamma irradiation and ethylene oxide. PC ISO is printed via FDM.

The applications of 3D printing in the medical industry include the manufacture of custom ULTEM 1010
prosthetics and orthodontics, implants, custom anatomical models for surgical preparation, Compared to other FDM thermoplastics, ULTEM 1010 is one of the strongest and most
anatomical study models, medical aids, prototypes, medical tools, and general medical resistant to heat and chemicals. It is also highly biocompatible and can be sterilised using
equipment. gamma irradiation, ethylene oxide, gas plasma, and steam autoclave. ULTEM 1010 is used to
print surgical guides, prototypes, and prosthetics.
Requirements for Materials to Be Used in the Medical Industry
3D printing is a broad manufacturing technology that is compatible with numerous plastics, SIL 30
elastomers, and metals. However, not all 3D printable materials are suitable for use in the Silicone is heat resistant, tear-resistant, and highly flexible biocompatible elastomer. It is
production of medical products. There are certain characteristics that materials must possess to commonly used in the manufacture of wearables with skin contact, such as respiratory masks.
be ideal for the medical industry. Some of the required properties of medical 3D printing It may also be used to print implants. Silicone can be printed using Carbon DLS 3D printing.
materials are as follows:

Biocompatibility: Materials that are used to create products such as implants and internal
medical devices must be biocompatible. This means that they must be completely unreactive
Suitable Metals for the Medical Industry

Titanium Grade 5 (Ti6Al4V) Compared with other 3D printing techniques, bio-printing leads to additional complexities,
Titanium is one of the most ubiquitous metals in the medical industry. The high preference for such as the choice of materials, cell types, growth and differentiation factors, and technical
this material results from its numerous beneficial properties and likeness to the human bone. challenges related to the sensitivities of living cells and the construction of tissues.
Titanium is extremely strong, heat-resistant, hard, corrosion-resistant, non-reactive, sterilisable Disadvantages include unprecise droplet size and placement and long production time.
through various methods, and highly biocompatible.

This material is widely used in the medical industry to manufacture custom orthopaedic
implants such as bone and joint replacements, dental implants, and cranial plates. It is also used
to create medical tools. Titanium is printed using DMLS.

Cobalt Chrome (CoCr28Mo6)

Like titanium, cobalt chrome is widely used in the medical industry to manufacture orthopaedic
implants such as replacement teeth, bones, and heavy-use joints, such as hips, shoulders, and
knees. Cobalt chrome is biocompatible and highly resistant to heat, corrosion, wear, and
chemicals. It also has high strength and hardness and is relatively lightweight. Parts are printed
from this material using direct metal laser sintering.

Stainless Steel (17-4PH)

Stainless steel is a high strength metal that is biocompatible and can be sterilised via various
sterilisation methods. However, its corrosion resistance is short-term, making it less preferable
than titanium and cobalt chrome, especially for implants. This material is great for surgical
tools and temporary implants. Stainless steel is also cheaper to print using DMLS, than titanium
and cobalt chrome.
Material Selection Criteria
Bio-printing There are many 3D printing materials with different properties in the market. To choose the
one that is most suitable to your project, you should define your project purpose and identify
your material requirements.

Two flow charts are shown below to help you select your desirable material.

Selecting a material by application

Schematic of 3D bio-printing. Source: Biopharma PEG

Bio-printing is an extension of traditional 3D printing – it prints with a mixture of living cells

and biomaterials, also known as bio-inks, to create organ-like structures that let living cells
multiply. The starting models can come from anywhere, a CT or MRI scan, a computer-aided
design (CAD) program, or a file downloaded from the internet. Bio-printing is a pretty new
technology, and it has huge potential to benefit various medical and tissue engineering fields.
Selecting a material by functionality The 3D printing process follows a systematic sequence of steps — from concept design to the
final printed product. The major stages are as follows:

1. Design and Modeling

The process begins with creating a 3D model of the desired object using Computer-Aided
Design (CAD) software such as Autodesk Fusion 360, AutoCAD, or SolidWorks. The model
defines the geometry, dimensions, and shape of the part.

2. Conversion to STL
Once the 3D model is completed, it is exported in STL (Stereolithography) format. The STL
file represents the surface geometry of the model using a mesh of triangles. This file format is
universally compatible with most 3D printers and slicing software.

