Computer Science • Grade XI • Unit 1: Computer System

COMPUTER SCIENCE
Grade XI • NEB

UNIT 1
COMPUTER SYSTEM
1.1 Introduction to Computer
1.2 Computer System and I/O Devices

Student Reference Note

Concept-first notes with definitions, comparison tables, diagrams in words,
memory tricks, common mistakes and exam-focused practice.

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 Computer Science • Grade XI • Unit 1: Computer System

How to Use This Note

This note is written so that you understand first and memorise second. Everything is organised around four
repeating signposts. Learn to recognise them — they tell you what kind of attention a paragraph needs.
💡 CONCEPT CLEAR An everyday analogy or a plain-language re-explanation. Read this when the textbook
definition feels like empty words.
⚠️COMMON MISTAKE An error students make in the exam every single year. If you fix only these, your
marks jump.
📝 EXAM TIP How the question is actually asked in NEB and how many points the examiner is looking for.
🧠 MEMORY HOOK A short trick, acronym or picture to lock the list into memory.

A study strategy that works for this unit

1. Unit 1 is definition-heavy and comparison-heavy. Roughly 70% of the questions from this unit are
either "What is …? Explain" or "Differentiate between X and Y".
2. For every 'differentiate' table, learn the point of difference (volatility, cost, speed, technology), not the
sentence. If you know the point, you can build the sentence in the exam hall.
3. Draw the block diagram of the computer system at least ten times until you can do it in 90 seconds. It
is the highest-value diagram in the whole course.
4. Never memorise a list without first understanding one example from it. One understood example
rescues a forgotten list.

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 Computer Science • Grade XI • Unit 1: Computer System

Table of Contents
TOC \h \o "1-3"

(In Microsoft Word: right-click on the contents above → Update Field → Update entire table.)

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 Computer Science • Grade XI • Unit 1: Computer System

1.1 Introduction to Computer

1.1.1 Meaning and Definition
The word computer comes from the Latin word computare (also linked to the English verb compute), which
means "to calculate". Historically, therefore, a computer was simply a calculating device. But a modern
computer does far more than calculate — it accepts, stores, processes and communicates information.

★ STANDARD DEFINITION (write this in the exam) A computer is an electronic device that accepts raw
data and instructions from the user, processes the data according to those instructions, stores the data
and instructions, and produces meaningful information as output at very high speed.
Every important word in that definition is doing a job. Break it apart:
Word in the definition Why it matters
Electronic device It works on electronic circuits and electricity, not on gears or levers. This
is what separates a computer from a mechanical calculator.
Accepts raw data and A computer does nothing on its own. It needs both the material (data)
instructions and the recipe (instructions/program).
Processes It converts data into information by performing arithmetic and logical
operations.
Stores It can hold data and instructions both temporarily (RAM) and
permanently (hard disk).
Meaningful information The output is useful and organised — not raw facts.
High speed Operations are measured in millionths and billionths of a second.

💡 CONCEPT CLEAR Think of a computer as a very fast, very obedient, completely unimaginative cook. You
must give it the ingredients (data) AND the recipe (instructions). It will follow the recipe perfectly, a
million times, without complaining and without ever improving the recipe on its own.

Popular expansion of COMPUTER

Commonly Operating Machine Purposed by Unlimited Technology for Education and Research.
⚠️COMMON MISTAKE This expansion is a memory aid invented later — it is NOT the real origin of the
word. The real origin is Latin 'computare'. If a question asks about the origin of the word 'computer', write
'computare', not the acronym.

1.1.2 Basic Operations of a Computer (The IPO-S Cycle)

Every task a computer performs — from adding two numbers to streaming a video — is built out of just four
basic operations.
Operation What happens Everyday example
1. Input Data and instructions are entered into the You type a Nepali essay on the keyboard.
computer system.
2. Processing Arithmetic and logical operations are Spell-check compares each word with a
performed on the data by the CPU. dictionary.
3. Storage Data, instructions and results are held for The essay is saved on the hard disk.
present or future use.
4. Output The processed, meaningful result is The essay appears on the monitor and is

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Operation What happens Everyday example

presented to the user. printed.

Written as a flow:
INPUT → PROCESSING → OUTPUT (with STORAGE supporting all three stages)
🧠 MEMORY HOOK "I Prefer Sweet Oranges" — Input, Processing, Storage, Output. Storage sits in the
middle because it serves every other stage, not just one.

1.1.3 Basic Terminology

Term Definition Example
Data Collection of raw facts and figures about a person, place Ram, 102, male
or thing, recorded as text, number, sound or image. Data
alone has no meaning.
Instruction A command given to the computer to perform one PRINT, ADD, SAVE
specific task.
Information The processed form of data, presented in a meaningful "Ram, roll no. 102, is a
and useful form. male student."
Process The conversion of input data into output information, Calculating total marks
carried out by the processing unit.
Program A set of instructions written to perform a specific task. MS-Word, a Python script
Software A collection of programs that tells the computer what to Windows, Photoshop
do and how to do it.
Hardware The physical parts of a computer that can be seen, Keyboard, monitor, RAM
touched and felt.
Input Data and instructions supplied to the computer for Typing, scanning
processing.
Output The result or information produced after processing. Printed report
Memory A device used to store data, instructions and information RAM, ROM, hard disk,
device temporarily or permanently. pen drive

⚠️COMMON MISTAKE Data vs Information is the single most common one-mark trap in this unit.
Remember: DATA is the input (raw, meaningless alone); INFORMATION is the output (processed,
meaningful). "75" is data. "Sita scored 75 marks in Computer Science" is information.

1.1.4 Characteristics / Features of a Computer

These seven characteristics explain why the computer is used everywhere. Learn the definition AND the one-
line reason.

1. Speed
A computer performs operations at extremely high speed. A microcomputer can execute millions of
instructions per second, and a supercomputer works in nanoseconds and picoseconds. Processor speed is
measured in MegaHertz (MHz) or GigaHertz (GHz).
Unit of time Meaning Fraction of a second Power of 10
Millisecond (ms) One thousandth of a second 1/1,000 10⁻³ sec
Microsecond (µs) One millionth of a second 1/1,000,000 10⁻⁶ sec

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Unit of time Meaning Fraction of a second Power of 10

Nanosecond (ns) One billionth of a second 1/1,000,000,000 10⁻⁹ sec
Picosecond (ps) One trillionth of a second 1/1,000,000,000,000 10⁻¹² sec
Femtosecond (fs) One quadrillionth of a second 1/1,000,000,000,000,000 10⁻¹⁵ sec

2. Accuracy
A computer performs every operation with a very high degree of accuracy, because the operations are
carried out by electronic circuits following fixed instructions. However, the accuracy of the output depends
entirely on the accuracy of the input and the instructions.
💡 CONCEPT CLEAR — GIGO GIGO = Garbage In, Garbage Out. If you feed a computer wrong data, it will
give you a wrong answer very fast and with total confidence. The machine is never 'wrong' in the human
sense — it simply does exactly what it was told. Almost every so-called 'computer error' is really a human
error in data entry or in the program.

3. Diligence
Unlike a human being, a computer never suffers from tiredness, boredom, lack of concentration or laziness.
It can work continuously for hours or days without any loss of speed or accuracy. The millionth calculation is
performed exactly as carefully as the first.

4. Versatility
Versatility means flexibility — the ability to perform many different types of tasks. The same computer can
be used to prepare a document, play music, run a game, send an e-mail, design a building and control a
machine. It only needs a different program for each job.

5. Storage Capability
A computer can store a huge volume of data and retrieve it whenever required. It has primary storage (RAM)
for currently used data and secondary storage (hard disk, pen drive, CD/DVD) for permanent storage. All
data is ultimately stored in the form of 0s and 1s.

6. Automation
Once a program and data are supplied, the computer carries out the entire job automatically until
completion, without step-by-step human guidance. It can also automatically control other devices connected
to it.

7. Reliability
Because the probability of error is negligible and results are consistent, computers are trusted with critical
work — banking transactions, examination results, citizenship records and medical data.

🧠 MEMORY HOOK "SAD VS AR" — Speed, Accuracy, Diligence, Versatility, Storage, Automation,
Reliability. Silly, but it survives exam pressure better than a plain list.
📝 EXAM TIP The question "Why is a computer known as a versatile and accurate machine?" is really
asking for two characteristics with justification. Answer: versatile because one machine performs many
unrelated tasks simply by changing the program; accurate because operations are performed by
electronic circuits following exact instructions — errors come from wrong input (GIGO), not from the
machine.

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1.1.5 Advantages and Limitations of a Computer

Advantages (Merits / Capabilities) Limitations (Demerits / Drawbacks)
Performs complex operations in a very short time. Has no brain of its own — it cannot take decisions
independently.
Processes and stores a very large volume of data. Has no intelligence; it only follows instructions
given by humans.
Works continuously without tiredness or Has no emotions, feelings or common sense.
boredom.
Performs many different tasks on a single machine Cannot operate without electricity.
(multitasking).
Gives accurate and consistent results when input Cannot operate itself — it must be instructed by a
is correct. human.
Improves efficiency in education, business and Excessive use causes health problems,
research. unemployment fear and data-security risks.

⚠️COMMON MISTAKE Do not write "the computer never makes a mistake" as an advantage without
qualifying it. The correct statement is: the computer does not make a mistake as long as the input data
and instructions are correct.

1.1.6 Application Areas of Computer

Write four to six areas with two or three supporting sentences each. Quality of examples matters more than
the length of the list.

1. Home
Computers and computer-controlled gadgets (washing machines, microwave ovens, smart TVs) have
changed household life. At home they are used for e-mail and communication, entertainment and games,
online shopping and banking, and for children's educational software and digital encyclopedias.

2. Education
Computers are used as teaching aids, research tools and analysis systems. Teachers prepare course
materials, presentations and question banks; students use Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI), e-libraries
and the Internet for research. Voice-recognition and Internet connectivity make distance learning and online
classes possible — as Nepali schools and colleges experienced widely during recent years.

3. Health and Medicine

Hospitals use computers to maintain patients' case histories, assist in diagnosis and treatment, monitor vital
signs during surgery, and manage bed availability, billing, drug inventory and staff payroll. Medical scanners
such as CT, MRI and ultrasound work only because of computing power. Telemedicine allows a specialist in
Kathmandu to advise a health post in a remote district.

4. Business and Banking

Businesses use computers for accounting, billing, inventory control, payroll and marketing. Banks use them
for online balance enquiry, cheque verification, interest calculation, statement printing, ATM services,
mobile banking and digital wallets.

5. Industry
Industries use computers for process control, robot-controlled assembly, quality testing, inventory control
and production planning. CAD (Computer-Aided Design) is used to design products and CAM (Computer-
Aided Manufacturing) to produce them.

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6. Communication
E-mail, chat, video conferencing, social networks and VoIP calls all depend on computers and computer
networks.

7. Science, Research and Weather Forecasting

Supercomputers are used for weather prediction, earthquake and climate modelling, space research, genetic
research and nuclear simulation — problems involving enormous numbers of calculations.

8. Entertainment, Graphics and Publishing

Computers create special effects in films, edit video and audio, compose music, run games and support
Desktop Publishing (DTP) for newspapers, books and advertisements.

9. Government, Law and Defence

Governments use computers for census data, national ID and citizenship records, tax filing, land records and
utility bill payments. Police and law-enforcement agencies store criminal records, fingerprints and
surveillance footage. Defence uses computers in radar, missile guidance, navigation and simulation training.

📝 EXAM TIP For a 4-mark 'application areas' question, write six areas × two sentences each, and always
include at least one Nepal-specific example (online SEE/NEB results, e-Sewa/Khalti, national ID,
telemedicine in rural health posts). Local examples show real understanding and examiners reward them.

