ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS

(BAECE202)
Module-1
Electrostatics

School of Electronics Engineering,

Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore
Electrostatics
• Coulomb’s Law,
• Electric Fields due to Different Charge Distributions,
• Gauss Law and Applications,
• Electrostatic Potential,
• Potential Gradient,
• Electric Dipole,
• Polarization in Dielectrics,
• Boundary conditions,
• Current density,
• Convection, and conduction current densities
• Continuity equation.

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Task

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 Proof: 𝑑𝑧′

𝒂𝝆
𝑑𝑧′
𝒛 − 𝒛′
𝒂𝒛

𝜌 𝒂𝝆 𝑧 − 𝑧′ electric field intensity E at an arbitrary

tan 𝛼 = point P (x, y, z):
𝜶 𝜌
i.e. 𝑧 − 𝑧 ′ = 𝜌 tan 𝛼 𝑄 𝑹
(𝑧 − 𝑧 ′ )𝒂𝒛 𝑬=
𝑹 = 𝑧 − 𝑧 ′ 𝒂𝒛 + 𝜌𝒂𝝆 𝜌 = 𝑅 cos 𝛼 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 3

i.e. 𝑅 = 𝜌 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝛼
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 𝑧 − 𝑧′
tan 𝛼 =
𝜌
i.e. 𝑧 − 𝑧 ′ = 𝜌 tan 𝛼
−𝑑𝑧 ′ = 𝜌 sec 2 𝛼𝑑𝛼
𝜌 = 𝑅 cos 𝛼
i.e. 𝑅 = 𝜌 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝛼

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 z
Proof:

E field at point P(0, 0, h) by the charge dQ

on the elemental surface 1

𝑑𝑆 = 𝜌𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜌

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• Owing to the symmetry of the charge distribution, for every element 1, there is a corresponding
element 2 whose contribution along 𝒂𝜌 cancels that of element 1.
• Thus, the contributions to 𝐸𝜌 add up to zero so that E has only z-component.

2𝜋 ∞
𝜌𝑠 𝜌𝑑𝜌
𝑬= න 𝑑𝜙 ℎ න 2 2 3/2
𝒂𝒛
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜙=0 𝜌=0 𝜌 + ℎ

∞ Now, let 𝜌2 + ℎ2 = 𝑘
𝜌𝑠 𝜌𝑑𝜌 2𝜌𝑑𝜌 = 𝑑𝑘
= 2𝜋ℎ න 2 2 3/2
𝒂𝒛
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜌=0 𝜌 + ℎ When, 𝜌 → 0, 𝑘 → ℎ2
𝜌 → ∞, 𝑘 → ∞

3 1 ∞
−2 −2
∞ 𝜌𝑑𝜌 ∞ 𝑑𝑘/2 ∞ 𝑘 𝑑𝑘 1 𝑘 1 1 1
Hence, ‫=𝜌׬‬0 𝜌2 +ℎ2 3/2 = ‫׬‬ℎ2 𝑘 3/2 = ‫׬‬ℎ2 2 = =− − =
2 −1 ∞ ℎ ℎ
2
ℎ2
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 𝜌𝑠 1 𝜌𝑠
𝑬= 2𝜋ℎ 𝒂𝒛 = 𝒂𝒛
4𝜋𝜀0 ℎ 2𝜀0

that is, E has only z-component if the charge is in the xy-plane.

In general, for an infinite sheet of charge

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Proof:

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 𝒛 − 𝒓′ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽′

𝒛 𝑿

𝒓′ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽′

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 𝑹 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶

𝒛 𝑿

𝒛 − 𝑹 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶

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Differentiating with respect to 𝜃 ′

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• While electric flux measures the total lines passing
through an entire surface, electric flux density (𝑫)
measures how concentrated those lines are at a
specific point in space per unit area.
• Mathematically, it represents the flux passing
perpendicularly through a unit cross-sectional area

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The total electric flux passing over a closed
1
surface in vacuum is 𝜀 times of the total
0
charge inside the surface.
𝑞𝑖𝑛
𝜙𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ර 𝑬. 𝒅𝑺 =
𝜀0

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𝑫 = 1.2 𝒂𝒓 𝑚𝐶/𝑚2 53
 Electric Potential
• We can obtain the electric field intensity E due to a charge distribution from Coulomb’s law in general
or, when the charge distribution is symmetric, from Gauss’s law.
• Another way of obtaining E is from the electric scalar potential V.
• In a sense, this way of finding E is easier because it is easier to handle scalars than vectors.
• Suppose we wish to move a point charge Q from point A to point B in an electric field E as shown in
Figure below.

• From Coulomb’s law, the force on Q is F = QE so that the work done in displacing the charge by dl is:
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Electric Potential

• The negative sign indicates that the work is being done

by an external agent.
• Thus, the total work done, or the potential energy
required, in moving Q from A to B, is

• Dividing W by Q we can get the potential energy per unit charge.

• This quantity, denoted by 𝑉𝐴𝐵 , is known as the potential difference between points A and B.

J/C
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Important Points:

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Displacement of point charge Q in an electrostatic field E.

𝒅𝒍 = 𝑑𝑟 𝒂𝒓 + 𝑟𝑑𝜃 𝒂𝜽 + 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝒂𝝓

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 Displacement of point charge Q in an electrostatic field E.

• 𝑉𝐵 and 𝑉𝐴 are the potentials (or absolute potentials) at B and A, respectively.

