COMPREHENSIVE OVERVIEW

OF MULTIROTORS
 Drone Building Methodology
[Link]:
[Link]
[Link] Requirement
[Link] Requirement
[Link] Requirement
[Link] Sourcing and procurement:
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
E. Flight controller
PLANNING
A. Applications:

A Drone’s Capabilities
functionalities depend on its
application
B. Payload Requirement:
Photography camera and
Surveying equipments Military payload
sensors:
C. Weight and Thrust Estimation:
●Once the theoretical gross weight is estimated then thrust estimation can be done .
●Ideally for a drone to manoeuvre stably it should have a thrust to weight ratio of 2:1
D. Endurance Estimation :
●Endurance of a drone depends on the weight thrust and battery capacity.
DRONE COMPONENTS
Drone Frames
How to select a frame?
Based on the following:

1. Frame Material
2. Frame Shape
3. Frame Features
4. Frame Budget
5. Application
 What are the types of Frame Material?
1. Carbon Fiber
2. Kevlar Composite
3. Polyethylene
4. Glass Fiber Composite
5. Aluminum Composite
6. Wooden Composite (Aeroply Balsa, Birch)
 How to choose?
1. Choosing the best materials for your drone's frame is not an easy task. It depends on your
personal preferences, budget, intended use, and experience level.

1. Still, when considering the weight and size of your drone, remember that lighter materials can
improve flight time, stability, and maneuverability, but they can also reduce durability and
resilience. Additionally, think about the strength and stiffness of the materials in terms of
vibration, noise, and efficiency.

1. Stiffer materials can improve these aspects but also increase the risk of damage and
interference. Lastly, consider the durability and reliability of your materials to reduce
maintenance and repair costs; however, it may also compromise performance and aesthetics.
By following these principles and tips, you can select the best materials for your drone's frame
and propellers to enjoy a well-designed and well-built drone.
 Characteristics of materials
1. Carbon fiber is light and strong but brittle and expensive.

Carbon Fibre Kevlar Composite

Drone Frame Drone Frame
2. Aluminum is a good balance between weight and strength but can bend or dent easily.

Aluminium Composite Drone Frame

3. Plastic is durable but can deform under heat or stress.

Glass Fibre +
Polyethylene Drone Frame
ABS Plastic Drone Frame
4. Wood is an affordable and easy to work with material but can warp or crack.

Wooden Drone Frame

 What are the different types of Frame?
1. Bicopter
2. Tricopter
3. Quadcopter
4. Hexacopter
5. Octocopter
 What is a Bicopters?
Bicopters typically have two fixed-pitch propellers, one clockwise (CW) and the other
counterclockwise (CCW). Control is achieved by varying the speed of each rotor
independently and it is possible to generate a desired total thrust.

CW- Clockwise
CCW- Counter Clockwise
Place the center of thrust both laterally and longitudinally, and create a desired total torque,
or turning force, by altering the speed of each [Link] propellers on a bi-copter rotate in
the opposite direction. These propeller pairs will create lifting thrust without rotating in the
same direction. Each rotor generates power and torque along its axis of rotation, as well as
a drag force in the opposite direction of the vehicle's flight path. The net aerodynamic
torque, and the angular acceleration along the yaw axis, are exactly zero if all rotors spin at
the same angular velocity.
 What is a Tricopters?
Tricopters typically have three fixed-pitch propellers. These can fly in more directions than bicopters and
can also carry a substantial load. Tricopters have three motors in a Y or T configuration, with the motors
sitting in the distal part of the limbs. If you get your hands on a tricopter, you'll notice that it has a lot more
stability than a bicopter because of the extra blade.
In comparison to a quadcopter, a tricopter has more yaw authority which means that when a
quadcopter or hexacopter yaws, half of the motors slow down while the other half speeds up. If
the copter is flying at maximum speed (all motors on), it will have to slow down to achieve yaw. On
the other hand, a tricopter employs a servo to achieve yaw, therefore it loses less thrust in the
same situation.
What is a Quadcopter?
The quadcopter is indeed the most popular multi-copter. Everyone loves quadcopter, whether it's a DIY maker or a
professional drone manufacturer because it's been demonstrated that four is the optimal number for balancing price,
performance, stability, and flying time. A quadcopter is a multi-rotor drone with 4 motors attached. This Drone
stabilizes its flight using an electronic sensor and control system. There are three types of quadcopters - Plus shape
quadcopter, Cross shape quadcopter, and H shape quadcopter.
All the shapes are stable in forward flight, but quadcopter requires a yaw control input in forward flight. Yaw control
authority is identical for all configurations but the pitch and roll control authority is about 30% greater in the case of
cross configuration. H-frame drones were the first and the most popular drones. They can handle a lot of FPV gear
while running on a LiPo battery. They feature a wider base, which ensures that they roll steadily. H-frame drone
batteries tend to survive longer since their location prevents them from being readily damaged. It's also the best
drone frame for racing because it has lots of room for easy construction and changes.
 What is a Hexacopter?
The hexacopter has six propellers that are placed in a circle around the hexacopter's main body. The machine's
bottom has a pair of leg-like appendages that allow it to land safely on the ground. Because of its six propellers, the
quadcopter is a more powerful flyer than the quadcopter and can carry bigger loads. The hexacopter has a
substantial advantage that even if one of the propellers fails, the craft can still fly because of the other five
propellers. This implies that if one of the propellers fails, the drone will not crash to the ground, causing damage to
the equipment attached to it. The contraption will not be able to fly if two propellers fail, but it will stay stable
enough to land safely.
A hexacopter can go quicker and reach higher altitudes than a quadcopter. Because hexacopters
are more expensive, these are typically employed to transport more valuable cargo that cannot be
destroyed in the event of a crash. They are also larger and more complex to assemble and store
than quadcopters.
 What is a Octocopter?
This is the drone with eight propellers and is significantly more powerful than either a quadcopter or a hexacopter.
In comparison to previous drones, these can fly higher, move faster, and carry heavier payloads. The octocopter is
also extremely steady in the air, allowing it to capture footage with high-quality graphics and minimal shaking.
These are considered the cream of the crop when it comes to drones because of their high performance value.
They're utilized for highly specialized tasks that may require them to travel through rain or heavy gusts.
The machine's robustness allows it to withstand severe weather without being thrown
off course. Even if two or three propellers are destroyed, the drone will continue to fly.
 What are the different features in a frame?
1. Foldable arms, for instance, allow for easy storage and transport.

1. Landing gear provides a stable base for taking off and landing, as well as protecting the
camera and other components from damage.

1. A camera mount allows you to attach a camera or gimbal to the frame for capturing aerial
footage.

1. Vibration dampeners reduce the vibration and noise of the motors and props, improving flight
performance and video quality.

1. Additionally, LED lights enhance the visibility and safety of your drone in low-light conditions.
 How much would a frame cost?
Factors listing out the estimation of the cost:

1. The price of a drone frame can vary widely depending on the material, shape, size, and
features of the frame.

1. You can expect to pay more for a carbon fiber, hexacopter, or octocopter frame than for
a plastic, quadcopter, or foldable frame. However, you also need to factor in the cost of
the other components that you need to complete your drone, such as the motors, props,
ESCs, flight controller, battery, and receiver.

1. A good rule of thumb is to allocate about 20% to 30% of your total budget for the frame.
 Materials Selection
• Several types may be used in the construction of a UAV, including various classes of aluminium
alloys, steels, titanium alloys and composites.

• Factors which influence the selection include strength, stiffness, density, cost, thermal
conductivity, toughness, radar absorption, tolerance of high temperatures, corrosion resistance,
etc.

• Individual components will also have differing selection criteria.

 Aluminium Alloys
• Most commonly used material for manned a/c & GW.

• Advantages:

– Good specific strength & stiffness.

– Readily and easily formed into shape.

– Moderate cost, excellent availability.

– Good resistance to chemical corrosion.

• Disadvantages:

– Properties degrade at high temperatures.

 Steels
Used especially where high strength & fatigue resistance is required.

Much better than Al alloys for high temperature applications.

Stainless steels used where corrosion resistance is important.

Other advantages:

Very cheap & easy to fabricate.