3. Slicing
The STL file is imported into a slicer software such as Ultimaker Cura or Prusa Slicer. The
slicer converts the 3D model into a G-code file, which contains instructions for the 3D printer
(layer height, infill density, print speed, and temperature).

4. 3D Printing and Post-processing

The G-code is transferred to the 3D printer, which fabricates the object layer by layer using
Followings are more detailed material properties you may consider when choosing the materials like PLA, ABS, or resin. After printing, the part undergoes post-processing (e.g.,
right 3D printing materials:
support removal, sanding, curing) to achieve the final finish.

5. Final Print
The end product is the physical realization of the digital model, ready for use, testing, or
further refinement.

Process Sequence of 3D Printing

Source: Formlab, IJSRP, Conserve Energy Future, ScienceDirect, Wiki, ResearchGate, Fabbaloo,
Reading PlasticProcess Sequence of 3D Printing
Process Flow: Medical 3D Model Creation Process Flow: 3D Bioprinting Process
The following process flow illustrates the complete workflow involved in creating a 3D The 3D Bioprinting Process involves a series of steps designed to create functional biological
medical model, starting from image acquisition to final inspection. Each stage ensures the tissues using living cells, bioinks, and 3D printing technology. The following figure and
accuracy, safety, and quality of the medical model used for diagnostic, surgical, or educational description outline each stage of the process — from scanning to final application.
purposes. DICOM - Digital Imaging
and Communications in
Medicine
DICOM - Digital Imaging and
Communications in

Medicine10

Process Flow Description

Process Flow Description 1. 3D Scanning
The process begins with 3D scanning of the target tissue or organ using medical imaging
1. Image Acquisition technologies such as MRI or CT scans. These scans provide high-resolution data used for
Medical images are obtained through CT or MRI scanning and stored in DICOM (Digital model design.
Imaging and Communications in Medicine) format.

2. Segmentation 2. 3D Design
The anatomical region of interest (e.g., heart, bone, or organ) is isolated from the surrounding Using the scanned data, a 3D digital model is created with computer-aided design (CAD)
tissues using specialized segmentation software. software. The model defines the geometry, structure, and internal architecture of the tissue to
be printed.
3. Digital Model Editing
The segmented 3D model is refined, cleaned, and smoothed to prepare it for 3D printing. 3. Bioink Synthesis
Bioinks are prepared by combining living cells with biocompatible materials such as hydrogels.
4. File Preparation These bioinks mimic the natural extracellular matrix and support cell growth and
The digital file is converted into a printable format (e.g., STL or OBJ). Printing parameters differentiation.
such as material, color, and layer thickness are defined.
4. 3D Bioprinting Process
5. 3D Printing The prepared bioinks are loaded into a 3D bioprinter, which deposits them layer by layer
The model is fabricated using 3D printing technology based on the prepared file, using according to the digital model. This step constructs the desired biological structure with
materials suitable for medical applications. precision.

6. Post-Processing (Optional Sterilization) 5. Maturation

Printed models undergo cleaning, surface finishing, and optional sterilization for clinical or After printing, the bioprinted structure is cultured in a bioreactor or incubator under controlled
educational use. conditions. This allows cells to proliferate, differentiate, and form functional tissue.

7. Final Inspection 6. Application

A final quality check ensures the model's dimensional accuracy and overall quality before it Finally, the matured tissue construct is applied in medical research, drug testing, or clinical
is approved for use. transplantation, depending on its purpose and validation results.
Computer Aided Design (CAD) in the Medical Field – Notes
3D Bioprinting is a cutting-edge technology used in tissue engineering to create bio-artificial
1. Integration with Medical Imaging tissues and organ structures using cell-laden biomaterials.
The combination of CAD systems with imaging technologies such as MRI and CT scans
enables the creation of detailed 3D models of patients’ organs and other anatomical structures. It enables the precise fabrication of complex biological structures that mimic natural tissues.