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1.2 Evolution and History of Computers

Evolution of computers is the study of how calculating devices gradually improved in accuracy, speed and
efficiency over time. Generation of computers means the stage of development in which one major
technology is replaced by a newer one.
💡 CONCEPT CLEAR Evolution is the whole journey (from counting on fingers to today's laptops).
Generation is one milestone on that journey, defined by the main electronic component used — vacuum
tube, transistor, IC, microprocessor, bio-chip. Evolution = the road; generations = the milestones on it.

1.2.1 The Mechanical Era (Zeroth Generation)

Devices of this age were built from mechanical parts — wood, metal, bone and gears — and were used for
simple calculation. There was no electricity involved.
Device Inventor / Year Key point to remember
Abacus China / Egypt, around The FIRST calculating device. A rectangular frame with
3000 BC rods and beads; the upper part is called heaven (each
bead = 5) and the lower part earth (each bead = 1).
Napier's Bones John Napier (1550– Rods made of bone/ivory with numbers carved on them;
1617) performed multiplication by addition and division by
subtraction. Napier also published the table of
logarithms in 1614.
Slide Rule William Oughtred, The FIRST analog calculating device. Two graduated
1620 scales sliding over each other, based on the principle of
logarithms.
Pascaline Blaise Pascal, 1642 The FIRST mechanical calculating machine. Used wheels,
gears and dials; could perform only addition and
subtraction. Also called the Arithmetic Machine or
Adding Machine.
Stepped Gottfried Wilhelm von An improved version of the Pascaline; could add,
Reckoner Leibniz, 1671 subtract, multiply, divide and find square roots. Leibniz
also developed calculus.
Jacquard's Loom Joseph Marie Jacquard, An automatic weaving machine controlled by PUNCHED
1801–1802 CARDS — the first use of stored instructions to control a
machine.
Difference Engine Charles Babbage, 1822 A mechanical computer designed to solve
polynomial/differential equations and print results
automatically.
Analytical Engine Charles Babbage, 1833 A general-purpose, program-controlled, automatic
mechanical digital computer. Because of it, Babbage is
called the FATHER OF MODERN COMPUTER.
First computer Lady Augusta Ada Daughter of the poet Lord Byron and assistant of
program Byron Lovelace (1815– Babbage. She documented his work and wrote programs
1852) for the Analytical Engine, so she is called the FIRST
COMPUTER PROGRAMMER. The language 'Ada' is
named after her.
Tabulating Herman Hollerith, A punched-card machine used for the US census, which
Machine 1890 finished in about 3 years instead of 10. His company
later grew into IBM (1924).
Stored Program John von Neumann, Proposed that the program should be stored in main

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Device Inventor / Year Key point to remember

Concept 1945 memory along with its data, so it can be changed easily.
He is called the FATHER OF STORED PROGRAM.

The four parts of the Analytical Engine — and why they matter
Babbage designed the Analytical Engine with four components, and every computer today still has exactly
these four:
Babbage's part Its job Modern equivalent
The Mill Performs the calculations CPU / ALU
The Store Holds data before and after processing Memory and storage
The Reader Feeds data and instructions in Input device
The Printer Presents the result Output device

📝 EXAM TIP This table is the perfect answer to "Why is Charles Babbage called the Father of Modern
Computer?" — because the Analytical Engine he designed in the 1830s already contained the four
functional units (mill, store, reader, printer) that every computer uses today.
⚠️COMMON MISTAKE The Difference Engine and the Analytical Engine are TWO DIFFERENT machines.
Many notes wrongly say the Difference Engine 'is also called the Analytical Engine' — that is incorrect.
Difference Engine (1822) = special purpose, solves equations. Analytical Engine (1833) = general purpose,
programmable. Also note: Babbage never completed a full-scale working version of either, due to lack of
funds.

1.2.2 The Electro-Mechanical Era

Machines of this age combined mechanical parts (relays, switches) with early electronic components. This is
the bridge between the mechanical era and the fully electronic era.
Machine Developed by / Year Key point
Z1 / Z3 Konrad Zuse, Germany, Among the first program-controlled electro-
1938 / 1941 mechanical computers.
Mark I (Harvard Mark Howard H. Aiken, Harvard The FIRST FULLY AUTOMATIC CALCULATING
I / IBM ASCC) University with IBM, 1937– MACHINE. About 51 feet long and 8 feet high.
1944 Used binary numbers; received instructions on
paper tape and produced output on punched
cards. Could perform the four arithmetic
operations plus table reference, printing about
one result every five seconds.
ABC (Atanasoff–Berry John Vincent Atanasoff and The FIRST ELECTRONIC DIGITAL COMPUTER and
Computer) Clifford Berry, 1939–1942 the first machine to use vacuum tubes for
computation. Introduced the ideas of binary
arithmetic, regenerative memory and logic
circuits. It was special purpose — it solved
systems of simultaneous linear equations.
Colossus Tommy Flowers and team, One of the world's earliest programmable
Bletchley Park, England, electronic digital computers, built to break
1943–1944 German wartime codes. It was a SPECIAL
PURPOSE machine. Alan Turing's theoretical
work influenced the code-breaking effort.

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⚠️COMMON MISTAKE Older notes state that Colossus was 'designed by Alan Turing at the University of
Manchester'. That is wrong. Colossus was engineered by Tommy Flowers at Bletchley Park. Turing
designed the Bombe (a different code-breaking machine) and is famous for the Turing Machine concept
and the Turing Test — he is often called the FATHER OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE / theoretical computer
science.

1.2.3 The Electronic Computer Era

Machine Developed by / Year Key point
ENIAC (Electronic J. Presper Eckert and The first popular GENERAL-PURPOSE all-
Numerical Integrator and John W. Mauchly, electronic digital computer. Weighed about 30
Computer) University of tons, contained about 17,468 vacuum tubes,
Pennsylvania, 1946 70,000 resistors and 5 million soldered joints,
and consumed about 160 kilowatts. John von
Neumann was a consultant on the project.
EDVAC (Electronic von Neumann, Eckert The first design based on von Neumann's
Discrete Variable and Mauchly, 1946–1952 STORED PROGRAM concept.
Automatic Computer)
EDSAC (Electronic Delay Maurice Wilkes, The first full-sized practical stored-program
Storage Automatic University of Cambridge, computer to run programs. Input/output
Calculator) 1949 through paper tape; about 700 additions per
second.
UNIVAC (Universal Eckert and Mauchly, The FIRST COMPUTER MANUFACTURED FOR
Automatic Computer) 1951 COMMERCIAL USE. Designed to handle both
numeric and textual data. The first UNIVAC
sold to a private business (General Electric)
was in 1954.

🧠 MEMORY HOOK The 'FIRSTS' are the highest-scoring facts in this chapter. Lock these five: Abacus = first
calculating device · Slide rule = first analog device · Pascaline = first mechanical calculator · ABC = first
electronic digital computer · UNIVAC = first commercial computer.

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1.3 Generations of Computer

Computer generation is the classification of computers into groups on the basis of the main electronic
component (memory/processing technology) used inside them, together with the hardware and software
technology of that period. Each generation is a step forward in technology.
Generation Time period Main electronic device
First 1945 – 1955 Vacuum tubes / valves
Second 1956 – 1963 Transistors
Third 1964 – 1971 Integrated Circuits (ICs)
Fourth 1972 onward VLSI / Microprocessor
Fifth Present and future Bio-chips, ULSI, Artificial Intelligence

Master Comparison Table of the Five Generations

If you learn only one table from Unit 1, learn this one. Almost every generation question can be answered
from it.
Feature First Second Third Fourth Fifth
Electronic Vacuum tube / Transistor IC Microprocesso Bio-chip / ULSI
device valve r (VLSI)
Operating Millisecond Microsecond Nanosecond Picosecond Femtosecond
speed and beyond
Primary Magnetic drum Magnetic core Semiconductor Semiconductor Super-
memory / valve (RAM, ROM, conductor
cache) (proposed)
Secondary Punched card, Magnetic tape, Magnetic disk Hard disk, New
storage paper tape magnetic drum (FDD) CD/DVD, pen technology
drive
Language Machine Assembly + High-level High-level + Natural
used language early high-level language 4GL language
(COBOL,
FORTRAN)
Size, cost, Very high High Low Very low Not yet known
power, heat
Reliability Very low Better Moderate High Expected
highest
Examples ENIAC, EDVAC, IBM 1401, IBM IBM 360, IBM IBM PC, Apple AI systems,
EDSAC, 1620, IBM 370, PDP-8, Macintosh, HP robots,
UNIVAC 7000, ATLAS PDP-11, ICL laptops quantum
2900 computers

1.3.1 First Generation (1945 – 1955) — Vacuum Tubes

● Technology used: vacuum tubes (valves) for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory.
● Programmed only in machine language (0s and 1s).
● Punched cards and paper tape were used for input; printouts for output.

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● Occupied entire rooms, consumed enormous electricity and generated a great deal of heat.
● Very slow, very expensive, unreliable — tubes burned out constantly.
● Could perform only simple, straightforward numerical calculations.
● Examples: ENIAC, EDVAC, EDSAC, UNIVAC.

1.3.2 Second Generation (1956 – 1963) — Transistors

● Technology used: transistors replaced vacuum tubes.
● Operating speed improved to the microsecond range.
● Assembly language and the first high-level languages — COBOL (Common Business Oriented
Language) and FORTRAN (Formula Translation) — were introduced.
● Magnetic core memory was used as primary memory; magnetic tape and magnetic drum as
secondary memory.
● Smaller, faster, cheaper, more reliable and more energy-efficient than the first generation.
● Could perform scientific calculations such as solving differential equations.
● Examples: IBM 1401, IBM 1620, IBM 7000, ATLAS.
💡 CONCEPT CLEAR Why was the transistor such a big deal? A vacuum tube was the size of a small light
bulb, got very hot and burned out often. A transistor did the same job while being tiny, cool, cheap and
long-lasting. Every improvement of the second generation — smaller size, less heat, more reliability, lower
cost — flows from that one component change.

1.3.3 Third Generation (1964 – 1971) — Integrated Circuits

● Technology used: Integrated Circuit (IC) — many transistors placed on a single silicon chip. Invented
by Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce.
● Speed reached the nanosecond range.
● High-level languages such as FORTRAN, BASIC, COBOL and PASCAL became common.
● Semiconductor memory (RAM and ROM) was used as primary memory; magnetic disk as secondary
memory.
● Monitor and keyboard were introduced in place of punched cards — users could now interact with
the computer directly.
● Multiprogramming and time-sharing operating systems were developed.
● Size, cost, power requirement and heat all decreased; speed and storage increased.
● Examples: IBM 360, IBM 370, PDP-8, PDP-11, ICL 2900 series.

1.3.4 Fourth Generation (1972 onward) — Microprocessor

● Technology used: LSI and VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) — thousands to millions of components
on one chip — leading to the microprocessor.
● The first microprocessor, Intel 4004, was developed by Intel Corporation in 1971.
● Speed reached the picosecond range.
● The microprocessor made the microcomputer (personal computer) possible, putting a computer on
every desk.
● Semiconductor memory (RAM, ROM, cache) as primary memory; hard disk, optical disk (CD/DVD),
Blu-ray and flash memory as secondary memory.
● Fourth-generation languages (4GL), graphical user interfaces (GUI) and user-friendly software
appeared.
● E-mail, the Internet and mobile communication developed in this generation.
● Examples: IBM PC, Apple Macintosh, HP laptops, and essentially every computer you use today.