Many heat treatment & tempering processes available for altering material properties.

Disadvantages:

Lower specific strength & stiffness than Al alloys.

 Titanium Alloys
• Advantages:

– Better specific strength & stiffness than Al alloys.

– Capable of sustaining temperatures as high as steel.

– Excellent corrosion resistance.

• Disadvantages

– Very expensive (typically 5 to 10 x cost of Al alloys).

– Very difficult to form (need high temperatures & forming stresses).

– Affected by impurities introduced during forming (hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen).

– Lack of availability.
 Composites
• These consist of any reinforcing material suspended in a matrix.
• Usually moulded or cured, either at room temperature or at an elevated temperature /
pressure for improved strength & quality.
Two basic types:
(a) “Chopped fibre” or “whisker” reinforced

(b) “Filament” or “fibre” reinforced

 Composites (cont.)
• Most advanced aerospace composites are type (b) – fibre-reinforced – due to outstanding
strength/weight ratio.

• Another big advantage is that their structural properties may be tailored to match the expected
loads acting in different directions.

• Most common type is graphite epoxy or carbon fibre composite (CFC) – can reduce component
weight by around 25% compared with Al alloys but up to 10 x cost.

• Problems include: degradation at high temperatures, susceptibility to moisture & UV exposure,

property variability and difficulty to repair.
 WHAT IS A POWER DISTRIBUTION
BOARD(PDB)??
★ PDBs distribute power from the battery to the drone’s Electronic Speed Controller (ESC).
With advancements in technology, PDBs now also distribute power to other peripherals
such as FPV Video Transmitters, FPV Cameras, and the Quadcopter Flight Controller.

★ A PDB has positive pads/terminals which are all connected and negative terminals/pads
which are all connected. This way when you solder all of the red wires from your ESC’s
and battery to the positive pads on the PDB, and the black wires to all the negative pads,
they will all become connected so your battery can provide power to all of your ESC’s
 Why do we need PDB…..????
●Power distribution boards (PDBs) play a crucial role in the operation of unmanned aerial
vehicles (UAVs)
[Link] Power Management:
➢ UAVs require power for various components, including flight controllers, motors,
cameras, sensors, and communication systems.
➢ A PDB acts as a centralized hub for distributing power to these components efficiently.
[Link] and Organization:
➢ Instead of having separate power wires for each component, a PDB consolidates
connections.
➢ It simplifies wiring, reduces clutter, and ensures a neat layout within the UAV frame.
3. Voltage Regulation and Filtering:
➢ PDBs often include voltage regulators (such as BECs) to provide stable and regulated
voltages to different systems.
➢ They filter out noise and voltage spikes, preventing damage to sensitive electronics.
4. Redundancy and Reliability:
➢ Some PDBs offer redundant power inputs (e.g., from multiple batteries or power
sources).
➢ Redundancy enhances reliability, ensuring continued operation even if one power
source fails.
5. Current Monitoring and Protection:
➢ PDBs monitor current flow to prevent overloading.
➢ They may include fuses or circuit breakers to protect against excessive current.
6. Distribution to ESCs and Motors:
➢ PDBs distribute power to individual electronic speed controllers (ESCs) that control the
motors.
➢ Proper distribution ensures balanced thrust across all motors during flight.
7. Integration with Flight Controllers:
➢ PDBs often integrate with flight controllers (such as Pixhawk or ArduPilot).
➢ They provide power to the flight controller and allow communication between
components.
8. Customization and Expansion:
➢ Some PDBs have additional features like LED lighting, voltage monitoring, or telemetry
ports.
➢ Users can choose PDBs based on their specific UAV requirements
 Stand alone or integrated PDB

★ Some multirotor frames has a power

distribution board integrated into the
frame, allowing you to solder the battery
and ESC connectors directly onto the
main frame of your drone which is very
convenient.
★ Integrated PDB boards can only be used
with fibreglass plates, as carbon fiber
conducts electricity, making it impossible
to have a carbon fiber PDB. For this
reason all carbon fiber quadcopters have
a separate power distribution board
which you mount onto your multirotor
frame.
 POWER DISTRIBUTION BOARD
NOMENCLATURE
PDB’s come in the usual 20x20mm and 30.5×30.5mm sizes. But the 30.5×30.5
is more popular and the current draws in the smaller quads are very little and
hence can mostly getaway by using an FC integrated PDB. The larger quads
draw more than 100A at maximum throttle which means that a lot of heat is
generated. Hence to handle these high currents and heat, high-end PDB’s make
use of higher copper content in their boards.
★ This picture of a typical PDB shows it all.
★ Any PDB has tabs to solder the battery. The
PDB also has 4 sets (PDB supporting 4
ESC’s) or 6 sets (PDB supporting 6 ESC) of 2
pads each to solder the ESC on.
★ The Power Distribution Board has tabs
marked as S1, S2, S3 and S4 indicating the
signal tabs for motor 1, 2, 3 and 4
respectively. This is how the Flight controller
talks with the ESC and controls how the
motors spin.
★ Some PDB’s might have a current sensor
and typically contain 2 types of voltage
regulators to power the FPV camera and
VTx.
 VOLTAGE REGULATORS
PDB’s have come a long way from
just bare bone PCB’s (Printed
Circuit Board) that distributed
currently to so much more, that
one of the nicest advancement is
the integration of voltage
regulators. The lower filtration
and build quality of the voltage
regulators present on an FC,
might in part be due to the more
advanced features being added
to the Flight controllers.
★ The FC’s are not growing in size and cramming lots of features becomes a
problem, that the manufacturers started to cut corners. The FC’s nowadays are
well optimized and usually have voltage regulators built in to provide power for
other peripherals.
★ The voltage regulators present on an FC are what’s known as a linear voltage
regulator (It works by taking the difference between the input voltage and the
output voltage and burning the excess as heat) which are very inefficient and are
cheaper.
★ The PDB’s have well Switching voltage regulators (Switches on and off
several thousands of times a second to charge an inductor) are most efficient
and do emit excessive heat, meaning to say the voltage regulators are well
made when compared to the Voltage Regulators present on an FC.
 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT CAPABILITY

PDB’s come in all shapes and

sizes, all the way for smaller 3”
quads to larger 10” X-Class
quads. As the size of the quad
increases, so does the voltage
and current requirements.
★ The smallest available 20×20 PDB from Lumenier has a maximum current capacity of
100A and with voltage support from 3-5s. A medium-sized PDB from Matek can handle
a maximum current of 184A and upto a voltage of 6s. 8” and larger sized quads,
require voltages greater than 6s and some of the available options on the market are
one from Matek X Class and this one from RacedayQuads.

★ Both the PDB support voltages up to 12s with the maximum current of the RDQ at
500A and the Matek with a 280A continuous and 440A burst current rating it all boils
down to the size of the quad.

★ If the quad is a 3” or 4” then a small 20×20 PDB will suffice. Quads from 5 to 7” will
work fine with a medium power PDB and anything larger than 7” will require an X class
PDB.
 ADDITIONAL FEATURES

The PDB’s are not the same as they were a decade ago. PDB have
evolved into something more than just distributing power. Manufacturers
saw the wasted space available on a PDB board and with innovation or
dare, I say sales figures in mind, tried to make multipurpose PDB. Matek
was the first company to design multipurpose PDB’s.
 PDB with VTx

★ One of the simplest PDB combos

would be the PDB and VTx combo.
Matek launched the FCHUB-VTX with
its first PDB coming with a VTX. This
was a first of its and was/is hugely
popular when it launched.
★ It took the drone community by storm with the FCHUB-VTX being the first of
its kind. It saves an extra stack in the already crammed frames and these
boards perform of the task of two individual components.
★ The VTx present on the FCHUB-VTX PDB is no slouch as it is one of the best
performing VTx on the market. It is a 40 channel, a switchable video power supply of
25, 200 and 500mW. It also has a 184A current sensor in case the FC is missing it. If
you are planning to use a Matek F405 FC or similar, then the PDB and the FC can be
connected with a 30 pin ribbon cable, getting rid of the messy cables running between
the FC and PDB’s.
 Power Distribution Board with FC
The FC integrated PDB combo is one
of the most innovative and
advancement in the drone industry.
The FC PDB combo has so much
going in such a small package that it
truly is a marvel. The Matek F405
CTR was one of the first companies
to introduce the PDB integrated FC.
Are you wondering if the manufacturers had to make some
cuts to combine 2 different boards into one…?