2. Surgical Planning and Risk Reduction Applications include the regeneration and repair of various body systems such as:
Through digital reconstruction, surgeons can visualize the operation site in advance, helping • Tendon
them plan optimal surgical approaches and minimize risks during surgery. • Cardiovascular system
• Skin
3. Enhanced Precision and Diagnosis • Bone and cartilage
CAD provides precise information on the location, size, and characteristics of tumors or • Liver
cancerous lesions, assisting in accurate diagnosis and effective treatment. • Urinary and reproductive systems
• Cornea
4. Transformative Role in Healthcare • Skeletal muscle
The integration of CAD in medicine represents a transformative shift, promoting precision, • Glands
innovation, and collaboration among healthcare professionals. • Dental and respiratory systems
• Neural system
5. Essential Tool for Professionals
CAD has become an indispensable tool for medical professionals and surgeons, supporting
precise diagnostics, personalized treatment planning, surgical simulations, and collaborative This technology plays a vital role in restoring, preserving, and improving the function of
decision-making. damaged or diseased tissues.

6. Future of Patient Care 3D Bioprinting for Skin Regeneration

The collaboration between CAD and medicine will redefine patient care and reshape the future
of healthcare, making it more precise, innovative, and efficient.

3D Printing for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine

Three-dimensional (3D) printing enables the fabrication of tissue-engineered constructs and
devices from a patient’s own medical data, leading to the creation of anatomically matched and
patient-specific constructs. There is a growing interest in applying 3D printing technologies in
the fields of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. The main printing methods include
extrusion-based, vat photopolymerization, droplet-based, and powder-based printing. A variety
of materials have been used for printing, from metal alloys and ceramics to polymers and
elastomers as well as from hydrogels to extracellular matrix proteins. More recently,
bioprinting, a subcategory of 3D printing, has enabled the precise assembly of cell-laden
biomaterials (i.e., bioinks) for the construction of complex 3D functional living tissues or
artificial organs.

Definition
Tissue Engineering (TE) is a relatively new, unique, and multidisciplinary field that combines
principles from various branches of science and engineering.

Purpose and Approach

It aims to offer new hope to patients by integrating fields such as clinical medicine, materials
science, cell biology & genetics, and mechanical engineering.

Applications
The main objective is to design bio-artificial tissues or biological substitutes that can restore, 3D bioprinting technology is used to fabricate bioengineered skin tissues that can promote
regenerate, preserve, or improve damaged tissues or organs. wound healing and tissue regeneration.
Material Composition:
The process utilizes bioinks composed of gelatin, graphene-based materials (RPS + SPS), and
live bacteria for healing enhancement.

460 nm LED light is used for curing the printed hydrogel structure.

The printed material can release antibacterial agents upon exposure to a 660 nm laser to
eliminate harmful bacteria.

Wound Healing Experiment:

The images (b–d) show progressive healing over days 1 to 14 with various formulations (PH-
0, PH-0.1, PH-0.5, PH-1).

The healing efficiency improves with optimized bioink composition, showing faster wound Applications:
closure and tissue repair. 3D bioprinting using composite bioinks is applied in several biomedical areas: Bone tissue
engineering, Osteochondral repair (repairing bone–cartilage interfaces), Vascularization
Skin Regeneration Process: (formation of blood vessels), Soft tissue engineering (e.g., muscles, tendons), Drug delivery
The schematic (e) represents steps in in situ bioprinting, including: systems.

3D scanning of the wound area. Significance:

The integration of polymers, bioactive fillers, and cells enables the creation of biomimetic and
Visual recognition tracking for accurate printing. functional tissues, supporting regeneration, healing, and therapeutic delivery in medical
applications.
Multi-degree-of-freedom (DoF) bioprinting for precise deposition.
Different Bioinks and Printing Strategies for 3D Printed Tissues and Organs
In situ regeneration using prepared bioinks. The development of 3D bioprinting has revolutionized the field of tissue engineering and
regenerative medicine by enabling the precise fabrication of complex biological structures
Results and Observations: using bioinks composed of living cells, polymers, and biomaterials. Various tissues and organs
Regenerated skin showed formation of hair follicles, indicating successful functional tissue have been successfully printed using different bioinks and printing strategies. For instance,
regeneration (f–h). skin tissues are printed using keratinocytes and fibroblasts through extrusion-based and laser-
assisted bioprinting for wound healing and burn restoration. Cardiac tissues utilize alginate-
The study demonstrates improved healing, antibacterial activity, and restoration of native skin gelatin gels and stem cell-based bioinks with inkjet and LIFT bioprinting to create vascularized
characteristics. cardiac patches and heart models. Bone regeneration employs osteoblast cells, PLGA, and
collagen hydrogels fabricated by micro-SLA and FDM printing to repair cranial and femoral
This technique highlights the potential of 3D bioprinting in advanced wound care, enabling defects. Cartilage tissues are created using PCL, HA, and chondrocyte bioinks via extrusion
customized, rapid, and functional skin regeneration. or inkjet methods to treat joint injuries and arthritis. Similarly, liver, kidney, and lung models
use stem cells and hydrogels for drug testing, metabolism studies, and toxicology screening. In
Composite Bioink and 3D Bioprinting the neural domain, collagen and fibrin-based hydrogels with neural and Schwann cells are
printed using inkjet and extrusion methods to repair nerve injuries and study neurological
A composite bioink is a mixture of: Polymers: Provide structural support and flexibility. diseases. Overall, 3D bioprinting offers immense potential for tissue regeneration, organ
transplantation, and personalized medicine by integrating biological materials with advanced
Bioactive inorganic fillers: Enhance mechanical strength and biological activity. fabrication technologies.

Cells: Promote tissue regeneration and biological functionality. Medical Implant Engineering
Medical implants engineering is a branch of biomedical engineering, involves the design,
3D Bioprinting Process: development, and manufacturing of devices implanted in the body to restore or improve bodily
The composite bioink is extruded layer by layer using a 3D bioprinter to form complex, living functions. This field combines principles of mechanical, materials, and biological engineering
tissue structures. This process allows precise control over geometry, material composition, and to create a wide range of products, including orthopedic joints, pacemakers, and artificial
cellular distribution.
organs, often using advanced materials like titanium alloys and specialized coatings to ensure This process describes the workflow for designing and manufacturing customized medical
biocompatibility and durability. implants using 3D printing technology in collaboration between the surgeon and Ortho Baltic.
This integrated digital workflow combines medical imaging, CAD design, simulation, additive
Key aspects of medical implants engineering manufacturing, and clinical validation, resulting in patient-specific implants with enhanced
Design and simulation: Engineers design implants that are both functional and safe for the precision, performance, and patient recovery.
human body, which includes simulating how the implant will perform during daily activities
and ensuring it can withstand the stresses it will be subjected to over time. 1. Patient’s CT/MRI Scanning
Materials science: A critical component is selecting and developing biocompatible materials The process begins with obtaining CT or MRI scans of the patient’s anatomy. These medical
that will not be rejected by the body and can safely integrate with it. Examples include using images provide accurate data about the patient’s bone structure and defect area.
titanium alloys for bone replacement or ceramic coatings like calcium phosphate to enhance
bone-implant integration. 2. 3D Reconstruction
The scanned data is processed using medical imaging software to create a 3D digital
Personalized implants: With advances in 3D printing and scanning technology, engineers can reconstruction of the anatomical structure. This helps visualize the defect and design the exact
create custom-fit implants based on a patient's unique anatomy, leading to better outcomes and shape and fit of the implant.
a more precise surgical fit.
3. Virtual Designing and FEA Testing
Biocompatibility and infection control: Engineers work to ensure implants are not harmful The reconstructed model is used to design the implant virtually using CAD software. Finite
to the body and can prevent infection. This includes developing antimicrobial coatings, such Element Analysis (FEA) is performed to test the implant’s mechanical strength, load
as using silver nanoparticles, to stop bacteria from colonizing the implant surface. distribution, and performance before production.