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📝 EXAM TIP A very common question is: "Which generation of computer are we using now?" The correct
answer is the FOURTH generation, because today's computers are microprocessor-based. The fifth
generation is still under development — AI features in modern devices are early steps toward it, not a
completed fifth generation.

1.3.5 Fifth Generation (Present and Future) — Artificial Intelligence

● Technology to be used: bio-chips, VVLSI / ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration), parallel processing and
quantum computation.
● Based on Artificial Intelligence (AI) — the computer is expected to reason, learn and take decisions
on its own.
● Natural language (ordinary human language) will be used to give instructions.
● Speed will be measured in LIPS (Logical Inferences Per Second) rather than in instructions per
second.
● These machines are expected to converse with people and to imitate human senses, manual skills
and intelligence.
● Molecular technology and nanotechnology will be used.
● Still a developing field — the fifth generation is not yet fully a reality.

Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Artificial Intelligence is the branch of computer science concerned with designing programs and machines
that can solve problems intelligently — that is, machines that imitate human thinking and behaviour.
Examples include voice assistants, machine translation, face recognition, self-driving vehicles, expert systems
and robotics.

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1.4 Measurement Units of Speed and Storage

1.4.1 Units of Processing Speed
Inside the system unit, signals travel through electronic circuits at speeds approaching the speed of light. A
task that would take a person days can be finished in a moment. Processor clock speed is measured in Hertz:
Unit Meaning
1 Hertz (Hz) 1 cycle (operation) per second
1 KiloHertz (KHz) 1,000 Hz
1 MegaHertz (MHz) 1,000,000 Hz (one million cycles per second)
1 GigaHertz (GHz) 1,000,000,000 Hz (one billion cycles per second)

The time taken to complete an operation is measured in fractions of a second: millisecond → microsecond →
nanosecond → picosecond → femtosecond (see the table in section 1.1.4). Other performance units you
should know: MIPS (Million Instructions Per Second) and FLOPS (Floating-point Operations Per Second),
which is how supercomputers are rated.

1.4.2 Units of Storage

Computer memory is divided into cells, and each cell holds one bit — a 0 or a 1. The word BIT comes from
BInary digiT. Because computer memory is addressed in powers of 2, each larger unit is 1024 (2¹⁰) times the
previous one.
Unit Short form Capacity Rough real-world feel
1 Bit b A single 0 or 1 (on or off) One light switch
1 Nibble — 4 bits Half a character
1 Byte B 8 bits One character, e.g. 'A'
1 Kilobyte KB 1024 Bytes About half a page of plain text
1 Megabyte MB 1024 KB One good-quality photo or one MP3
song
1 Gigabyte GB 1024 MB About 250 songs or one HD movie
1 Terabyte TB 1024 GB A typical laptop hard disk
1 Petabyte PB 1024 TB A large data-centre store
1 Exabyte EB 1024 PB Global internet traffic scale
1 Zettabyte ZB 1024 EB All data created worldwide in a year
1 Yottabyte YB 1024 ZB Larger than any existing store

⚠️COMMON MISTAKE Two traps here. (1) 1 Byte = 8 bits, NOT 8 bytes — and a Nibble is 4 bits, exactly
half a byte. (2) Some old notes add a 'Bronto Byte' after Yottabyte; it is not an officially recognised unit, so
do not write it unless your textbook does. Also note the small 'b' means bit and the capital 'B' means Byte
— internet speed is measured in Mbps (megabits per second), while file size is in MB (megabytes).
🧠 MEMORY HOOK "Kind Men Give Teachers Perfect Exam Zone Yearly" — KB, MB, GB, TB, PB, EB, ZB, YB.
Each step is ×1024.

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1.5 Classification of Computers

Computers are classified on five different bases. In the exam, always state the basis first, then the types — it
shows the examiner you understand the structure.
Basis of classification Types
1. On the basis of working Analog, Digital, Hybrid
principle
2. On the basis of purpose General purpose, Special purpose
3. On the basis of size and capacity Supercomputer, Mainframe, Minicomputer, Microcomputer
4. On the basis of brand IBM PC, IBM Compatible, Apple/Macintosh
5. On the basis of model XT, AT, PS/2

1.5.1 On the Basis of Working Principle

(a) Analog Computer
An analog computer operates on continuous data — physical quantities such as length, voltage, current,
temperature, pressure and speed. It works by MEASURING rather than by counting.
● Based on continuously varying (analog) signals.
● Measures natural or physical values.
● Usually a special-purpose device dedicated to a single task.
● Little or no storage facility, because it works on a real-time basis.
● Accuracy is comparatively low, because of noise and filtering limitations.
● Powerful for solving differential equations; used in scientific, industrial and medical applications.
● Examples: speedometer, thermometer, ohmmeter, voltmeter, seismograph, ECG machine.

(b) Digital Computer

A digital computer works on discrete (discontinuous) data represented in binary form, where 0 means OFF
(no pulse) and 1 means ON (pulse present). It works by COUNTING.
● Based on discrete digital signals and the logic of 0 and 1.
● Multipurpose and programmable, so usually a general-purpose computer.
● High accuracy, high processing speed and large memory capacity.
● More reliable, because digital signals are less affected by noise.
● Examples: IBM PC, Apple/Macintosh, laptops, smartphones.

(c) Hybrid Computer

A hybrid computer combines the best features of analog and digital computers. It can process both
continuous and discrete data, and can convert analog signals into digital and digital into analog.
● Combines the measuring ability of analog with the counting, storage and logic ability of digital.
● Special-purpose and generally expensive.
● Used in radar systems, rocket launching, weather forecasting, industrial process control and hospital
ICUs.
💡 CONCEPT CLEAR Picture an ICU monitor. The sensors on the patient's body pick up continuous
heartbeat and temperature — that is the analog side, measuring. The machine then converts those signals

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into numbers, displays them on a screen and raises an alarm if a value crosses a limit — that is the digital
side, counting and deciding. One machine doing both = hybrid computer.

Difference between Analog and Digital Computer

S.N. Analog Computer Digital Computer
1 Works on continuous data. Works on discrete (discontinuous) data.
2 Operates by measuring and comparing. Operates by counting and calculating.
3 Accuracy is low. Accuracy is high.
4 Output is continuous. Output is obtained after complete
computation.
5 Special purpose in nature. General purpose in nature.
6 Little or no storage capacity. Large storage capacity.
7 Normally cannot be reprogrammed. Can be reprogrammed easily.
8 Lower cost. Higher cost.
9 Examples: speedometer, thermometer, Examples: IBM PC, Apple Macintosh, laptop.
seismograph.

1.5.2 On the Basis of Purpose

A general-purpose computer can perform many different kinds of tasks; the user installs whatever programs
are needed. A special-purpose computer is designed and built to perform one specific task, with the program
permanently stored in it at the time of manufacture.
S.N. Special Purpose Computer General Purpose Computer
1 Designed for a single, specific task (single- Designed for many different tasks (multi-task).
task).
2 The program is installed at the time of Programs are installed later, as the user
manufacturing. requires.
3 The user cannot install new programs in it. The user can install different programs as
needed.
4 Programs are stored permanently. Programs are held temporarily in memory.
5 Comparatively faster at its one job. Comparatively slower, because it is built for
flexibility.
6 Examples: washing machine, digital watch, Examples: desktop computer, laptop, server.
ATM, traffic light controller, calculator.

1.5.3 On the Basis of Size and Capacity

(a) Microcomputer (Personal Computer)
The smallest, cheapest and most widely used category, built around a microprocessor. Designed mainly for a
single user, which is why it is called a personal computer.
● Small in size, low in cost, single-user system.
● Smaller memory and storage than the larger categories.
● Examples: IBM PC, Apple Macintosh, Dell/HP desktops.

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Types of microcomputer:
○ Desktop — designed to sit on top of an office desk; not portable.
○ Laptop / Notebook — portable, battery-operated, light enough to be used on the lap. A
notebook is smaller and lighter than a laptop.
○ Palmtop — small enough to fit in the palm; limited functions such as phone book and
calendar.
○ Tablet PC — wireless portable computer with a touch-screen interface; larger than a
smartphone, smaller than a notebook.
○ Handheld / PDA / Smartphone — fits in one hand, operated with the other; a smartphone
adds computing functions to a mobile phone.

(b) Minicomputer
Medium-sized computer — larger than a microcomputer and smaller than a mainframe. A centrally located
CPU is connected to a number of terminals, so several users can work at the same time.
● Occupies about 10 square feet of space.
● Supports roughly 50 terminals / users simultaneously.
● Used in medium-sized organisations for database administration, banking and desktop publishing.
● Examples: PDP-11, VAX 36, Prime 9755.

(c) Mainframe Computer

A very large, powerful, general-purpose computer with huge storage capacity and very fast processing,
serving hundreds of users at once through connected terminals.
● Occupies a large air-conditioned room; very expensive.
● Supports more than 100 terminals simultaneously.
● Central processor with central administration; extremely reliable and runs continuously.
● Used by large agencies, government offices, banks, airlines and insurance companies for large-scale
data processing.
● Examples: IBM 1401, IBM 4381, ICL 2950/10.

(d) Supercomputer
The largest, fastest and most expensive category of computer. Its speed is measured in MIPS or FLOPS, and it
uses parallel processing — many processors working on parts of the same problem at the same time.
● Extremely large storage capacity and extremely fast processing.
● Requires a team of experts and a specially controlled environment to operate.
● Used in weather forecasting, earthquake and climate modelling, nuclear and space research,
petroleum exploration, genetic engineering and animation/graphics.
● Examples: CRAY-1, CRAY XMP, NEC Super SX-11, CYBER 205, PARAM (India).

Difference between Microcomputer and Supercomputer

S.N. Microcomputer Supercomputer
1 Smallest computer on the basis of size. Largest computer on the basis of size.
2 Least powerful; low processing speed. Most powerful; extremely high processing
speed.
3 Cheapest. Most expensive.
4 Small storage capacity. Extremely large storage capacity.
5 Operated by a single ordinary user. Requires a team of trained experts to operate.

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S.N. Microcomputer Supercomputer

6 Used in homes, schools and offices. Used in weather forecasting and scientific
research.
7 Examples: IBM PC, Apple Macintosh. Examples: CRAY-1, CYBER 205, PARAM.

📝 EXAM TIP "What is a supercomputer? Explain its application in real-time situations." — Define it, then
give REAL applications with a reason: weather forecasting (millions of atmospheric calculations per hour),
earthquake simulation, nuclear research, space missions, oil exploration and genome analysis. Always
explain WHY a supercomputer is needed: the problem involves an enormous number of calculations that
must be finished quickly.

1.5.4 On the Basis of Brand

IBM PC: computers manufactured by IBM (International Business Machines) itself, using IBM's own design
principles. These are called branded or original PCs.
IBM Compatible: computers assembled by other companies using the same parts and design principles as
IBM PCs. They can run the same software, so they are sometimes called clones or duplicates.
Apple / Macintosh: computers made by Apple Corporation (founded 1976). Their hardware and software
architecture is different from IBM's; traditionally, software written for one could not run directly on the
other.

S.N. IBM PC IBM Compatible

1 Developed by IBM Company itself. Developed by companies other than IBM.
2 Also called branded or original PC. Also called assembled or clone PC.
3 Generally expensive. Comparatively cheaper.
4 More reliable and durable. Comparatively less reliable and less durable.
5 Better build quality and after-sales support. Quality varies with the assembler.

⚠️COMMON MISTAKE IBM was founded in 1911 as CTR and renamed IBM in 1924. Herman Hollerith's
Tabulating Machine Company was one of the firms that merged to form it — but saying 'IBM was
established by Hollerith in 1923' (as some notes do) is not accurate. Write: IBM grew out of Hollerith's
Tabulating Machine Company and took the name IBM in 1924.