The answer is NO!! that is what makes this component so unique. The
Flight Controller has all the features and components that a regular FC
would have, all the way from barometers to measure the atmospheric
pressure to flash storages to store flight data. The PDB also makes no
compromises with most FC PDB combos, with current carrying capacity
over 30A
 Current Sensors
★ Some FC’s come with a current sensor, some
don’t. Current sensors have become so
important in today’s drone building.
★ Current sensors well help to measure the
amount of current the quad draws. 22xx motors
draw more than 30A per motor and
manufacturers sometimes don’t provide the
most accurate of current draws for their motors.
★ Hence, for this reason, current sensing becomes
essential to monitor the current draws of
motors, to ensure that the PDB is not stressed
and not stressing the batteries.
4 in 1 ESC
★ 4 in 1 ESC’s as the name suggests, is a board that has 4 ESC’s. 4 in 1 ESC’s are
compact, lightweight and greatly reduce the wiring mess. Since individual are not
used here, the need to use PDB are avoided.
★ 4 in 1 ESC’s tend to be cheaper, with the HolyBro Tekko 65A metal 4 in 1 ESC
costing $90 while the same individual HolyBro Tekko 65A metal ESC costing $31
(bringing the total cost of 4 ESC’s to $124). Both are similar spec’d ESCs with the
same voltage and current support, the individual ESC costing 25% more for 4
ESCs.
★ Not only cost, but the 4 in ESC’s are also becoming much more reliable. The
downside to using a 4 in 1 ESC is that if one ESC dies, the whole board is useless
even though all the other three ESC’s are working fine.
 How to choose a Power Distribution Board…??
There are three main factors to consider when it comes to choosing a PDB for your
drone. Even though some multirotor frame kits include a PDB, or have one integrated
inside one of the frame plates it is still a good idea to check the specs to ensure it will
work with your motors/ESC.

Number of connectors
A fairly obvious thing to consider is to make sure the PDB has sufficient connectors
for all of your ESC’s so you can easily solder everything to your board.
Voltage Regulator
As mentioned before having a voltage regulator onboard the PDB provides a convenient
way to power auxiliary equipment on your multirotor drone such as external LED’s or FPV
equipment.

Current Rating
The main safety aspect in terms of choosing a PDB for your drone is to make sure the PDB
can handle the amount of current that is required to pass through it. The way to work this
out is fairly easy, you simply need to check the ratings of your ESC’s on your multicopter to
find the maximum total current draw. So if we are building a quadcopter that uses 4x 20A
ESC’s we ideally need to have a PDB that can handle (4x20A) 80A. However in reality we
will not be flying a quadcopter at max throttle so you could get away with a 60A PDB, but in
my opinion it is always best to spend a bit more and use a over rated PDB as its worth the
extra safety factor.
FLIGHT CONTROLLER
 What is flight controller???
A flight controller (FC) serves as the brain of an FPV drone. It’s a circuit board
equipped with sensors that detect the drone’s movements and user commands.
With this information, the FC adjusts the speed of the motors to move the drone
in the desired direction. Essentially, it stabilizes the aircraft, ensures precise
flight maneuvers, and provides critical data to the pilot. Whether you’re a
beginner or an experienced pilot, understanding the basics of flight controllers
is crucial for getting the most out of your flying experience
 Role and functionalities of FC:

1. Central Brain:
○ The FC acts as the central brain of the UAV.
○ It processes data from various sensors and user inputs to control the drone’s
behavior.
2. Sensors Integration:
○ The FC integrates data from sensors such as gyroscopes, accelerometers,
magnetometers, and barometers.
○ These sensors provide information about the UAV’s orientation, acceleration,
altitude, and position.
3. Stabilization and Control:

○ The FC stabilizes the UAV by adjusting motor speeds.

○ It maintains the desired orientation (roll, pitch, yaw) and altitude.
○ PID (Proportional-Integral-Derivative) controllers are commonly used for stabilization.
4. Flight Modes:

○ The FC supports various flight modes (e.g., manual, stabilize, altitude hold, loiter, auto).
○ Users can switch between modes based on their requirements.
5. Communication with Other Components:

○ The FC communicates with other components like GPS modules, telemetry radios, and
receivers.
○ It relays commands and receives status updates.
6. Autonomous Navigation:

○ For autonomous flight, the FC executes pre-defined waypoints and missions.

○ It calculates optimal paths and controls the UAV accordingly.
7. Safety Features:

○ The FC includes safety features like failsafes.

○ If communication is lost or battery voltage drops, the FC triggers predefined actions
(e.g., return to home).
8. Customization and Open Source:

○ Many FCs are open-source (e.g., ArduPilot, Betaflight, Cleanflight).

○ Users can customize parameters, add features, and contribute to the community.
 What is an IMU?
An IMU stands for Inertial Measurement Unit.

○ It combines multiple sensors to

measure and report specific physical
quantities related to motion and
orientation.
○ IMUs are commonly used in
navigation, robotics, drones, and other
applications.
 Components of an IMU
An IMU typically includes the following sensors:

1. Accelerometer (ACC):
○ Measures linear acceleration (changes in velocity).
○ Detects forces acting on the sensor along different axes (usually X, Y, and Z).
○ Used to determine tilt, acceleration, and gravity-related effects.
○ Applications:
■ Drones: Stabilization, altitude control, and collision avoidance.
2. Gyroscope (Gyro):
○ Measures angular velocity (rotational motion).
○ Detects changes in orientation (rotation) around different axes.
○ Used for tracking yaw, pitch, and roll.
○ Applications:
■ Drones: Precise control during flight maneuvers.
■ Robotics: Robot arm positioning, balancing.
1. Magnetometer (Optional):
■ Measures the strength and direction of magnetic fields.
■ Helps determine the orientation relative to Earth’s magnetic field.
■ Used in combination with accelerometers and gyroscopes for full 3D
orientation estimation.
■ Applications:
■ Compasses: Navigation, heading determination.
■ Drones: Waypoint navigation, georeferencing.
2. Barometer (Sometimes Included):
■ Measures atmospheric pressure.
■ Used for altitude estimation (barometric altitude).
■ Applications:
■ Drones: Altitude hold, terrain following.
 How IMUs Work
○ IMUs continuously collect data from these sensors.
○ The accelerometer provides acceleration information, the gyroscope provides
angular velocity, and the magnetometer provides orientation relative to the
Earth’s magnetic field.
○ Algorithms combine and process this data to estimate the device’s position and
orientation in 3D space.
 Connect to FC software and calibrate

●Visit manufacturer site to get correct drivers

●Verify controller connectivity
●Update firmware
●Calibrate compass (process varies per FC)
●Calibrate Accelerometers
●Calibrate controller modes/sticks/switches
●Set up initial flight modes
BATTERY
 Powering your UAV-The Battery
Battery: Drones are powered by rechargeable lithium-polymer (LiPo) or lithium-ion batteries.
The battery supplies energy to the motors and electronics. Flight time is dependent on the
battery's capacity and the drone's power consumption.
● “S”rating –number of cells in the battery
1. 3.7v per cell(4.2 fully charged):4s battery outputs
16.8v fully charged
1. Micro quads have 1s,or 1 cell lipos
2. Large multirotors have 6s,8s or even 10s batteries
● Mah rating–Milliamp hours
ex.4200Mah–capacity of battery
● “C”rating
Until LIPO technology improves,it is generally unsafe to charge faster than 1c
 Batteries—LIPO
DO-NOT’S DO’s
● Don’t charge over 4.2(extreme danger) ● Do use a fireproof LIPO [Link] metal
● Don’t discharge or discharge until battery is ammo can fireproof safe etc.
at room temp after either. ● Do charge with a LIPO charge,USB ones
● Don’t discharge lower than -3.3v(this overcharge and puffy your lipos.
damage the battery) ● DO follow the instructions on how to
● LiPo batteries may catch fire due charge a LIPO with said charger.
theimproper handling or physical damage. ● DO keep sand on hand,water will not put
it out.
 BEC and voltage regulator