• Thus, the potential difference 𝑉𝐴𝐵 may be regarded as the potential at B with reference to A.

• In problems involving point charges, it is customary to choose infinity as reference; that is, we assume the potential
at infinity is zero.

• Thus, if 𝑉𝐴 = 0, as 𝑟𝐴 → ∞, the potential at any point (𝑟𝐵 → 𝑟) due to a point charge Q located at the origin is:

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Displacement of point charge Q in an electrostatic field E.

• The potential difference 𝑉𝐴𝐵 is independent of the path as asserted

earlier.

• In general, vectors whose line integral does not depend on the path
of integration are called conservative.

• Thus, E is conservative.

• If one assumes zero potential at infinity, the potential at a distance r

from the point charge is the work done per unit charge by an external
agent in transferring a test charge from infinity to that point.

• Thus,
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Displacement of point charge Q (not located origin) in an electrostatic field E

• If the point charge Q is not located at the origin but at a point whose position vector is 𝒓′ , the potential
V(x, y, z) or simply V(r) at r becomes

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 Electric Potential (charge distributions)

For point charges

primed coordinates are used to

denote source point location
and
For continuous charge distributions, the unprimed coordinates refer
to field point (the point at
which V is to be determined).
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Important points (Summary):
1. The zero potential (reference) point has been chosen arbitrarily to be at infinity.

2. If any other point is chosen as reference,

where C is a constant that is determined at the chosen point of reference.

3. The potential at a point can be determined in two ways depending on whether the charge distribution or E is known.
• If the charge distribution is known, we use one of eqs. of (1) depending on the charge distribution.
• If E is known, we simply use

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0 V varies as 1/r and D as 1/𝑟 2 for point charges; V varies as 1/
𝑟 2 and D as 1/ r 3 for dipoles; and so on. Hence, VD must vary
at least as 1/ r 3 while dS varies as 𝑟 2 . Consequently, the first
integral must tend to zero as the surface S becomes large.

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or Polarization (unit: 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏/𝑚2 )

We define polarization P (in

coulombs per meter squared)
as the dipole moment per unit
volume of the dielectric; that
is,

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• Where polarization occurs, an equivalent volume charge density 𝝆𝒑𝒗 is formed throughout the
dielectric, while an equivalent surface charge density 𝝆𝒑𝒔 is formed over the surface of the
dielectric.
• 𝜌𝑝𝑠 and 𝜌𝑝𝑣 as bound (or polarization) surface charge densities and bound (or polarization) volume
charge densities, respectively.
• This is different from free surface and volume charge densities 𝜌𝑠 and 𝜌𝑣 .
• Bound charges are those that are not free to move within the dielectric material; they are caused
by the displacement that occurs on a molecular scale during polarization.
• Free charges are those that are capable of moving over macroscopic distance, as do electrons in a
conductor; they are the stuff we control.
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• If the entire dielectric were electrically neutral prior to application of the electric field and if we have
not added any free charge, the dielectric will remain electrically neutral.

• Thus the total charge of the dielectric material remains zero.

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Classification of Material
Until now we have considered electric field in vacuum or free space (0).
What about other material medium ?
First we need to know what those materials are
Conduction Band

Conduction Band Conduction Band

Forbidden Energy Gap
Valence Band Valence Band
Conductors
Valence Band
Semi-Conductors
Insulators
❑ Materials can now be broadly classified based on their conductivity 
measured in mhos/m or Siemens/m
❑ Conductors are those materials with abundance of free electrons and
insulators (or dielectrics) with least number 106
Conductivity Vs Temperature
❑ But conductivity of materials changes with temperature and is inversely
proportional   1/T (0K)
❑ Materials when cooled to very low temperatures ( 00 K ) using liquid helium
or liquid nitrogen, exhibit perfect conductivity. Such materials are called
Superconductors

Meissner Effect

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Conduction & Convection Current
❑ Current (ampere) can be defined as the flow of electric charge (Coulombs)
through a given area per unit time (seconds)
Q
I=
t
❑ Just as we related charge Q to charge density , we will define current density
J as Current per unit surface (Surface Current A/m2) or Current per unit
volume (A/m3)
dI
J= or dI = J • dS
ds
The total current flowing through a surface is
I =  J •dS
S

❑ Again there are three types of current (1) Conduction Current (2) Convection
Current & (3) Displacement Current
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Convection Current

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Conduction Current
❑ Conduction current can then be characterized as flow of charges
through a conductor or metal.

❑ If an external electric field is applied to such a conductor, the force on

an electron with charge – e is F = −eE
If me is the mass of electron moving inside a conductor, and  is the
collision interval (electrons now collide with atoms of the conductor while
drifting with a velocity ud in the direction of external field), from Newton’s
Law we have drift velocity
meu d e of the electron is
= −eE  u d = − E directly proportional
 me to the applied field
If there are n electrons in unit volume of the conductor then  v = − ne

Substituting in J =  v u we get conduction current J =E

 = ne 
2
where me Ohm’s Law 110
Electric Field inside conductor

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Electric Field Inside Conductor

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Joule’s Law
Power is defined as the rate of change of energy. We know that energy or work
done is the force required to move a charge against an external field. Hence power
is nothing but force times velocity or how fast the applied force can move a
charge against external field

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Continuity Equation

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Problem

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ProblemTry This !!!

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Problem
For the current density J = 10z sin2 ar A/m2,
Find the current through the cylindrical surface r = 2 m, 1 <= Z <= 5 m

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