1.5.5 On the Basis of Model

● XT (eXtra Technology): old-model computers with slow processing speed (about 4.77 MHz). They
were text-based only and could not run GUI software such as Windows.
● AT (Advanced Technology): newer, much faster models (GHz range) that can run both text-based
and GUI-based software. Almost all computers today are AT models.
● PS/2 (Personal System/2): introduced by IBM in 1987 as a refinement of AT computers, with
improved bus and connector design. The round PS/2 keyboard and mouse ports get their name from
this model.

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1.6 Mobile Computing

Mobile computing is a form of human-computer interaction in which the computer is expected to be
transported and used while the user is in motion. It lets users access data, information and services from
wherever they are.

Mobile computing has three aspects:

Aspect What it covers
1. Mobile communication Communication issues in ad-hoc and infrastructure networks —
protocols, data formats, bandwidth and the technologies that keep a
moving device connected.
2. Mobile hardware The physical mobile devices and their components — smartphones,
tablets, laptops, wearables, antennas, batteries.
3. Mobile software The operating systems and applications designed for the characteristics
and constraints of mobile devices.

Characteristics of Mobile Computing

● Portable — can be carried and used while moving.
● Limited processing and storage capability compared with a desktop computer.
● Usually has a touch screen and an on-screen (virtual) keyboard; an external keyboard can be
attached by USB, infrared or Bluetooth.
● Contains camera, speaker and microphone; often handwriting-recognition software.
● Usually has a memory-card slot to expand storage.
● Wireless connectivity through Bluetooth and Wi-Fi, plus wired connection through USB.
● Can synchronise its data with applications on a user's computer.
● Can be used for cloud computing and remote access.
● Uses a mobile operating system such as Android, iOS or Windows Mobile.
● May include a GPS (Global Positioning System) receiver for navigation.

Examples of mobile computing devices: laptop, notebook, tablet PC, smartphone, PDA, wearable
computer, UMPC (Ultra-Mobile PC).
💡 CONCEPT CLEAR Portable is not the same as mobile. A desktop computer you carry to a new room and
then plug in is portable — it only works when it is standing still. A smartphone that keeps you connected
while you are riding a bus is mobile — it works while it moves. Mobile computing is about staying
connected in motion.

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1.7 Computer Architecture and Organization

1.7.1 Computer Architecture
Computer architecture is the specification detailing how a set of hardware and software technology
standards interact to form a computer system or platform. In short, it is the conceptual design and
fundamental operational structure of a computer system — the theory behind the design.
● It sets the design requirements and specifications of the computer system.
● It includes the instruction set, instruction format, addressing modes, data types supported and
memory addressing techniques.
● It is the science and art of selecting and interconnecting hardware components to create a computer
system.
● It describes WHAT the computer does.

1.7.2 Layers of Computer Architecture

A computer system is built in six layers. The lowest layer is pure electronics; the highest is the software you
actually use. Each layer hides the complexity of the one below it.
Layer Name What it contains Level
6 Application layer Software used to perform specific user tasks — MS- Software level
Office, AutoCAD, Photoshop, Tally.
5 System software layer Software that controls overall operation: file Software level
editing, storage management, I/O management,
resource accounting. Examples: Windows, Linux,
UNIX, MS-DOS, language processors, utilities.
4 Machine layer The basic hardware elements — processor, main Hardware level
memory, auxiliary memory, input/output devices
and translator programs (compiler, assembler,
interpreter).
3 Micro-programmed A sequence of micro-instructions forming a micro- Hardware level
layer program, called firmware, permanently stored in
ROM.
2 Digital logic layer The basic elements that store, manipulate and Hardware level
transmit data as binary values — these elements
are called gates (AND, OR, NOT).
1 Electrical and The physical device layer — transistors, capacitors, Hardware level
electronic component resistors, diodes, ICs.
layer

💡 CONCEPT CLEAR Think of a school. The bricks and cement are the electronic components. The
classrooms are the logic gates. The timetable built into the building's routine is the firmware. The teachers
and equipment are the machine layer. The school administration is the system software. The lesson you
actually attend is the application. You attend the lesson without thinking about the cement — that is
exactly what layering does for a computer.

1.7.3 Computer Organization

Computer organization refers to the operational units of a computer and the way they are interconnected to
realise the architectural specification. It deals with the physical aspects of the design — how the CPU,
memory, and input/output units are constructed and connected. It describes HOW the computer performs.

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Difference between Computer Architecture and Computer Organization

S.N. Computer Architecture Computer Organization
1 Concerned with the structure and behaviour Concerned with how the hardware
of the computer system as seen by the components operate and how they are
user/programmer. connected together.
2 It describes WHAT the computer does. It describes HOW the computer does it.
3 Includes instruction set, instruction format, Includes circuit design, control signals,
addressing modes and data types. memory technology and peripheral
interfaces.
4 Deals with the design/logical aspect — the Deals with the physical/implementation
blueprint. aspect — the construction.
5 Decided first; it is what the programmer must Decided afterwards; it is transparent to the
know. programmer.

🧠 MEMORY HOOK Architecture = the architect's drawing of a house (what rooms exist, how big, what
they're for). Organization = the engineer's work of laying the pipes and wires to build it. Architecture
answers WHAT; organization answers HOW.

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1.8 Computer System and Its Components

A computer system is a fully functional system formed by the integration of hardware, software and the
user. Hardware components are the tangible physical parts (keyboard, mouse, processor, motherboard,
memory, monitor, printer). Software components are the logical parts that make the hardware work (data,
programs, instructions). Some definitions add a third element — the humanware or user — because without
a user the system serves no purpose.

1.8.1 Block Diagram of a Computer System

This is the most important diagram in Unit 1. Draw it exactly as described below, with solid arrows for
control signals and dotted arrows for data flow.

SECONDARY MEMORY
↑ ↓
INPUT UNIT → MAIN MEMORY (Primary Memory) → OUTPUT UNIT
↑ ↓
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
Registers | ALU | Control Unit

How to read the diagram:

1. The input unit receives data and instructions from the user and converts them into machine-readable
(binary) form.
2. They are stored in main memory.
3. The control unit fetches an instruction from main memory, decodes it and issues control signals to
every other unit.
4. The ALU performs the arithmetic and logical operations, using registers to hold operands and
intermediate results.
5. Results go back to main memory, and from there either to secondary memory for permanent storage
or to the output unit.
6. The output unit converts the binary result into a human-readable form and presents it to the user.

1.8.2 The Five Functional Units

Unit Function Examples
Input unit Accepts data and instructions from the user and Keyboard, mouse,
converts them from human-readable to machine- scanner, microphone
readable (binary) form.
CPU (processor) Interprets and executes instructions; controls all Intel Core i5, AMD Ryzen
other units. Contains Registers, Control Unit and
ALU.
Primary / main Holds the operating system, running programs, data RAM, ROM, cache
memory being processed and intermediate results. Fast but
small; RAM is volatile.

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Unit Function Examples

Secondary / Stores programs and data permanently for future Hard disk, SSD, pen drive,
auxiliary storage use. Slower but large and non-volatile. DVD
Output unit Converts the processed binary result into human- Monitor, printer, speaker
understandable form and delivers it to the user.

📝 EXAM TIP In a labelled block diagram question, marks are given for: (a) all five blocks present, (b) CPU
shown containing ALU, CU and Registers, (c) correct direction of arrows, (d) data flow distinguished from
control flow. Draw the CPU as one big box with three boxes inside it — that single detail earns marks that
most students lose.

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1.9 Input Unit and Input Devices

The input unit is formed by all the input devices attached to the computer. An input device is a device used
to enter data and instructions into the computer system.

Functions of the input unit:

1. It accepts data and instructions from the outside world.
2. It converts them into a form the computer understands — binary code such as ASCII.
3. It supplies the converted data and instructions to the computer system for further processing.

1.9.1 Keyboard
The keyboard is the primary input device through which text data and instructions are entered. It was
invented by Christopher Latham Sholes in 1868 in America. Most keyboards use the QWERTY layout, named
after the first six letters on the top alphabetic row.
How it works: when a key is pressed, an electronic signal is produced and detected by a circuit called the
keyboard encoder. The encoder identifies which key was pressed and sends the corresponding binary code
(ASCII, EBCDIC or HEX) to the computer.
Types of keyboards for PCs:
● 83-key keyboard (PC/XT)
● 84-key keyboard (PC/AT)
● 102-key keyboard (extended keyboard)
● 105-key Windows-compatible keyboard
Keys are grouped as: alphanumeric keys, numeric keypad, function keys (F1–F12), cursor/navigation keys,
special-purpose keys (Enter, Shift, Ctrl, Alt) and modern multimedia keys.

1.9.2 Pointing Devices

Mouse
A mouse is a small pointing device used to point, draw, select and drag items displayed on the screen. The
on-screen pointer it controls is called the cursor. It was invented by Douglas Engelbart in 1963–1964
(working prototype and patent, based on his 1960s research at SRI).
Types of mouse:
● Mechanical / Ball mouse: uses a rubber ball whose movement is detected by two rollers at right
angles connected to shaft encoders.
● Scroll mouse: has a scroll wheel between the left and right buttons for scrolling pages up and down.
● Optical mouse: uses an LED light source and an optical sensor (image sensor or photodiode array)
instead of a ball; more accurate and needs no cleaning.
● Laser mouse: uses a laser instead of an LED; tracks more than 2,000 DPI compared with 400–800 DPI
for a typical optical mouse, so it is far more precise.
● Wireless mouse: connects by Bluetooth or a radio receiver instead of a cable.

Trackball
A trackball is like an upside-down mouse. With a mouse the whole unit is moved over a surface to roll the
ball; with a trackball the unit stays still and the ball itself is rolled with the fingers or thumb. It needs very
little desk space and was used in early laptops.

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Touch Pad
A touch pad is a small touch-sensitive rectangular pad used as a pointing device in portable computers, in
place of an external mouse. It uses pressure/capacitive sensors: each position on the pad is translated to a
specific location on the screen, and it is operated with a finger.

Joystick
A joystick is a stick mounted on a spherical ball that moves inside a socket. Moving the stick moves the
pointer or object on screen in the corresponding direction. The joystick was developed in the 1940s and the
video-game joystick appeared in 1967. It is used for playing video games, in flight simulators, and for
indicating positions in graphic systems.

1.9.3 Scanning and Reading Devices

Scanner
A scanner is an input device that reads images or printed text and converts them into digital signals that the
computer can store and manipulate. It was invented by Rudolf Hell in Germany (an early drum scanner was
demonstrated in 1963).
How it works: the scanner digitises the image by dividing it into a grid of tiny dots called pixels, and
represents each dot by binary bits carrying its RGB colour value. The resulting matrix of bits is called a
bitmap, which can be saved as a file and displayed on screen. Types include flatbed, handheld, drum and
sheet-fed scanners.

Bar Code Reader

A bar code reader is a device used to read a bar code. A bar code is a pattern of black bars and white spaces
of varying width that represents encoded information. The reader shines light on the code, converts the
reflected pattern into an electrical signal and decodes it into the original characters.
It is widely used for labelling consumer products and library books. In the common UPC system the code is
read as ten digits — the first five identify the manufacturer or supplier, the next five identify the individual
product — plus a check digit that confirms the reading is correct. The bar code was invented by Norman
Joseph Woodland and Bernard Silver.

QR Code Scanner
QR stands for Quick Response. A QR code is a two-dimensional pattern of black and white squares, and is an
advanced form of the bar code — it stores far more data and can be read from any angle. It commonly
stores a website address, payment details or product information, and is read by a smartphone camera with
a scanning app. In Nepal, QR codes are now used everywhere for digital payment.