Functionality: Beyond basic replacement, modern implants incorporate advanced features. 4. Surgeon’s Approval
For example, implantable antennas are used for real-time monitoring of vital signs and enabling The virtual implant design and simulation results are reviewed by the surgeon. The surgeon
telemedicine, as seen in smart pacemakers and insulin pumps. provides feedback and approval before proceeding to fabrication, ensuring medical accuracy
and suitability.
Regulatory compliance: The development process must adhere to strict regulations to ensure
patient safety and product quality, a process that requires a deep understanding of both 5. 3D Printing
engineering and medical requirements. Once approved, the final design is sent for 3D printing using biocompatible materials (such as
titanium alloys). Additive manufacturing ensures high precision and customization.
Examples of medical implants
Orthopedic implants: Devices for joint replacement (like hips and knees) and spinal 6. Quality Control
reconstruction, which need to provide mechanical stability to the skeleton. The printed implant undergoes dimensional inspection and mechanical testing to verify
accuracy, material quality, and surface finish. Only implants that meet regulatory and clinical
Cardiovascular implants: Devices like pacemakers to regulate heart rhythm and stents to standards proceed further.
keep blood vessels open.
7. Packaging, Sterilization, and Delivery
Neurological implants: Devices that stimulate nerves, such as those used for deep brain Approved implants are sterilized, packaged, and delivered to the hospital or surgical team in
stimulation or cochlear implants to restore hearing. sterile conditions, ready for implantation.

Artificial organs: Devices that replace the function of internal organs, with ongoing research 8. Surgery
in 3D bioprinting artificial organs. The surgeon implants the customized prosthesis in the patient during surgery, ensuring perfect
fit and improved clinical outcomes.
Process Flow of Patient-Specific Implant Manufacturing
Case Study -1 Design Iterations of Patient-Specific Implants
Process Chain for Manufacturing Patient-Specific Implants The design and optimization of patient-specific implants involve multiple iterations to achieve
anatomical accuracy, stability, and proper fixation. Each design iteration refines the geometry
and positioning of the implant based on the patient’s 3D reconstructed anatomy.

The process of manufacturing patient-specific implants begins with the acquisition and
processing of medical imaging data to create accurate 3D models of the affected anatomy. This
process involves several key steps:

1. Data Acquisition
Medical images are obtained using CT (Computed Tomography) or MRI (Magnetic Resonance
Imaging) scans. The images are stored in the DICOM (Digital Imaging and Communications
in Medicine) format, which preserves detailed anatomical information.

2. Image Segmentation
As shown in Figure 1(a), segmentation is performed on the DICOM data to distinguish different
tissues or anatomical regions (e.g., bone, soft tissue). Specialized software isolates the specific
area of interest, such as a damaged bone or defect site, to ensure accurate reconstruction. This
step is critical for defining the boundaries of the implant region.

3. 3D Reconstruction
After segmentation, a 3D image or model of the anatomical structure is generated, as seen in
1. Implant Iteration 1
Figure 1(b). The 3D reconstruction provides a clear visualization of the patient’s anatomy,
Bottom View (Figure 2a):
allowing precise design of a custom-fit implant. The reconstructed model is used for CAD-
The first design iteration shows the initial implant model fitted to the patient’s craniofacial
based implant design, simulation, and subsequent additive manufacturing (3D printing).
structure. Green and brown shaded regions represent separate implant components designed to
match the bone contour. Screw positions are identified for fixation to ensure proper alignment
4. Significance
and stability. This iteration focuses on covering the defect area and ensuring the implant’s
This digital workflow enables highly accurate and personalized implants, improving surgical
contact with the surrounding bone.
outcomes. It reduces the risk of implant mismatch and shortens operation time by providing a
ready-to-fit solution.
Front View (Figure 2b):
This view provides a better visualization of the implant’s placement relative to the facial
Figure 1 Description:
skeleton. The implant interfaces are aligned with the bone surfaces for optimal load transfer.
(a) Segmentation of DICOM data showing multiple CT slice views.
Adjustments are made for symmetry, screw anchoring, and anatomical fitting.
(b) 3D anatomical model generated after segmentation.
2. Implant Iteration 2 (Figure 2c)
The second iteration shows an improved and consolidated implant design with enhanced 4. 3. Significance of FEA
geometry and fixation features. The structure appears more integrated with the bone, • FEA helps in verifying the mechanical safety and functional performance of the
suggesting optimization for biomechanical strength and surgical feasibility. Multiple screw implant before physical fabrication.
extensions are visible, indicating improved anchoring and mechanical stability. The design is • It allows designers to optimize material selection, geometry, and fixation points to
refined to reduce the number of components, simplify surgical placement, and enhance minimize stress concentrations.
aesthetic restoration. • This analysis reduces the risk of implant failure and ensures long-term stability after
surgical implantation.
3. Significance
Iterative design ensures that the final implant precisely conforms to the patient’s anatomy. The 5. Fabrication and Validation of Patient-Specific Implant
approach reduces surgical adjustments and postoperative complications. Advanced CAD The final stage in the process chain of patient-specific implant manufacturing involves the
modeling and simulation techniques aid in evaluating implant performance before fabrication. fabrication, post-processing, and validation of the designed implant. These steps ensure that
the implant meets the required anatomical fit, surface quality, and mechanical strength before
4. Finite Element Analysis (FEA) of Patient-Specific Implant surgical application.
To evaluate the mechanical performance and reliability of the designed patient-specific
implant, finite element analysis (FEA) is performed. The simulation helps in understanding
how the implant behaves under physiological loading conditions and ensures that it can
withstand the applied stresses without failure.