● BEC–Battery Eliminator Circuit aka power

filter.
● ESCs and motors create electronic ‘noise’
than anything in the power circuit feels
● Can cause first person view (fpv)feeds to
be fuzzy when you your motors
● BEC’s create ‘clean’ powerBasic
setup:Battery->PDB->BEC->components
 BEC and Voltage Regulators
● Voltage Regulator/stepper–output a set steady
voltage
● Components usually don’t have internal
voltage limited to….
1. Check the voltage requirements
2. Avoid releasing the magic blue smoke that
makes electronics work
● Voltage example:
1. Gimbal controllers board:12v
2. FPV cameras:5vto12v
3. Video transmitter:12v
ESCs in Drones
 What is electronic speed controlled ?
❖ An electronic speed control follows a speed reference signal
(derived from a throttle lever, joystick, or other manual input)
and varies the switching rate of a network of field effect
transistors (FETs). By adjusting the duty cycle or switching
frequency of the transistors, the speed of the motor is
changed.
 What are the different types of ESC?
❖ There are two types of ESCs—brushed and
brushless. Brushed ESC is used for a brush motor,
brushless ESC is used for a brushless motor.

❖ Depending on the type, their construction and design

are different. Brushless ESCs are more advanced and
costly than brushed ESCs.
Types of an Electronic Speed Controller

There are two kinds of electronic speed controllers based on the specific requirements, you can
acquire the exact one existing in RC Models shops such as brushed ESC and brushless Electronic
Speed Control.

Types of Electronic Speed Control

 How Is The ESC For Motor Constructed?

ESC Module Construction and Design

• ESC modules consist of a power supply stage,

current-sensing circuit, controller, and communication
interface.

• Rotor position is determined using Hall-effect sensors

and back electromotive force from motor.
• Brushless ESC can be designed using 3-phase bridge drivers like IRS2330, L6234, or microcontrollers.
• High-quality components are required for drone ESC design, with microcontrollers like Texas
Instruments' InstaSPIN simplifying three-phase motor control applications.
• Microelectronics provides a complete ESC reference design with a sensorless FOC (Field oriented
control)
algorithm.
● Most of the modern electronic speed controllers include a
microcontroller to process the input signal and control the
electric motor through an inbuilt program.
 What is the ESC in BLDC (brushless DC)?

Standard BLDC 30 amp ESC Electronic Speed Controller with Connector is specifically made for
quadcopters and multi-rotors. It provides faster and better motor speed control giving better flight
performance compared to other available ESCs.
Electronic Speed Controller Design Components

• Voltage regulator/BEC (Battery Eliminator Circuit): Transmits power back to receiver and
servos.

• Processor: Enclosed within a single Si semiconductor chip, decodes data from receiver
and regulates power to motor using FETs.

• Switch: Controls current flow to throttle the electric motor.

• Secondary function: Keeps some power for flight control in dangerous situations.

• ESC transistor: Observes complete current & voltage of the motor and battery, functions
like a switch to control the electric motor's current flow.
 Components used in ESC
The components used in ESC mainly include the following

● Solder pads for the 3-BLDC motor phases

● Negative (-) LIPO connections
● Positive (+) LIPO Connection
● Servo signal or input of the PWM signal
● GND reference of PWM Signal
● Solder jumper, for altering the direction of Rotation (CW/CCW)
● Solder jumper, for varying the type of the PWM input signal
State LED
COMPONENTS OF ESC
 Electronic Speed Controller Design
• Components include a voltage regulator (BEC), a processor, and switching with FETs.

• BEC transmits power back to the receiver and servos.

• BEC maintains power for flight control in dangerous situations.

• Processor is enclosed within a single Si semiconductor chip.

• Processor decodes data from the receiver and regulates power to the motor using FETs.

• Transistor in ESC observes the complete current and voltage of the motor and battery,
controlling current flow to throttle the electric motor.
Features of an Electronic Speed Control

Controls the speed of an airplane's motor spin.

• Serves similar to a glow-powered airplane throttle servo.

• Connects the radio receiver to the power plant.

• Includes three wires: one for the main battery, one for the servo wire, and one for motor
power.

• Features include a battery eliminator circuit, low voltage cutoff, brake, and to.
Speed Control Techniques in Aircraft

• Full throttle technique works well due to battery-motor connection.

• Part throttle situations result in heat loss due to current flow through resistor.

• Current speed controllers switch power to motor quickly, using MOSFET Transistor as a
switch.

• Power to motor is varied by changing ON time against off time in a specified cycle.

 Why do ESC have 3 wires?
● BLDCs use three wires which are driven by
the ESC with a phase-shifted AC
waveform. Each wire's waveform is shifted
by 120 degrees from the other two. This is
because BLDC motors are indeed
three-phase AC motors, each with usually
more than one actual coil per phase
 ESC and PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)
ESC employs PWM signals to regulate motor speed, employing pulses to control the
duration of electric current supplied to the motor. By adjusting pulse duration, the
ESC drone effectively governs motor rotation speed, influencing the drone’s agility
and responsiveness to pilot instructions
• Simple ESC circuit with waveform diagram for understanding.
• When MOSFET is ON, current rises as magnetic field in motor windings increases.
• When MOSFET is OFF, magnetic energy in windings is absorbed by ESC.
• Energy is returned to motor as current, rising down as magnetic field fails

ESC Circuit
 How PWM works in an ESC:
This will result in an average voltage or power delivered to the motor that is 50% of the
maximum. By varying the duty cycle of the PWM signal, the ESC can regulate the motor
speed. A higher duty cycle will result in a higher average power delivered to the motor
 What is the range of the PWM signal in ESC?
PWM ESCs communicate using a periodic pulse, where the width of the pulse indicates the
desired power level. The pulse width typically ranges between 1000 uS for zero power and
2000uS for full power.
 What is PWM signal frequency in ESCs?
The frequency of a PWM signal describes how often the signal switches between high and low
voltages. Frequency is expressed in the unit of Hertz. The duty cycle is the percentage of time the
signal stays at a high voltage. It is expressed as the percentage of the period.
 Is ESC PPM or PWM?
PWM and PPM are two common words used in the R/C industry. PWM stands for Pulse Width
Modulation and PPM stands for Pulse Position Modulation. Some devices that use PWM for
control are ESC's (electronic speed controls) and servos. PWM is a technique used to relay data in
the form of a varying pulse width.
 Let’s explore the different types of Electronic Speed
Controllers (ESCs) commonly used in drones:

● Onboard ESCs:
● Separate ESCs (Standalone ESCs)
● Brushed ESCs
● Brushless ESCs:
● Sine-Wave ESCs vs. Square-Wave ESCs
● 8-bit vs. 32-bit ESCs
 Onboard ESCs
onboard ESCs are integrated into the drone’s
flight controller board, allowing for a compact
and streamlined design.
● They are commonly found in ready-to-fly
(RTF) and all-in-one flight controller setups.
These ESCs simplify wiring and reduce the
number of external components .
Separate ESCs (Standalone ESCs)
● Separate ESCs are individual electronic
modules that are not integrated into
the flight controller board.
● They provide flexibility in terms of
placement and allow for customization.
● These ESCs are often used in
custom-built drones or when upgrading
existing setups
 Brushed ESCs

● Designed for drones that use brushed

motors (older technology).
● Brushed motors rely on physical brushes to
create a magnetic field for continuous
rotation.
● Brushed ESCs have two soldering pads for
the two leads of a brushed motor
 Brushless ESCs

● Most modern drones use brushless motors due to

their efficiency, reduced noise, and longer lifespan.
● Brushless motors rely on electronic switching of
coils to create a rotating magnetic field.
● Brushless ESCs have three soldering pads for the
three motor phases of a brushless motor
Sine wave ESCs
 Sine-Wave ESCs