OCR — Optical Character Reader

OCR is a device (and technique) that recognises printed or handwritten text characters and converts them
into a form the computer can edit. The reader scans the document with a photoelectric device, converts the
marks into electrical signals, and compares the resulting patterns with character patterns stored in memory.
If a match is found the character is identified; otherwise it is rejected. Used in airlines, banks and postal
offices for reading postal codes.

OMR — Optical Mark Reader

OMR senses the presence or absence of a pen or pencil mark. Answer sheets or questionnaires are printed
with squares or bubbles; the user shades the chosen bubble, and the OMR detects the marks and sends the
corresponding signals to the processor. It is the standard device for checking multiple-choice examination
answer sheets and for survey forms.

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MICR — Magnetic Ink Character Reader

MICR reads characters printed with a special ink containing magnetisable material. The characters are
magnetised during the input process, and the reader reads their magnetic pattern and compares it with
patterns stored in memory. It is fast, highly accurate and difficult to forge, which is why it is used on bank
cheques (the number printed along the bottom of a cheque is MICR text) and in postal services.

⚠️COMMON MISTAKE OCR vs OMR vs MICR is asked almost every year and students mix them up. Fix it
with three words: OCR reads CHARACTERS (letters and digits). OMR reads MARKS (shaded bubbles). MICR
reads MAGNETIC INK (cheques). Also remember MICR's advantage: it cannot be easily forged and can still
be read even if the cheque is stamped or folded.

1.9.4 Other Input Devices

Light Pen
A light pen is a pencil-shaped device used to select screen positions by detecting the light coming from
points on a screen. It was first developed at MIT in the 1950s (used with the Whirlwind computer, and later
famous through Sketchpad in 1963). It is sensitive to the short burst of light emitted by the phosphor coating
at the instant the electron beam strikes a point. Light pens are rarely used today because they only work on
CRT screens and cause arm fatigue.

Touch Screen
A touch screen is a display screen that is sensitive to the user's touch, so it acts as both an input and an
output device. The user points at a command, menu or icon directly with a finger or stylus. Touch-screen
technology was first developed in the 1960s–1970s (E.A. Johnson, 1965) and became widespread on
smartphones and tablets after 2007. It is used in ATMs, ticket machines, information kiosks, smartphones,
tablets and laptops.
⚠️COMMON MISTAKE Some notes claim the touch screen was 'invented in 2009 at an Apple store'. That
is wrong. Touch-sensitive screens existed from the 1960s; Apple popularised the multi-touch smartphone
screen with the iPhone in 2007. A touch screen is also the standard example of a device that is BOTH an
input and an output device — a favourite one-mark question.

Voice Input System (Microphone)

A voice input system allows instructions and data to be given by speaking instead of typing. The microphone
converts speech into electrical signals, which are sent to the processor; the signal pattern is compared with
patterns already stored in memory, and a word is recognised only when a match is found. Voice input is
valuable in factories where both hands of a worker are occupied, for assisting people with disabilities, and
for identification and security in banks.

Digital Camera and Webcam

Capture still images and video directly in digital form and transfer them to the computer for storage, editing
and transmission. Essential for online classes, video conferencing and digital photography.

Biometric Devices
Read a unique physical characteristic of a person — fingerprint, iris pattern, face or voice — and convert it
into digital data for identification. Used in attendance systems, national ID, passports and phone security.

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1.10 Memory / Storage Unit

The memory unit (storage unit) holds data and instructions before processing begins, holds intermediate
results during processing, and holds final results before they are sent to the output unit.

Functions of the storage unit:

1. Stores data and instructions entered through input devices.
2. Stores intermediate results produced during processing.
3. Stores final results before they are passed to an output device.

1.10.1 Classification of Memory

Primary / Internal / Main Memory Secondary / Auxiliary / Backup / External
Memory
Registers Magnetic Tape
Cache Memory (L1, L2, L3) Magnetic Disk — Floppy Disk, Hard Disk, Pen
Drive, Memory Card
RAM — SRAM, DRAM Optical Disk — CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW, DVD, Blu-
ray
ROM — PROM, EPROM, EEPROM Solid State Drive (SSD)

1.10.2 Primary Memory

Primary memory is the memory that communicates directly with the CPU. It holds the operating system, the
programs currently running, the data being processed and the intermediate results. It is fast but
comparatively small and expensive, and RAM — its main component — is volatile, meaning its contents are
lost when the power is switched off.

RAM (Random Access Memory)

RAM is the read/write memory of the computer. It is called 'random access' because the CPU can reach any
memory location directly, in the same amount of time, without going through the earlier locations in
sequence. It is volatile: data remains only as long as the power supply is on.

Type of RAM Description

SRAM (Static RAM) Stores data as long as the computer is ON, without needing to be
refreshed. Faster but more expensive and physically larger per bit.
Typically used for CPU cache memory.
DRAM (Dynamic RAM) Must be electrically refreshed hundreds of times per second, otherwise its
contents fade within milliseconds even when the computer is on. Cheaper
and denser but slower. Used as the computer's main memory.

ROM (Read Only Memory)

ROM can only be read from, not written to during normal operation. It is non-volatile — its contents are
permanent and are not lost when the power is switched off. It stores the instructions the computer needs at

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start-up, such as the BIOS/booting program, which is why the computer knows what to do the moment you
press the power button.

Type of Full form Description

ROM
PROM Programmable Read Only Memory Manufactured blank; the user can write data into
it ONCE only. After that it cannot be changed.
EPROM Erasable Programmable Read Only Contents can be erased by exposing the chip to
Memory strong ultraviolet light through a quartz window,
and then reprogrammed. The whole chip is erased
at once.
EEPROM Electrically Erasable Programmable Contents can be erased and reprogrammed
Read Only Memory electrically, byte by byte, without removing the
chip. Flash memory (pen drives, memory cards,
SSDs) is based on this technology.

Difference between RAM and ROM

S.N. RAM ROM
1 Volatile memory — data is lost when power is Non-volatile memory — data is stored
switched off. permanently.
2 Read AND write memory. Read only memory.
3 Holds the programs and data the CPU is Holds special start-up instructions
currently processing. (BIOS/booting program).
4 Larger in capacity. Smaller in capacity.
5 Used for buffering purposes. Not used for buffering.
6 Contents can be changed by the user at any Contents are written by the manufacturer and
time. normally cannot be changed.
7 Types: SRAM and DRAM. Types: PROM, EPROM and EEPROM.

🧠 MEMORY HOOK RAM = Rubs-out Automatically at Midnight (volatile). ROM = Remains On Machine
(permanent). If you can only remember one difference under exam pressure, remember volatility — every
other difference can be reasoned out from it.

Cache Memory
Cache (pronounced 'cash') is a small, very high-speed and expensive memory placed between the CPU and
the main memory (RAM). It stores the most frequently used instructions and data, so the CPU does not have
to wait for the slower RAM to deliver them. Cache is organised in levels — L1 (smallest and fastest, inside the
CPU), L2 and L3 (larger and slightly slower).
💡 CONCEPT CLEAR Cache is the shopkeeper's counter. The godown at the back is the hard disk. The
shelves in the shop are the RAM. The few items kept right on the counter — the ones customers ask for all
day — are the cache. Reaching the counter takes no time; going to the godown takes minutes. That is the
entire idea of the memory hierarchy: the smaller and faster the memory, the closer it sits to the CPU.

Registers
Registers are the smallest and fastest memory in a computer, located inside the CPU itself. They are special-
purpose temporary storage locations used to hold data, addresses and instructions during the actual

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execution of an instruction. Their capacity is measured in bits (32-bit, 64-bit) and is very limited. Common
registers include the Accumulator (AC), Program Counter (PC), Instruction Register (IR), Memory Address
Register (MAR) and Memory Buffer Register (MBR).

Virtual Memory
Virtual memory is the technique in which a portion of the secondary storage (hard disk) is used as if it were
main memory, when the actual RAM is not sufficient to run a program. It is hypothetical or logical memory
— it does not physically exist as RAM. The operating system automatically manages the transfer between
RAM and the reserved area of the hard disk, so a program larger than the available RAM can still be
executed.
Example: if the computer has 128 MB of RAM and the user opens a program needing 200 MB, the operating
system creates the extra space on the hard disk and treats it as memory. The program runs — but more
slowly, because the hard disk is far slower than RAM.

Buffer
A buffer is a temporary holding area for data, used between two devices that work at different speeds —
most often between the CPU and an input/output device. Unlike a register, a buffer holds more than one
piece of data. It may be a reserved section of RAM or may be located in the I/O device itself.
Buffering is the technique of using this temporary storage to keep both the CPU and the I/O device busy at
the same time, so the fast CPU does not have to sit idle waiting for a slow device such as a printer.
💡 CONCEPT CLEAR You have seen a buffer in action. When a YouTube video 'buffers', it is downloading
the next few seconds into a temporary store so playback stays smooth even if the network stutters. A
print buffer works the same way — you send a 50-page document, the data goes into the buffer, and you
can carry on working while the slow printer takes its time.

Difference between Cache Memory and Buffer

S.N. Cache Memory Buffer
1 Stores frequently used data and instructions Stores data temporarily while it moves
so the CPU can access them quickly. between devices of different speeds.
2 Placed between the CPU and main memory. Placed between the CPU and input/output
devices.
3 Purpose: to increase processing speed. Purpose: to compensate for speed differences
and prevent the CPU from idling.
4 Built from very fast SRAM. Usually a reserved area of RAM or memory
inside the I/O device.

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1.11 Secondary Memory

Secondary memory (auxiliary, external or backup memory) is used to store a large volume of data and
programs permanently for future use. It is non-volatile, cheaper per bit and much larger than primary
memory, but also much slower.

Features of secondary memory:

● It is not directly accessible to the CPU — data must first be transferred to primary memory.
● It requires primary memory for its operation.
● It is non-volatile, so data survives a power cut.
● It is cheaper and slower for read/write than primary memory.
● It is used for backup and for transferring data from one computer to another.

1.11.1 Magnetic Storage

Magnetic Tape
A plastic ribbon coated with magnetic material on one surface, wound on a reel. Data is stored
SEQUENTIALLY — to reach the last record you must pass over all the earlier ones, which makes access slow.
It is very cheap per unit of storage and lasts a long time, so it is still used by mainframes and large
organisations for archival backup.

Hard Disk
The hard disk is the most commonly used secondary storage device, storing a large amount of data
permanently. It is also called a fixed disk. It consists of several circular metal discs called platters, made of
aluminium and coated with a ferromagnetic material, which rotate at high speed while read/write heads
move across their surfaces.
● Speed is measured in rpm (revolutions per minute) — commonly 5400 rpm or 7200 rpm.
● A hard disk must be formatted before use. Formatting divides each surface into concentric circles
called TRACKS, and each track into TRACKS' segments called SECTORS.
● Each sector normally stores 512 bytes.
● A CYLINDER is the set of tracks at the same position on all platters.
● Storage capacity depends on the number of platters and their recording density.
● It offers direct (random) access, unlike magnetic tape.

Solid State Drive (SSD)

An SSD stores data on semiconductor (flash) memory chips instead of rotating magnetic platters. Because it
has no moving parts, it is faster, silent, lighter, more shock-resistant and more power-efficient than a hard
disk — but more expensive per gigabyte. It is standard in modern laptops, notebooks and ultrabooks.

Difference between Hard Disk (HDD) and SSD

S.N. Hard Disk Drive (HDD) Solid State Drive (SSD)
1 Stores data on rotating magnetic platters. Stores data on semiconductor memory chips.
2 Has moving parts, so it produces noise and Has no moving parts; completely silent.
vibration.