5. 1. Adaptability Testing
4.1. Stress Distribution Analysis Figure 5(a) shows the adaptability check of the fabricated implant on a 3D-printed anatomical
• Figure 4(a) shows the von Mises stress distribution across the implant structure. model. This step is performed to verify the dimensional accuracy and geometric conformity of
• The stress values are represented using a color gradient, ranging from low (blue) to high the implant with the patient’s anatomy. The implant is positioned on the replica of the patient’s
(red). bone structure to ensure proper alignment, surface contact, and screw placement. Any
• The maximum stress observed is around 156.8 MPa, while the minimum stress is deviations detected during this stage can be corrected before the final machining process.
approximately 0.0058 MPa.
• Higher stress regions are concentrated near the screw fixation areas, where mechanical 5. 2. Machining and Polishing
loads are transmitted to the bone. Figure 5(b) illustrates the finished implant after machining and polishing. Machining is
• The uniform distribution in most regions indicates good structural integrity and performed to refine the edges, screw holes, and contact surfaces for precise surgical placement.
optimized geometry of the implant. Polishing enhances the surface smoothness, which minimizes tissue irritation and promotes
4.2. Displacement Analysis better osseointegration (bone-implant bonding). The final implant exhibits a metallic luster and
• Figure 4(b) illustrates the displacement magnitude in the implant under applied loads. smooth texture, ensuring both mechanical integrity and biocompatibility.
• The displacement values range from 0 to 0.496 mm, with the highest deformations
observed near the screw base region (red zones). 5. 3. Significance
• Minimal displacement across the main body of the implant suggests adequate stiffness Adaptability and finishing processes are crucial for ensuring surgical accuracy and patient
and stable fixation. comfort. The prototype validation using 3D-printed anatomical models reduces errors during
• These results confirm that the implant maintains its shape and position under surgery. Post-processing steps like polishing improve the longevity and functionality of the
operational conditions. implant.
Porous designs for patient-specific maxillofacial implants using regular mesh, diamond,
and tetrahedral structures.

Additive manufacturing (3D printing) allows for the fabrication of complex lattice geometries
that mimic natural bone architecture. Examples of porous designs for patient-specific
maxillofacial implants using regular mesh, diamond, and tetrahedral structures. Optimized
porous structures improve implant functionality, biological response, and long-term success in
reconstructive surgeries.

1. Porous Implant Design

The figure illustrates various porous implant structures designed for bone reconstruction. The
porosity allows for bone ingrowth, vascularization, and better osseointegration, leading to
improved implant stability and long-term performance. Porous designs also help in reducing
the implant’s overall weight while maintaining mechanical strength.

2. Types of Lattice Structures

The porous architecture can be engineered using different 3D geometrical structures:

(a) Regular Mesh Structure:

A uniform 3D lattice network that provides balanced mechanical properties and facilitates bone
cell migration.

(b) Diamond Structure:

Offers high stiffness-to-weight ratio, enhancing load-bearing capacity and fatigue resistance.

(c) Spherical and Graded Lattices:

Used for regions requiring smooth stress transition and better adaptability to curved anatomical
surfaces.

(d) Tetrahedral Structure:

Provides excellent structural stability and distributes stress evenly under load conditions.

3. Significance in Maxillofacial Applications

These lattice-based implants are especially beneficial in maxillofacial reconstruction, cranial
defect repair, and orthopedic surgeries. The customizable pore size and structure enable
enhanced biological integration and mechanical compatibility with the host tissue.