● A sine-wave ESC is an electronic speed controller designed to regulate the power

sent to the motors in a drone using a sine-wave modulation.
● Unlike square-wave ESCs, which use a simpler on-off switching pattern, sine-wave
ESCs provide smoother motor control and reduce electrical noise and interference.
● These ESCs are commonly used in drones where efficiency power, and precise motor
control are essential
Square wave ESCs
 Square wave ESCs
● A square-wave ESC is an electronic speed controller that generates a square-wave
modulation to regulate the power sent to the motors in a drone.
● Unlike sine-wave ESCs, which provide smoother motor control, square-wave ESCs use a
simpler on-off switching pattern.
● These ESCs are commonly used in compact systems where size and weight need to be
kept low.
 8-bit ESCs
● Definition: 8-bit ESCs use microcontrollers
with 8-bit processing capabilities.
● Processing Power: These ESCs are older and
have limited processing power compared to
their 32-bit counterparts.
● Features: They offer basic motor control
functionality but lack advanced features.
● Common Use: 8-bit ESCs were prevalent in
earlier drone designs but are now less
common due to advancements in technology.
● Limitations: Limited telemetry capabilities and
slower response times compared to 32-bit
ESCs1.
 16- bit ESCs
● Definition: 16-bit ESCs use microcontrollers with
16-bit processing capabilities.
● Processing Power: They provide better performance
than 8-bit ESCs but are still not as advanced as
32-bit ESCs.
● Features: 16-bit ESCs offer improved motor control,
smoother operation, and some telemetry
capabilities.
● Common Use: They are found in mid-range drones
and are suitable for most applications.
● Advantages: Better efficiency, faster response
times, and more features than 8-bit ESCs.
32_bit ESCs
 32_bit ESCs
● Definition: 32-bit ESCs use microcontrollers with 32-bit processing capabilities.
● Processing Power: They provide better performance than 8-bit ESCs and have quickly become
the standard.
● Features: 32-bit ESCs offer faster response times and advanced features such as telemetry.
● Common Use: Most drones sold today come equipped with 32-bit ESCs.
● Advantages: Improved efficiency, telemetry capabilities, and faster communication with flight
controllers.
 Which ESC to choose for your quadcopter
Electronic speed controller is one of the main components in the power delivery system for a
drone. It acts as a bridge between the flight controller and the movement of the motor. It controls
the speed of the motors in a drone. A good ESC ensures a smooth flight as it controls all the
motors properly. Although there are a number of factors which are considered before choosing
an ESC.
● Current Rating
● Input Voltage rating
● Weight and Size
● ESC Firmware
● BEC
● Connection of ESC
● ESC processors
● ESC protocols
 Current Rating
Motors draw current when they rotate. If the motors draw current which is greater than the limit of
the ESC then the ESC will overheat and will eventually damage. Three things can increase the
current draw of an ESC. They are:

● High KV ratings of a motor

● Larger sized propellers
● Larger sized motors
There are two types of current ratings when it comes to an ESC: continuous and burst. The
continuous rating means the amount of current an ESC can sustain for a long time without
overheating or getting damaged. The burst rating is the amount of current it can handle for a short
period of time without overheating or getting damaged.
 Current Rating
The voltage rating of an ESC is the maximum amount of voltage an ESC can handle without
damaging itself. It differs from ESC to ESC how much voltage they can handle. Some ESCs can
handle 3S-4S battery voltage whereas other ESCs can handle upto 6S battery voltages.
 ESC Firmware

Modern Electronic Speed Controllers Overview

• Mainly include a microcontroller for understanding input signal and controlling electric motor.

• Inbuilt firmware allows for modification of factory program for specific applications.

• Some ESCs have upgradeable firmware, others require soldering.

• ESCs are typically sold as black boxes with proprietary firmware.

 Weight and Size
The weight and size of an ESC are mostly dependent on its current rating. It is
difficult to make ESCs more lighter and smaller while increasing their performance
and cooling systems. Single ESCs weigh in the range of 4 to 6 grams and 4 in 1
ESCs weigh around 12 to 15 grams. Lighter ESCs have less effective cooling
systems which means it will have more overheating issues.
Electric bicycles

Applications

Electric cars Electric bicycles Electric aircraft Cars Helicopters Airplanes Boats

ESC Firmware Quadcopters Model trains Power Distribution Safety Features Motor Control
 Drone Applications Overview
• Drones are used in hobbyist, industrial, commercial, and military applications.

• Remote operation makes flying over regions difficult and inconvenient.

• Commercial applications include building monitoring, plant monitoring, agriculture, shooting, and
delivery of essential goods.

• High-range drones typically use BLDC motors, which require continuous speed regulation.

• The ESC circuit is responsible for this, incorporating features like cautious speed regulation.
 Choosing the Right ESC
• Match the ESC to the motor type used.

• Brushed ESC is for brushed motors, brushless ESC is for brushless motors.

• Brushed motors have 2-wires, brushless motors have three wires.

• Most RC models come with pre-installed ESCs, usually brushed digital units.

• If the car has analog speed control, consider a digital one for swing arm operation.

• Alternatively, get an ESC with opposite functionality to eliminate track-related disturbances and
prevents.
 Drone Applications Overview
● The topology utilized for controlling ❖ In drones, there are two kinds of
the motor brushless motors are used like BLDC,
● Compromise among efficiency & BLAC and also called PMSM or
cost permanent magnet synchronous
● The kind of battery used on the motors. So the choice of motor mainly
drone depends on the preferred control
● Necessary performance algorithm like trapezoidal otherwise
● EMC(electromagnetic compatibility) FOC (field-oriented control).
and resistance to interference
 Electronic Speed Control (ESC)overview

● ESC follows a speed reference signal to alter the speed of a switching network of field-effect
transistors.
● Motor speed can be adjusted by altering the switching frequency or duty cycle of transistors.
 Electronic Speed Control (ESC)overview
Brushless ESC Systems
Speed Controllers
• BLDC motors require different speed
• Programming-based speed controllers
controls due to their ability to change
allow braking, acceleration, timing, and
voltage on their armature.
direction of revolution.
• Brushless ESC systems use 3-phase AC
• Reverse motor direction can be achieved
power like a variable frequency drive (VFD).
by switching any 3 leads of the ESC towards
• BLDC motors are popular due to their the motor.
power, efficiency, lightweight, and longevity.
 Motors For Drones
It is a device used to convert electrical energy to mechanical energy. Most
motors operate through the interaction between motors magnetic field and
current in its windings to generate torque

A Drone motor works by harnessing power

from battery, inside the motor there are
windings and magnets. When electric
current is send in the motor a magnetic
field is generated in the winding coils
which then interacts with the magnetic
field of the magnet,which make the motor
work.
 Types of motors
1. DC Motor- it takes dc current as input and converts it into mechanical
energy. Motors used in small tools.
2. AC Motor - it takes ac current as input and converts it into mechanical
[Link] in household purposes
3. Brushed DC Motor- it uses dc current as supply current and uses electric
brushes for contact
4. Brushless motor- it uses an electronic controller to switch the current to
motor windings
 Motors used in drones
Brushless dc motors commonly called as BLDC Motors are widely
used in all kind of drones because
1. Very less noise
2. Less sparks
3. Greater ability to respond to control mechanisms
4. Efficiency is higher
5. Easily integrable to Drone Frame
 Brushless DC motors
Works on the principle of Lorentz Force

The brushless DC motor consist of a rotor

and a stator as its major part
The rotor of the motor is always a
permanent magnet
The stator is the windings/coil
 Types of BLDC Motors
The bldc motors are divided into two basic types:
1. Inrunner motor-The rotor is inside and stator is outside
2. Outrunner motor- The rotor is outside and stator is inside
 Inrunner vs outrunner
Inrunner Outrunner

Relatively low torque at same current High torque

Decent efficiency High efficiency

Difficult to manufacture Easy to Manufacture

Difficult to maintain Easy maintenance and Integration with

other components
 Points To Remember
Motor weight
Motor KV rating
Motor Current rating
Motor Torque rating
Motor Compatibility with other electronics like ESC, Battery,BEC etc
 How Do You Select Motor For Your Drone
1. Rough Gross Weight(With payload) of the Drone should be estimated.
2. The motor should be able to provide thrust equal to the gross weight
of drone at least.
3. The motor should be compatible with other electronics chosen
 Some Motor Companies
1. T motors
2. Scorpion Motors
3. Hacker Motor
4. Avionic
5. Emax
 Propellers
1. A propeller is a spinning wing that converts rotational energy into
thrust
2. It combines with motor and rotates when subjected to power supply
hence provides Thrust.