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S.N. Hard Disk Drive (HDD) Solid State Drive (SSD)

3 Heavier. Lighter.
4 Slower — file writing speed roughly 50–120 Faster — file writing speed roughly 200–550
MB/s. MB/s and above.
5 Consumes more electricity (about 6–7 watts). Consumes less electricity (about 2–3 watts).
6 Cheaper per gigabyte. More expensive per gigabyte.
7 Available in very large capacities at low cost. Capacity is generally smaller for the same
price.
8 More vulnerable to damage from shock and More shock-resistant and durable.
vibration.

External Hard Drive

Works on the same principle as an internal hard disk, but is housed outside the CPU casing and connected
through a USB port. It is portable, easy to carry, and used for backup and for transferring large volumes of
data between computers.

Pen Drive (Flash Drive)

A popular, small, portable flash-storage device connected through a USB port. It is built from semiconductor
chips using EEPROM/flash technology, has no moving parts, and can be carried in a pocket like a pen —
hence the name. USB 3.0 pen drives write at up to about 60 MB/s and read at up to about 120 MB/s.

1.11.2 Optical Storage

An optical storage disc uses LASER LIGHT technology to store and retrieve data. Information is recorded as a
pattern of microscopic PITS (depressions) and LANDS (flat areas) along a spiral track; the laser beam reflects
differently from pits and lands, and this difference is read as 0s and 1s.

CD (Compact Disc)
The first CD was developed by Philips (Netherlands) and Sony in 1980–82. A CD is 12 cm in diameter, about
1.2 mm thick and weighs about 18 g. It is made of polycarbonate coated with a reflective aluminium layer.
Standard storage capacity is 700 MB (about 80 minutes of audio).
Three types of optical CDs:
● CD-ROM (Compact Disc – Read Only Memory): written by the manufacturer with software, music or
video; the user can only read from it.
● CD-R / WORM (Write Once Read Many): purchased blank; the user can write data ONCE but read it
many times.
● CD-RW (Compact Disc – Rewritable): can be erased and rewritten many times, like a pen drive.

DVD (Digital Versatile Disc / Digital Video Disc)

A DVD is the same physical size as a CD but stores far more data, because it uses a shorter-wavelength laser,
packs the track more tightly and can record on multiple layers and both sides. It was developed by Philips,
Sony, Toshiba and Panasonic in 1995.
DVD format Capacity
Single side, single layer 4.7 GB
Single side, double layer 8.5 GB
Double side, single layer 9.4 GB

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DVD format Capacity

Double side, double layer 17.08 GB

Blu-ray Disc
An optical disc that uses a blue-violet laser (shorter wavelength than the red laser used by CD and DVD),
which allows data to be packed much more densely. Capacity ranges from 25 GB (single layer) up to 100–128
GB for multi-layer discs. It is scratch-resistant and is used mainly for high-definition video and audio.

Difference between CD and DVD

S.N. CD DVD
1 Storage capacity is 700 MB. Storage capacity is 4.7 GB to 17.08 GB.
2 Uses a red laser with a longer wavelength; Uses a red laser with a shorter wavelength;
track pitch is wider. track pitch is narrower, so more data fits.
3 Data is stored on a single layer, one side. Data can be stored on multiple layers and on
both sides.
4 Cheaper. More expensive.
5 Mainly used for audio and software. Mainly used for video, films and large
software.
6 Types: CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW. Types: DVD-ROM, DVD-R, DVD-RW, DVD+RW.
7 Developed by Philips and Sony. Developed by Philips, Sony, Toshiba and
Panasonic.

Difference between Primary Memory and Secondary Memory

S.N. Primary Memory Secondary Memory
1 Also called main or internal memory. Also called auxiliary or backup memory.
2 Directly accessible by the CPU. Not directly accessible by the CPU; data must
first be copied to primary memory.
3 Faster access speed. Slower access speed.
4 Smaller storage capacity. Much larger storage capacity.
5 More expensive per unit of storage. Cheaper per unit of storage.
6 RAM is volatile; ROM is non-volatile. Always non-volatile.
7 Made of semiconductor material. Made of magnetic material, polycarbonate or
semiconductor chips.
8 Examples: RAM, ROM, cache, registers. Examples: hard disk, SSD, CD/DVD, pen drive,
magnetic tape.

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1.12 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU is the component responsible for interpreting and executing most of the commands from the
computer's hardware and software. It controls the operation of all other components — memory, input
devices and output devices. It accepts binary data as input, processes it according to the instructions, and
provides the result as output. Because it is the part that thinks and decides, the CPU is called the BRAIN OF
THE COMPUTER.
When the entire CPU is fabricated on a single silicon chip, it is called a MICROPROCESSOR.

Functions of the CPU:

1. Reads (fetches) instructions from memory.
2. Decodes each instruction to determine what operation is required.
3. Executes the instruction — performs the required arithmetic or logical operation.
4. Controls the sequence in which instructions are carried out.
5. Controls the flow of data between the different components of the computer.
6. Communicates with all peripheral devices through the system bus.

🧠 MEMORY HOOK The whole working of the CPU is one repeating loop: FETCH → DECODE → EXECUTE
(→ STORE). Every program you have ever run is just this cycle, repeated billions of times per second.

1.12.1 Components of the CPU

(a) Control Unit (CU)
The control unit controls and coordinates the activities of all other units of the computer system. It acts as
the nervous system of the computer — it does no processing itself, but it directs everything that does.
● Fetches instructions from main memory, decodes them and executes them in sequence.
● Sends control signals to the various parts of the computer system.
● Commands the transfer of data from input devices to memory and then to the ALU.
● Transfers results from the ALU to memory and then to the output devices.
● Coordinates the flow of data into and out of the ALU, memory and I/O devices.

(b) Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

The ALU is the part of the CPU that actually performs the calculations and comparisons.
● Arithmetic operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
● Logical operations: AND, OR, NOT, Exclusive-OR, and comparisons such as equal to, greater than and
less than.
● It accepts operands from registers, performs the operation and returns the result to a register or to
memory.
● The logical operations of the ALU give the computer its decision-making ability.

(c) Memory Unit / Register Array

The register array inside the CPU is a small set of very high-speed storage locations used to hold data and
instructions temporarily during execution. It is part of the CPU, not part of main memory, and its capacity is
very limited but its speed is the highest in the whole system.

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💡 CONCEPT CLEAR Think of the CPU as a small office. The Control Unit is the manager — reads the file,
decides what must be done, tells everyone else. The ALU is the accountant — does the actual adding and
comparing. The registers are the papers spread on the desk right now. Main memory is the filing cabinet
in the room, and the hard disk is the storeroom downstairs.

1.12.2 Bus System

A bus is a set of parallel hardware lines (conductors) inside the computer through which data, addresses and
control signals are transferred from one part of the computer to another. It is the pathway that connects the
CPU, memory and I/O devices. The three buses together are called the SYSTEM BUS.

Type of bus Function Direction

Address Bus Carries the address of the memory location or I/O device Unidirectional (CPU
that the CPU wants to read from or write to. The width of → memory/device
the address bus decides how much memory the CPU can only)
address.
Data Bus Carries the actual data between the CPU, memory and I/O Bidirectional (both
devices. Its width (8, 16, 32, 64 bits) decides how much ways)
data can be transferred at a time.
Control Bus Carries control and timing signals such as read, write, Bidirectional
interrupt and clock signals, so that all the components work
in coordination.

💡 CONCEPT CLEAR Sending a parcel explains all three buses at once. The ADDRESS BUS is the address
written on the parcel — it only goes one way, from sender to destination. The DATA BUS is the parcel
itself — parcels travel in both directions. The CONTROL BUS is the courier's instruction slip: 'deliver',
'collect', 'urgent'. Remember: address bus is unidirectional, the other two are bidirectional. That single
fact is a common one-mark question.

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1.13 Output Unit and Output Devices

The output unit is formed by all the output devices attached to the computer. An output device presents the
result produced by the computer to the user. The computer's output is in the form of electrical binary
signals, which the output device converts into human-understandable form.

Functions of the output unit:

1. Accepts the result produced by the computer in the form of binary electrical signals.
2. Converts the result into human-readable form.
3. Supplies the converted result to the outside world.

1.13.1 Hard Copy vs Soft Copy Output

S.N. Hard Copy Output Soft Copy Output
1 Output printed on paper or other material Output displayed on a screen or produced as
that can be touched and carried. sound; it cannot be touched.
2 Permanent in nature. Temporary in nature.
3 Does not need a continuous power supply Exists only while the computer is on and
once produced. powered.
4 Portable — it can be carried and shown to Not portable in the same way; it must be
others. viewed on a device.
5 Devices: printer, plotter. Devices: monitor, speaker, headphone,
projector.

1.13.2 Monitor (VDU — Visual Display Unit)

The monitor is the most common soft-copy output device. It displays text, graphics and video on its screen.
The picture on the screen is built from tiny dots called PIXELS (picture elements).

On the basis of colour:

● Monochrome monitor — displays output in a single colour (green, amber, white) on a contrasting
background.
● Colour monitor — displays output in many colours, formed by combining Red, Green and Blue (RGB)
in each pixel.

Three terms that decide screen quality:

Term Meaning Rule
Screen resolution The number of pixels displayed horizontally × vertically, HIGHER resolution =
e.g. 1024×768, 1920×1080. clearer image.
Dot pitch The distance between two adjacent pixels of the same LOWER dot pitch =
colour, measured in millimetres. sharper image.
Refresh rate The number of times per second the whole screen image HIGHER refresh rate
is redrawn, measured in Hertz (Hz). = steadier, flicker-
free image.

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⚠️COMMON MISTAKE Students mix up the direction of these three. Two go UP for better quality
(resolution, refresh rate) and one goes DOWN (dot pitch) — because dot pitch is a distance, and dots that
are closer together give a finer picture.

On the basis of technology:

(a) CRT Monitor (Cathode Ray Tube)

Working principle:
1. The electron gun at the back of the tube emits a beam of electrons (cathode rays).
2. The beam passes through focusing and deflection systems that aim it at a specified position on the
phosphor-coated screen.
3. Where the beam strikes, the phosphor emits a small spot of light.
4. The beam sweeps back over the same points very quickly to redraw and maintain the picture.
Objects can be displayed by two methods: random scan (vector) and raster scan. CRT monitors are bulky,
heavy, consume a lot of power and generate heat, but were cheap and had good colour reproduction.

(b) LCD Monitor (Liquid Crystal Display)

An LCD monitor forms the image using two layers of polarised material with a liquid crystal solution between
them; an electric current passing through the liquid crystals makes them align to block or pass light.
Fluorescent lamps (CCFL) provide the backlight. It is thin, light, consumes far less power than CRT and
produces a high-quality image, and is used in laptops, notebooks, digital watches and desktop computers.

(c) LED Monitor (Light Emitting Diode)

An LED monitor is technically an LCD panel that uses light-emitting diodes for backlighting instead of
fluorescent lamps. It is thinner and lighter than both LCD and CRT, consumes the least power, gives better
brightness, contrast and colour, and has a longer working life. LCD and LED monitors are together called
FLAT PANEL DISPLAYS.

Difference between CRT and LCD Monitor

S.N. CRT Monitor LCD Monitor
1 Works on cathode ray tube technology with Works on liquid crystal technology with a
an electron gun and phosphor screen. backlight.
2 Large, bulky and heavy. Thin, light and compact.
3 Consumes much more electricity. Consumes far less electricity.
4 Generates a lot of heat and emits radiation. Generates very little heat; low radiation.
5 Screen may flicker, causing eye strain. Flicker-free and comfortable for the eyes.
6 Cheaper. More expensive.
7 Occupies more desk space. Occupies very little desk space; can be wall-
mounted.
8 Not suitable for portable devices. Used in laptops, notebooks, tablets and
watches.