3. Propellers are airfoil shaped devices with

multiple blades.
4. Based on number of blades of a propeller the
amount of thrust varies.
Propeller nomenclature
 Working of Propeller
1. Propeller works on the principle of 3rd law of Newton.
2. It pushes the air downwards/backwards to produces Upward/forward
force named Thrust.

thru
st

air
 Propeller design variables
1. Diameter - more the diameter more the momentum transfer hence
more the thrust
2. No of blades - More no of blades produces more thrust
3. Pitch- pitch is the ease with which the propeller blade can move
through the air.
4. Solidity- number of blades*chord at radius /circumference at r
Increase in solidity ratio allows propeller to absorb more power from
engine.
 How to Choose a propeller
1. The propeller should be chosen such that the motor propeller
combination should provide the required thrust.
2. Knowing thrust, power requirement for can be the starting point.
3. The power supply and motor rating also affects the selection of
propeller.
 Global Positioning System (GPS)
History
1. Navigating using stars in olden days.
2. The GPS was developed in 1973 to overcome the limitations of
previous navigation systems.
3. GPS was created by U.S government
4. It become fully operational in 1995.
 What is GPS
1. GPS is a space based satellite navigation system that provides location and
time information in all weather.

2. It is maintained by the United States government

and is freely accessible by anyone with a GPS receiver.
 Gps Elements
1. Space Segment
2. Control unit Segment
3. User Segment
GPS for Drones
1. GPS in drones is used to navigate
the Drone autonomously
throughout it’s path.
2. The position of the drone can be
located using using in real time
 RTK-GPS
1. Real-time kinematic (RTK) GPS is a powerful
technology that is used to provide highly accurate
positioning and navigation data.
2. It is used in a wide range of applications, from
surveying and mapping to agriculture and construction.
3. By using a local base station in addition to satellite
signals, RTK GPS systems can correct for any errors that
may be present in the GPS data, providing positioning
data that is accurate to within centimeters.
Connecting Gps to Autopilot Board
Telemetry
What is a Telemetry?
Telemetry in drones refers to the transmission of data from the drone to the ground control station
or another monitoring device in real-time. This data transmission allows operators to monitor
various parameters and status information about the drone during flight.

Types:
1. Radio Telemetry
2. Audio Telemetry
3. Video Telemetry
Radio Telemetry
Radio telemetry for drones involves the use of radio frequency (RF) communication to transmit
telemetry data between the drone and a ground control station or another monitoring device. This
communication enables real-time monitoring of various parameters and status information about
the drone during flight.
Audio Telemetry
Audio telemetry involves the transmission and reception of telemetry data using sound waves,
typically in the audible frequency range, between the drone and a ground control station or
monitoring device.
Video Telemetry
Video telemetry involves the transmission of live video feed from a drone to a ground control
station or monitoring device. This capability allows operators to monitor the drone's surroundings
in real-time, enabling better situational awareness and decision-making during flight operations.
Which all data can the telemetry communicate?
1. Flight Telemetry
2. Sensor Data
3. System Health Monitoring
4. Remote Control and Commands
5. Mission Planning and Status
Flight Telemetry
● Position: GPS coordinates indicating the drone's location.
● Altitude: Height above ground level or sea level.
● Speed: Drone's velocity in different axes.
● Attitude: Orientation of the drone (roll, pitch, yaw angles).
● Battery Status: Remaining battery level and voltage.
● Flight Mode: Current flight mode (e.g., manual, autonomous).
● Flight Time: Elapsed time since takeoff.
● Signal Strength: Strength of the communication link between the drone and ground station.
● IMU Data: Inertial Measurement Unit data including accelerometer, gyroscope, and
magnetometer readings.
Sensor Data
● Camera Feed: Live video feed from onboard cameras.
● Temperature: Ambient temperature measured by onboard sensors.
● Humidity: Relative humidity in the environment.
● Air Pressure: Atmospheric pressure at the drone's location.
● Wind Speed and Direction: Information about wind conditions.
● Obstacle Detection: Data from sensors such as LiDAR or ultrasonic sensors for obstacle
detection and avoidance.
System Health Monitoring
1. Continuous Monitoring
2. Component Monitoring
3. Parameters Monitored
4. Battery Management
5. Temperature Monitoring
6. Flight Data Logging
7. Fault Detection and Diagnostics
8. Alerts and Notifications
9. Predictive Maintenance
10. Redundancy and Fail-Safe Mechanisms
Remote Control and Commands
1. Handheld Transmitter
2. Control Channels
3. Manual Control Modes
4. Flight Modes
5. Telemetry and Feedback
6. Fail-Safe and Return-to-Home (RTH)
7. Gimbal and Camera Control
8. Payload Control
Mission Planning and Status
1. Mission Planning
2. Waypoint Navigation
3. Mission Parameters
4. Real-Time Monitoring
5. Mission Revisions
6. Mission Execution
7. Post-Mission Analysis
Receiver and Transmitter in Drones
Receiver and Transmitter
 RX and TX
TX (Radio Transmitter):
1. RX (Radio Receiver):
○ The RX (Radio Receiver) is a crucial part ● The TX (Radio Transmitter) is the handheld
of the drone’s control system. device operated by the pilot.
○ It receives signals wirelessly from the ● It wirelessly transmits commands to the RX
drone’s transmitter (TX) and relays these using radio signals.
commands to the flight controller. ● The pilot uses the TX to control various
○ Essentially, the RX listens to the pilot’s aspects of the drone, such as throttle, yaw,
inputs (such as stick movements, pitch, and roll.
switches, and knobs) and translates ● Channels on the TX correspond to specific
them into actions for the drone. actions (e.g., arming, flight modes) and are
○ A strong and reliable radio signal is vital transmitted to the RX2.
for smooth and precise control the ● Gimbals (the sticks on the TX) translate the
drone pilot’s input into digital data sent to the RX.
 RX Protocols
1. Types of RX Protocols:
○ PWM (Pulse Width Modulation): A universal protocol that has been widely used in RC
systems. It translates stick inputs into varying pulse widths to control different channels.
○ PPM or CPPM (Combined Pulse Position Modulation): Another universal protocol that
combines multiple channels into a single signal. It simplifies wiring and reduces the number
of cables.
○ SBUS: Commonly used by Futaba and Frsky systems. It sends all channel data over a single
digital stream, improving precision and reducing latency.
○ IBUS: Used by Flysky systems. Similar to SBUS, it combines multiple channels into a single
stream.
○ XBUS: Associated with JR systems.
○ MSP (Multiwii Serial Protocol): Used in Multiwii flight controllers.
○ CSRF (Crossfire): Used by ExpressLRS, TBS Crossfire, and Tracer systems1.
Types of RX Hardware

○ Cased Receiver (RX):

■ Enclosed in a plastic shell or cover.
■ Larger in size and often used in fixed-wing aircraft.
■ May have multiple connections for servos and ESC.
○ Bare RX:
■ Has no cover case.
■ Smaller and covered in plastic film or heat shrink.
■ Lightweight and suitable for mounting in tight spaces on drones2.
○ Cased Receiver (RX) ○ Cased Receiver (RX)
 Gimbals

● Gimbals are the sticks on the TX (Radio Transmitter) that translate pilot input into
digital data transmitted to the RX.
● Two common types of gimbals:
○ Hall Effect Gimbal (digital):
■ Uses hall sensors and magnets for precise stick position values.
■ More resistant to wear and more precise.
○ Potentiometer Gimbal (analogue):
■ Captures stick inputs using a brush.
■ Prone to wear out faster
■ Remember, choosing the right RX and understanding the protocols ensures
smooth communication between the pilot and the drone during exhilarating
flights! 🚁✨
 Radio Transmitter (Remote Control
● A radio transmitter, also known as the remote control or controller, is the device used by the
pilot to control and navigate the drone.
● It sends commands wirelessly to the receiver, which is located on the drone itself.
● The transmitter translates the pilot’s stick inputs into digital data transmitted to the receiver,
allowing precise control over the drone’s movements .
 ExpressLRS / ELRS:

● ExpressLRS (also known as ELRS)

operates on both 2.4GHz and
868MHz/915MHz frequencies.
● It is a popular system used in FPV
drones for long-range communication.
● ExpressLY provides reliable connectivity
and extended range for drone pilots .
 TBS Crossfire
TBS Crossfire operates on 868MHz/915MHz
frequencies.
It is another long-range system widely used
in FPV drones.
TBS Crossfire offers low latency and robust
signal performance, making it suitable for
long-distance flights
1. TBS Tracer:
○ TBS Tracer operates on the 2.4GHz frequency.
○ It provides excellent range and telemetry capabilities.
○ Tracer is designed for FPV racing and freestyle drones2.
2. Immersion Ghost:
○ Immersion Ghost operates on the 2.4GHz frequency.
○ It offers features like telemetry and redundancy functions.
○ Ghost is suitable for various drone applications, including racing and aerial
photography .
3. Frsky ACCST V1/V2 and Frsky ACCESS:
○ Frsky produces radio systems operating on the 2.4GHz frequency.
○ ACCST V1/V2 and ACCESS are popular protocols used in FPV drones.
○ They provide reliable communication and compatibility with various Frsky
receivers .
TBS Tracer

Immersion Ghost

Frsky ACCST V1/V2 and Frsky ACCESS

SOFTWARE
What is Mission planner
1. Mission planner is a Ground
control system for
Autonomous Control in the
UAVs.
2. It can be used for Fixed wing
airplane, Rovers, Multicopters.
3. Mission planner can be used
as configuration utility or as a
dynamic control unit for
autonomous control of a UAV
 Things To Do in Mission Planner
1. Load the Firmware(Software) into the autopilot board(Pixhawk).
2. Setup,configure and tune vehicle for optimum performance.
3. Configure and tune your vehicle.
4. Plan, save, and load autonomous missions.
5. Download and analyze mission log files.
6. Configure autopilot settings for vehicles.
7. Interface with a PC flight simulator to create a software-in-the-loop (SITL)
UAV simulator.
 Knowing Mission planner
Hardware Firmware Ground Control Station
Hardware is the peripheral sensors, Firmware is the code running on the Ground Control Station (GCS) is your
controller, and output devices that act controller. You choose the firmware interface(Laptop/PC) to the controller.
as the vehicle’s eyes, ears, brain and to match your vehicle and mission: Various versions of GCS software are
Copter, Plane, Rover, Sub, or available for Windows, Linux, and
arms.
Antenna Tracker. Android platforms.
 Loading Firmware
1. Connect autopilot to computer- Once you have installed a ground station on your
computer, connect the autopilot using a USB cable as shown below. Use a direct USB
port on your computer (not a USB hub).

1. Select the COM port- If using Mission Planner as the GCS, select the COM port drop-down
in the upper-right corner of the window near the Connect button. Select AUTO or the specific
port for your board. Set the Baud rate to 115200 as shown
3. In Mission Planner’s SETUP | Install Firmware screen select the appropriate icon that
matches your vehicle or frame type(i.e. Quad, Hexa)

4. Select the appropriate firmware for your board. For boards marked “Pixhawk”, Pixhawk 1
firmware is usually the best choice.
 Connect Mission Planner to AutoPilot
1. To establish a connection you must first choose the communication method/channel you want to use,
and then set up the physical hardware and Windows device drivers. You can connect the PC and
autopilot using USB cables, Telemetry Radios, Bluetooth, IP connections etc.

2. Select the desired port and data rate and then press the
CONNECT button to connect to the autopilot. After connecting
Mission Planner will download parameters from the autopilot and the
button will change to DISCONNECT

Connection using Radio

Telemetry
 Mission Planner Features
1. CONNECT (Upper right corner) - How to connect the Mission Planner to your ArduPilot. Selecting
communication devices and rates.
2. DATA - Information about what you see, and things you can do in the Flight Data screens.
3. PLAN - Information about the various aspects of preparing flight plans (Missions), Fences, and Rally Points.
4. SETUP - Information about what you see and things you can do in the Setup screens. Especially the
mandatory setups required before operating.
5. CONFIG - Information about what you see and things you can do in the Configuration/Tuning screens.
6. SIMULATION - How you can use the Mission Planner and a flight simulator to ‘simulate’ flying.
7. HELP - About the help screen, and how to get help with your questions about Mission Planner.
Installation setup
 Installation Steps
Once you have installed a ground station on your computer, connect the autopilot using a USB
cable as shown below. Use a direct USB port on your computer (not a USB hub).

● Windows should automatically

detect and install the correct
driver software.

Pixhawk USB Connection

Select the COM port
● If using Mission Planner as the
GCS, select the COM port
drop-down in the upper-right
corner of the window near the
Connect button. Select AUTO
or the specific port for your
board. Set the Baud rate to
115200 as shown. Do not hit
Connect just yet.
Install firmware ● In Mission Planner’s SETUP | Install
Firmware screen select the
appropriate icon that matches your
vehicle or frame type(i.e. Quad,
Hexa). Answer Yes when it asks you
“Are you sure?”.
Note

some boards are specifically targeted to a

particular vehicle type and firmware is not
automatically built for other vehicles.
However, ArduPilot could still be built for
those other vehicles using the Custom
Firmware Server.
Mission Planner: Install Firmware Screen
● Mission Planner will try to detect which board you are using. It
may ask you to unplug the board, press OK, and plug it back in to
detect the board type.

● Often you will be presented with

a dropdown box of firmware
variants for the board, which
you can select from (such as
bi-directional DShot variants, if
available). For boards which
share the Pixhawk board id, the
list will be extensive, as shown
below

Mission Planner: Install Firmware Prompt

Select the appropriate firmware for your board. For boards marked
“Pixhawk”, Pixhawk firmware is usually the best choice.

Warning
some boards labeled as Pixhawk 2.4.x may have
sensor substitutions which may lead to pre-arm
checks or no secondary IMU. Please see the
BARO_OPTIONS parameter for a workaround for a
known sensor substitution on some boards of a
MS5607 barometer where a MS5611 should be
used. IMUs may also be substituted. Where
possible, please source autopilots from ArduPilot
partners.
❏ If all goes well, you will see a status appear on the bottom right including the words: “erase…”,

“program…”, “verify..”, and “Upload Done”. The firmware has been successfully uploaded to the

board.

❏ It usually takes a few seconds for the bootloader to exit and enter the main code after

programming or a power-up. Wait to press CONNECT until this occurs.

 Using Beta, Developer, and Customized Versions Beta
Prior to Stable releases, Beta versions are released. These may be used if you wish to try newer
features or help the developers flight test new code. Since these are “beta” versions, there may still
be bugs. This is possible even in Stable release firmware. However, a Beta release has been tested
by the development team, and already flight tested. This release allows a wider user base to final
test the firmware before releasing as Stable. Experienced ArduPilot users are encouraged to test fly
this firmware and provide feedback.

Mission Planner has an option on the Install Firmware page to upload this release, but later Stable
releases may already be available. Be sure to check the normal vehicle upload option first.
Latest Developer Version
This reflects the current state of the development branch of the ArduPilot code. It has been reviewed
by the development team, passed all automated test suites, and in most cases test flown. This code
gets built daily and is available for testing by experienced users. This corresponds to an “alpha”
release, and may have bugs, although very rarely “crash inducing”. Very shortly after an addition that
changes or introduces a feature is added, the Upcoming Features section of the Wiki is updated with
information about the addition or change.

This code must be manually downloaded from the Firmware Downloads page as latest for your
particular board, and then uploaded using Mission Planner “Load Custom Firmware” option on its
Install Firmware Page
 Custom Firmware Build Server

ArduPilot is currently experimentally testing a custom firmware build server that will allow users to
generate firmware builds for their autopilots with selectable features. Since all 1MB flash sized boards
now have feature restrictions to allow the code to fit, this will give a path to enable a user to select
which features will or will not be included, giving some flexibility to users of 1MB autopilots.

The server is located here

It allows creating a custom build, which can be downloaded, and flashed to the autopilot using Mission
Planner “Load Custom Firmware” option on its Install Firmware Page.
● connect the ground station PC to the autopilot using a USB cable
● select the COM port and baud rate (normally 115200, but you can choose higher if your hardware
allows) for the board. These are selected on the top right of the screen. Do not press the
Connect button
● go to MP firmware install screen (select “Setup >> Install Firmware”)
● click the “Load custom firmware” link and select the .apj file you downloaded (do not select the
.hex files, which are only meant to be used with DFU/JTAG/SWD methods). If the “Load custom
firmware” link is not visible select “Config >> Planner” and set the “Layout” drop-down to
“Advanced”.
● you may need to click on “Force bootloader” before the step above (assuming the board has
been previously flashed with Ardupilot bootloader)
● follow any instructions displayed regarding plugging/unplugging the board
● if all goes well some status should be displayed at the bottom of the screen. i.e.
“erase…”, “program…”, “verify..” and “Upload Done”.
Firmware Limitations
● For a list of what features are not included in the current “latest” firmware for any given autopilot, see
this page.
● All the feature options currently not included in the 1MB autopilots, by default, are on the list of
options on the Custom Firmware Build Server. There are also many features still included in the 1MB
autopilots that may not be required for your application. So it is possible to create a build that includes
some of the currently excluded features while removing some of the unneeded features. The list of
feature options will be continuously expanded, allowing other large features to be dropped and more
restricted features added to the custom build. For example, not including QuadPlane features will save
space for Planes not requiring it. Drivers and peripheral support may be individually selected, allowing
only those used to be in the code thus allowing other features to be included in the custom firmware.
●
 Testing
You can test the firmware is working on a basic level by switching to the Mission Planner Flight Data screen
and pressing the Connect button. The HUD should update as you tilt the board.
 WHAT IS GEOFENCING…????

Geofencing is a technology
that uses virtual boundaries
to restrict the movement of
unmanned aerial vehicles
(UAVs) or drones
GEOFENCING SERVES SEVERAL CRITICAL PURPOSES:
★ Safety and Security:
○ Preventing Unauthorized Access: Geofences help prevent UAVs from flying into
controlled airspaces, such as power plants, airports, and military installations.
○ No-Fly Zones (NFZs): By comparing the UAV’s current geographical location
with predefined or dynamically identified NFZs and other restricted areas,
geofences ensure compliance with airspace regulations.
○ Risk Mitigation: Geofencing mitigates safety risks associated with trespassing
in restricted areas, mid-air UAV collisions, and disruptions in high-traffic
airspaces.
 Setting Up the Geo-Fence:
★ You define a polygon of GPS
waypoints that form the
boundary of your flying area.
★ Specify the minimum and
maximum altitude for the
fence.
★ The fence can be either a
home-centered cylindrical
(“TinCan”) or a polygonal
shape.
 How does geofencing work…..???

★ When geofencing is enabled, if your

plane goes outside the fenced area,
it will switch to GUIDED mode.
★ The plane will then fly back to a
predefined return point (usually the
home location) and loiter there.
★ You can regain control using a switch
on your transmitter or commands in
your Ground Control Station (GCS).
 USE CASES:
★ R/C Training: Geo-fencing is valuable for
teaching beginners to fly
radio-controlled planes. With a properly
configured fence, it’s difficult to crash,
allowing you to try maneuvers that
would otherwise be risky.
★ Containment: During fully autonomous
flights, the fence acts as a failsafe to
keep the aircraft within the intended
flight area. It automatically engages after
takeoff and disables when the plane
reaches a landing waypoint
 Geo-Fencing in Plane (Fixed-Wing):
★ In Plane firmware versions prior to 4.1, you can set up a virtual “fence” around the area where you want to
fly. This fence is defined as an enclosed polygon of GPS positions along with a minimum and maximum
altitude.
★ When your plane ventures outside this fenced area, it automatically switches to GUIDED mode. It then flies
back to a predefined return point and loiters there, awaiting your takeover.
★ Geo-fencing is especially useful for R/C training. With a properly configured fence, it becomes challenging
to crash the aircraft. You can even attempt maneuvers that would typically lead to disaster, relying on the
autopilot to keep the plane within bounds.
★ The fence can be combined with various flight modes, such as STABILIZE, FBWA, or even MANUAL mode
for aerobatic maneuvers.
★ During fully autonomous missions, the fence acts as a failsafe to ensure the aircraft stays within the
intended flight area. You can enable this feature using the FENCE_AUTOENABLE parameter1.
ArduPilot provides geo-fencing capabilities in its firmware for both fixed-wing and
multirotor vehicles. Let’s delve into the details:
 Geo-Fencing in Multirotor (Copter)

★ Similar to Plane, Copter firmware also supports geo-fencing.

★ The fence represents a hard limit beyond which the UAV will not fly. If it
breaches the fence, the failsafe activates, returning the UAV to the home
point.
★ The fence is defined as an arbitrary polygon of waypoints around the flying
area.
Inclusion and exclusion fences can be easily set
up using Mission Planner under the PLAN
screen. These fences are loaded to the
autopilot, just like missions or rally points .

Remember, geo-fencing is a powerful safety

feature that helps you stay within boundaries
and prevents unintended excursions. Whether
you’re a beginner or an experienced pilot, it’s a
valuable tool for maintaining control and
avoiding mishaps during your flights.
How do Multicopters fly?
➢ Multicopters fly by utilizing 2 basic principles
->Lift
->Torque.
➢ Multicopter uses counter rotating propellers
to keep the body stable.
➢ The axis of rotation on aircraft are called
➢ ->Pitch in lateral axis
➢ ->Roll in longitudinal axis
➢ ->Yaw in Vertical Axis
Pitch is simply pointing the nose of the
aircraft up or down.
•Yaw is turning of the aircraft to the left or
right.
•Roll is turning the aircraft such that the side
goes up and down
(rolling to the left would make the aircraft's
left arms dips down)
 Working Principle Of Drone–lift
•The subject of Fluid dynamics plays a significant role in the
design and development of aircraft and drones.
•A sufficient amount of upward force is required to lift the
vehicle against gravity which is named “Lift”.

A force created to move the vehicle or body in motion is

called “Thrust”. These forces can be studied using the
kinematic laws of fluid flows
•Force is directly proportional to the velocity of air at the
inlet
 The flow pattern around the cross-section of
Based on the principle of conservation of the propeller is shown below:
energy in fluid flow (Bernoulli’s principle), the
sum of all forms of energy in a fluid is constant
along the streamline
•When air flows over a cross section of
propeller, its velocity increases at the top
portion. But the pressure of air decreases.
•In contrast, the air velocity decreases, and
pressure increase at the bottom side of the
blade. The pressure difference across the
aerofoil results in an upward force which is
called a Lift.
High fluid pressure at the bottom and low pressure at the top of the propeller causes an upward
force which is called a lift. This force is responsible for lifting the weight of an drone.
•The amount of lift force depends on the angle of inclination of the airfoil or propeller.
 Working Principle of Quadcopter- Torque
Each propeller, speed and direction of rotation is
independently controlled for balance and
movement of the drone.
• To maintain the torque balance of the system,
one pair of rotors rotates in a clockwise direction
and the other pair rotate in an anti-clockwise
direction.
• By changing the speed of rotors, the drone can
be moved forward, backward, and side-to-side.
 Multicopter YAW control
● By slowing down 1 and 3 while speeding up 2 and 4,
you can make the multicopter yaw to the left.
● The torque of 2 and 4 spinning to the right makes the
body spin to the left. Conversely, by slowing down 2
and 4 while speeding up 1 and 3, the multicopter
yaws to the right
 Lift control
A simple increase in the throttle of all the
motors together pushes more air down. By
pushing air down, the multicopter rises
because the volume of the air flowing
down from all rotors has greater thrust than
the multicopter's weight.
•Decrease the speed of the propellers, and
the thrust may stay the same as the
multicopter's weight (providing a hover) or
may dip down below the weight of the
multicopter, causing a descent.
THANK YOU