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1.13.3 Printer
A printer is a hard-copy output device that prints text and graphics on paper. Its speed is measured in CPS
(Characters Per Second), LPM (Lines Per Minute) or PPM (Pages Per Minute), and its print quality in DPI (Dots
Per Inch). On the basis of printing mechanism, printers are of two types: impact and non-impact.

(A) Impact Printers

An impact printer prints by striking a metal or plastic print head against an inked ribbon, which presses
against the paper — the same principle as a typewriter. These printers are slow and noisy, print quality is
comparatively low, and colour range is limited. Their one big advantage is that they can print on multi-part
(carbon copy) stationery, which is why they are still used for bills and vouchers.

Types of impact printer:

● Dot Matrix Printer: the print head contains a column of pins that strike the inked ribbon; characters
are formed from a pattern of dots. Speed ranges from 50 to 400 CPS. Cheap to run, prints carbon
copies, but noisy with limited quality.
● Daisy Wheel Printer: fully formed letters are arranged on the spokes of a wheel; the wheel spins to
bring the required character into position and a hammer strikes it against the ribbon. Speed 25–55
CPS. Good letter quality but cannot print graphics.
● Line Printer: prints a whole line at a time instead of a character at a time, so it is much faster and is
used where huge volumes of printing are required. Its three types are the drum printer (a rotating
cylindrical drum carries the characters), the chain printer (a high-speed print chain carries the
characters) and the band printer (a steel print band is used).

(B) Non-Impact Printers

A non-impact printer does not strike the paper. Instead it forms characters by spraying ink, or by using heat,
laser or electrostatic charge. These printers are faster, quieter and produce much higher quality output,
including good graphics and full colour — but they cannot print carbon copies.

Types of non-impact printer:

● Inkjet Printer: prints by spraying very small droplets of liquid ink onto the paper through fine
nozzles. Speed is generally 1 to 20 pages per minute. Colour printing uses CMYK cartridges — Cyan,
Magenta, Yellow and Black. Cheap to buy and excellent for photographs, but cartridges are
expensive and ink can smudge.
● Laser Printer: uses a laser beam to draw the image as an electrostatic charge on a rotating drum;
powdered toner sticks to the charged areas and is then fused onto the paper by heat — the same
principle as a photocopier. The first laser printer was developed by Gary Starkweather at Xerox PARC
in 1971. It offers the highest speed, sharpest quality (600–1200 DPI and above) and lowest cost per
page for high-volume work, but the machine and toner are expensive.
● Thermal Printer: uses heat to produce an image on specially coated paper. Used for point-of-sale
bills, ATM slips and receipt printers.
● 3D Printer: unlike other printers, a 3D printer prints an OBJECT rather than text. It builds parts out of
plastic, metal or resin directly from CAD (Computer-Aided Design) drawings that have been cross-
sectioned into thousands of thin layers, adding one layer at a time. This technique is called additive
manufacturing, and is used for prototypes, machine parts, toys and even medical implants.

Difference between Impact and Non-Impact Printer

S.N. Impact Printer Non-Impact Printer
1 Uses an electro-mechanical mechanism — Uses thermal, chemical, electrostatic, laser or

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S.N. Impact Printer Non-Impact Printer

hammers or pins strike a ribbon against the inkjet technology; nothing strikes the paper.
paper.
2 Slow printing speed. Fast printing speed.
3 Produces a lot of noise while printing. Almost silent while printing.
4 Cannot print graphics well. Prints graphics and photographs very well.
5 Usually single-coloured. Can be single or multi-coloured.
6 CAN print on multi-part carbon-copy CANNOT print carbon copies.
stationery.
7 Low print quality; cheap running cost. High print quality; higher running cost per
page for inkjet.
8 Examples: dot matrix, daisy wheel, line Examples: inkjet, laser, thermal, 3D printer.
printer.

1.13.4 Other Output Devices

Graphic Plotter
A plotter is a hard-copy output device used to produce large, high-quality line drawings such as charts, maps,
architectural plans and engineering designs. It receives instructions from the computer and draws a
continuous, accurate image using pens moving over large sheets of paper. Types include:
● Pen plotter — contains one or more pens and draws coloured line drawings with shading.
● Electrostatic plotter — has no pen; it forms the image electrostatically, like a laser printer.
● Dot-matrix plotter — a print head strikes an ink ribbon to draw the image, like an impact printer.

📝 EXAM TIP Difference between a printer and a plotter: a printer prints characters and images as a
pattern of dots on standard-size paper; a plotter draws continuous lines with a pen on very large paper
and is used for engineering drawings and maps.

Speaker and Headphone

A speaker is an audio output device that converts digital data into analog sound waves the user can hear.
The quality of sound depends on the quality of the speaker and the sound card. Types include loudspeakers,
subwoofers, in-wall/ceiling speakers and outdoor speakers. Headphones perform the same function for a
single listener.

Multimedia Projector
A projector takes the video output from the computer and projects an enlarged image onto a screen or wall,
so that a large audience can see it. It is widely used in classrooms, training halls and presentations.

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1.14 Computer Software

Computer software is the collection of programs, procedures and related documentation that instructs the
computer to perform specific tasks. Software is the logical part of a computer system — it cannot be
touched, but without it the hardware is useless.
💡 CONCEPT CLEAR Hardware is the body; software is the life in it. A computer without software is like a
music system with no songs, or a body with no thoughts — everything is present and nothing happens.

1.14.1 Types of Software

A. System Software B. Application Software
i. Operating System — Windows, Linux, UNIX, i. Packaged (General purpose) software — MS-
macOS, MS-DOS, Android Word, MS-Excel, Photoshop
ii. Utility Software — antivirus, backup, disk ii. Tailored (Customised / Special purpose)
defragmenter, compression tools software — school billing system, bank software
iii. Language Processor — assembler, compiler,
interpreter

1.14.2 System Software

System software is designed to operate the computer hardware and to provide a platform on which
application software can run. It manages the computer itself rather than solving the user's problems directly.

(i) Operating System

The operating system is the most important program running on a computer. It acts as the interface
between the user and the hardware and manages all the computer's resources. Every general-purpose
computer must have an operating system before it can run any other program.
Main functions: process management, memory management, file management, device (I/O) management,
security and user-interface provision.
Examples: Windows, Linux, UNIX, macOS, MS-DOS, Android, iOS.

(ii) Utility Software

Utility software helps to manage, maintain and protect the computer's resources. It performs housekeeping
jobs that keep the system healthy. Examples: antivirus software, backup software, disk defragmenter, disk
cleanup, file compression tools (WinRAR, 7-Zip), and text editors.

(iii) Language Processor (Translator)

A language processor is special system software that translates a program written in one language into
another language — normally from a human-readable programming language into machine language.
Translator What it translates Key difference
Assembler Assembly language into machine Works with low-level (assembly)
language. language only.
Compiler A high-level language program into Translates the whole program first,
machine language, ALL AT ONCE. then runs it. Faster execution; reports
all errors together.
Interpreter A high-level language program into Translates and executes one statement

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Translator What it translates Key difference

machine language, LINE BY LINE. at a time. Slower execution; stops at
the first error, so it is easier for
beginners to debug.

1.14.3 Application Software

Application software enables the user to accomplish specific tasks and to solve application-type problems. It
runs on top of the system software.

(i) Packaged / General-Purpose Software

Designed by software companies for general use by many different users, and sold ready-made in the
market. Examples: word-processing software (MS-Word), spreadsheet software (MS-Excel), presentation
software (MS-PowerPoint), database software (MS-Access), graphics and multimedia software (Photoshop,
VLC).

(ii) Tailored / Customised Software

Developed for a specific organisation to perform a specific task, according to that organisation's own
requirements. Examples: a school's result-processing system, a hospital's patient-record system, a bank's
core banking software, the payroll system of a particular company.

S.N. System Software Application Software

1 Controls and manages the computer Performs specific tasks for the user.
hardware itself.
2 Runs automatically when the computer is Runs only when the user opens it.
switched on.
3 Written mostly in low-level languages. Written mostly in high-level languages.
4 Independent of application software. Cannot run without system software.
5 General in nature; serves the machine. Specific in nature; serves the user's problem.
6 Examples: Windows, Linux, antivirus, Examples: MS-Word, Photoshop, a billing
compiler. system.

1.14.4 Computer Virus

A computer virus (VIRUS = Vital Information Resource Under Siege) is a malicious program written
deliberately to damage data, disturb the normal working of a computer, or spread itself from one computer
to another without the user's knowledge or permission.

Symptoms of virus infection:

● The computer becomes unusually slow or hangs frequently.
● Files or folders disappear, or their size changes without reason.
● Unusual error messages, pop-ups or strange sounds appear.
● Available disk space or memory reduces unexpectedly.
● Programs fail to open, or the computer restarts on its own.
● Files become corrupted or are renamed with unfamiliar extensions.

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Examples of viruses and malware: C-Brain, Trojan Horse, Melissa, ILOVEYOU, Michelangelo, Disk Killer,
WannaCry (ransomware).

How viruses spread:

● Infected pen drives, memory cards and external drives.
● Downloading pirated software or files from unsafe websites.
● E-mail attachments from unknown senders.
● Networks and the Internet.

Protective measures:
● Install genuine antivirus software and keep it updated.
● Scan every external storage device before opening it.
● Do not open e-mail attachments from unknown senders.
● Use licensed software rather than pirated copies.
● Keep regular backups of important data.

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1.15 Hardware Interface (Port)

An interface or port is the point of connection through which a peripheral device is attached to the
computer, allowing data to be exchanged between them. Ports are located at the back or side of the system
unit.
Port Used for
USB (Universal Serial Bus) The universal modern port — keyboard, mouse, pen drive, printer,
camera, phone charging. Supports plug-and-play and hot-swapping.
VGA / HDMI Connecting a monitor or projector. HDMI carries both video and audio
digitally.
Serial port (COM) Older port, transmitted one bit at a time; used for old mice and
modems.
Parallel port (LPT) Older port, transmitted several bits at a time; used mainly for old
printers.
PS/2 port Round port for older keyboards and mice.
Ethernet / RJ-45 Wired network (LAN) connection.
Audio jack Speaker, headphone and microphone connection.

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1.16 Short Notes (Quick Revision)

These are the standard 2-mark short-note items. Each answer below is exam-length: two to four sentences
containing the definition, one distinguishing feature and one example.
Topic Short note
Cache Memory A small, very fast and expensive memory placed between the CPU and main
memory. It stores the most frequently used instructions and data so the CPU
need not wait for slower RAM, which increases overall processing speed. Its
levels are L1, L2 and L3.
Virtual Memory A technique in which part of the hard disk is used as if it were main memory
when RAM is insufficient to run a program. It is logical, not physical, memory,
and is managed automatically by the operating system.
Buffer A temporary storage area used between two devices working at different
speeds, usually between the CPU and an I/O device. It holds more than one
item of data and keeps both the CPU and the device busy — for example, a
print buffer or a video buffer.
Register The smallest and fastest memory, located inside the CPU, used to hold data,
addresses and instructions temporarily during execution. Examples:
Accumulator, Program Counter, Instruction Register.
Microprocessor A complete CPU fabricated on a single silicon chip, containing the Control Unit,
the ALU and registers. It fetches, decodes and executes instructions. The first
microprocessor was the Intel 4004 (1971).
Hard Disk The main secondary storage device, consisting of rotating aluminium platters
coated with magnetic material. It is non-volatile, offers direct access, is
formatted into tracks and sectors (512 bytes per sector), and spins at 5400 or
7200 rpm.
Input Device A device used to enter data and instructions into the computer, converting
them from human-readable to machine-readable binary form. Examples:
keyboard, mouse, scanner, microphone.
Dot Matrix Printer An impact printer whose print head contains pins that strike an inked ribbon to
form characters out of dots. Speed 50–400 CPS. It is noisy with low print
quality, but it is cheap to run and is the only common printer that can print
carbon copies.
Interface / Port The connection point through which a peripheral device is attached to the
computer so that data can be exchanged. Examples: USB, HDMI, VGA, PS/2, RJ-
45.
Charles Babbage English professor and mathematician (1791–1871) who designed the Difference
Engine (1822) and the Analytical Engine (1833). Because the Analytical Engine
contained the mill, store, reader and printer — the four units of every modern
computer — he is called the Father of Modern Computer.
Lady Augusta Ada English mathematician (1815–1852), daughter of Lord Byron and assistant to
Lovelace Charles Babbage. She documented his work and wrote the first algorithm
intended for the Analytical Engine, so she is regarded as the world's first
computer programmer. The language 'Ada' is named in her honour.
John von Neumann Hungarian-American mathematician (1903–1957) who in 1945 proposed the
stored-program concept — that a program should be stored in main memory
along with its data, so it can be modified easily. He is called the Father of Stored
Program.
Howard Aiken American physicist who designed the Harvard Mark I (IBM ASCC) at Harvard

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 Computer Science • Grade XI • Unit 1: Computer System

Topic Short note

University with IBM, completed in 1944. It was the first fully automatic
calculating machine, about 51 feet long, using binary numbers with paper-tape
input.
Mark I The first fully automatic calculating machine, built 1937–1944 by Howard Aiken
with IBM. It was electro-mechanical, used binary numbers, received
instructions on paper tape, output data on punched cards, and printed about
one result every five seconds.
Napier's Bones A set of rods marked with numbers, invented by John Napier (Scotland). It
allowed multiplication to be done by addition and division by subtraction.
Napier also published the first table of logarithms in 1614.
ABC (Atanasoff– Built by John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford Berry (1939–1942). It was the first
Berry Computer) electronic digital computer and the first to use vacuum tubes for computation.
It introduced binary arithmetic, regenerative memory and logic circuits, and
was special purpose.
UNIVAC Universal Automatic Computer, built by Eckert and Mauchly in 1951. It was the
first computer manufactured for commercial use and could handle both
numeric and textual data.
EDVAC Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (1946–1952), developed by
von Neumann with Eckert and Mauchly. It was the first machine designed
around the stored-program concept.
Hybrid Computer A computer that combines the features of analog and digital computers. It can
process both continuous and discrete data and can convert analog signals to
digital and vice versa. Used in ICU monitors, radar, rocket launching and
weather forecasting.
Personal Computer A microcomputer designed for use by one person at a time, built around a
microprocessor. It is small, affordable and versatile. Types include desktop,
laptop, notebook, tablet and palmtop.
Mainframe A very large, powerful, expensive general-purpose computer with huge storage
Computer and very fast processing, serving more than a hundred users at once through
terminals. Used by governments, banks, airlines and insurance companies.
Example: IBM 1401.

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 Computer Science • Grade XI • Unit 1: Computer System

1.17 Corrections to Common Errors in Circulating Notes

Many photocopied notes in circulation carry the same repeated errors, and students lose marks by
memorising them. Learn the correct version below. Where your school textbook differs, follow the textbook
— but know that these are the historically accurate facts.

Commonly written (incorrect) Correct version

The Difference Engine is also called the They are two separate machines. Difference Engine (1822)
Analytical Engine. was special purpose, for solving equations. Analytical
Engine (1833) was general purpose and programmable.
Lady Ada Lovelace (1515–1852). Ada Lovelace lived 1815–1852. A 337-year life is a typing
error that has been copied for years.
Konrad Zuse developed the Z1 in 1983. Zuse built the Z1 in 1938 and the Z3 in 1941. 1983 is a
digit-swap error.
Colossus was designed by Alan Turing at Colossus was built by Tommy Flowers and his team at
the University of Manchester. Bletchley Park (1943–44). Turing designed the Bombe and
is famous for the Turing Machine and the Turing Test.
The Mark II used 18,000 vacuum tubes The Mark I and Mark II are different machines. The Mark I
and was the same as Mark I. was electro-mechanical, using relays, not 18,000 vacuum
tubes. The 17,468-tube figure belongs to ENIAC.
ENIAC stands for Electronic Numerical ENIAC = Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer.
Integrated and Calculator.
Colossus was capable of performing Colossus performed Boolean and counting operations for
decimal multiplication. code-breaking. It was not a decimal multiplier.
IBM was established by Dr. Herman Hollerith's Tabulating Machine Company merged into CTR
Hollerith in 1923. in 1911, which was renamed IBM in 1924. Hollerith did not
found IBM directly.
Apple Corporation was established in Apple was founded on 1 April 1976 by Steve Jobs, Steve
1970. Wozniak and Ronald Wayne.
The touch screen was invented in 2009 at Touch-screen technology dates from the 1960s (E.A.
an Apple store. Johnson, 1965). Apple popularised the multi-touch phone
screen with the iPhone in 2007.
The mouse was invented in 1960 by Correct spelling: Douglas Engelbart. He built the first
Douglas Englebart. prototype in 1964 and demonstrated it publicly in 1968.
1024 Yottabyte = 1 Bronto Byte. 'Brontobyte' is not an officially recognised SI or IEC unit.
The recognised sequence commonly taught ends at
Yottabyte.
Leibniz's Stepped Reckoner 'could not The Stepped Reckoner performed addition, subtraction,
find square root'. multiplication and division, and could assist with square
roots. Note the original sentence is usually a printing error
in the notes.
The scanner was invented by Rudolph Correct spelling: Rudolf Hell. Drum-scanning technology
Hell in 1963. was developed over the 1950s–60s; the first digital image
scan was made by Russell Kirsch in 1957.
The keyboard was invented in 1868 by This is correct — 1868 is the patent year for the
Christopher Latham Sholes. typewriter, from which the computer keyboard descends.
Keep it.

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 Computer Science • Grade XI • Unit 1: Computer System

Commonly written (incorrect) Correct version

A CD's storage capacity is up to 20 GB. A standard CD stores 700 MB. A DVD stores 4.7 GB to
17.08 GB. A Blu-ray disc stores 25 GB to 128 GB.

📝 EXAM TIP In NEB marking, an answer is judged on its concept, not on a single date. If you are unsure of
a year, write the concept confidently and give the year only when you are certain. A right concept with no
date scores far better than a wrong date with a vague concept.

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 Computer Science • Grade XI • Unit 1: Computer System

1.18 Exam Corner

A. Long-Answer Questions (4 marks)
1. What is a computer? Explain the characteristics of a computer.
2. What is meant by generation of computer? Explain the different generations of computer briefly.
3. What are the application fields of computer? Explain any six in brief.
4. Why is a computer known as a versatile and accurate machine? Explain.
5. Explain the classification of computers on the basis of size, with examples.
6. What is a supercomputer? Explain its application in real-time situations.
7. Explain the functions of the CPU with a suitable diagram.
8. Draw a block diagram of a computer system and explain each of its components.
9. What is a bus? Explain its types with a clear diagram.
10. Define software. Explain the different types of software in detail.
11. What is a virus? What are the symptoms of virus infection? Write its examples.
12. Explain the memory hierarchy of a computer system from registers to secondary storage.
13. What is mobile computing? Explain its aspects and characteristics.
14. Explain computer architecture and its layers.

B. Differentiate Between (2–4 marks)

Master these fifteen. They cover almost every 'differentiate' question ever asked from Unit 1.
No. Differentiate between Key point of difference to lead with
1 Data and Information Raw/unprocessed vs processed/meaningful
2 Hardware and Software Tangible physical parts vs logical set of programs
3 Analog and Digital computer Measures continuous data vs counts discrete data
4 General purpose and Special purpose Many tasks vs one built-in task
computer
5 Microcomputer and Supercomputer Smallest/single-user vs largest/most powerful
6 Minicomputer and Mainframe About 50 terminals vs more than 100 terminals
computer
7 IBM PC and IBM Compatible Made by IBM (branded) vs assembled by others
(clone)
8 RAM and ROM Volatile read/write vs non-volatile read only
9 SRAM and DRAM No refresh needed, fast, costly vs needs refreshing,
slow, cheap
10 Primary and Secondary memory Directly accessible by CPU vs not directly accessible
11 Cache memory and Buffer Speeds up CPU access vs matches device speeds
12 Hard disk and SSD Rotating magnetic platters vs semiconductor chips
13 CD and DVD 700 MB single layer vs 4.7–17.08 GB multi-layer
14 Impact and Non-impact printer Strikes ribbon (noisy, carbon copies) vs no striking
(quiet, high quality)
15 CRT and LCD monitor Cathode ray tube, bulky, high power vs liquid crystal,
thin, low power

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 Computer Science • Grade XI • Unit 1: Computer System

No. Differentiate between Key point of difference to lead with

16 System software and Application Manages the machine vs solves the user's problem
software
17 Compiler and Interpreter Translates whole program at once vs line by line
18 Computer architecture and WHAT the computer does vs HOW it does it
organization
19 Hard copy and Soft copy Permanent, on paper vs temporary, on screen
20 OCR, OMR and MICR Reads characters vs reads marks vs reads magnetic
ink

C. Short Notes (2 marks)

Cache memory · Virtual memory · Buffer · Register · Microprocessor · Hard disk · Input device · Dot-matrix
printer · Interface/Port · Charles Babbage · Lady Ada Lovelace · John von Neumann · Howard Aiken · Mark I ·
Napier's Bones · ABC · UNIVAC · EDVAC · Hybrid computer · Personal computer · Mainframe computer ·
Artificial Intelligence · Mobile computing · Bus system · GIGO

D. Very Short Answer / One-Mark Practice

1. From which word is the term 'computer' derived, and what does it mean?
2. Which device is considered the first calculating device?
3. Who is called the Father of Modern Computer, and why?
4. Who is the first computer programmer?
5. Which was the first electronic digital computer?
6. Which was the first computer manufactured for commercial use?
7. Which generation of computer are we using today?
8. What was the first microprocessor and who developed it?
9. What does GIGO stand for?
10. How many bits make one byte, and how many make one nibble?
11. Which memory is volatile — RAM or ROM?
12. Which bus is unidirectional?
13. Name one device that is both an input and an output device.
14. Which printer can print carbon copies?
15. What is the storage capacity of a standard CD?
16. Which unit of the CPU is called the brain of the CPU?
17. Expand: ALU, CU, VLSI, ULSI, MICR, OMR, OCR, CAD, CAM, LIPS.

E. Answers to the One-Mark Practice

Q. Answer
1 From the Latin word 'computare', meaning 'to calculate'.
2 The Abacus.
3 Charles Babbage, because his Analytical Engine contained the mill, store, reader and printer —
the four units of every modern computer.
4 Lady Augusta Ada Byron Lovelace.

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 Computer Science • Grade XI • Unit 1: Computer System

Q. Answer
5 The ABC — Atanasoff–Berry Computer.
6 UNIVAC (1951).
7 The fourth generation (microprocessor-based).
8 Intel 4004, developed by Intel Corporation in 1971.
9 Garbage In, Garbage Out.
10 1 byte = 8 bits; 1 nibble = 4 bits.
11 RAM is volatile; ROM is non-volatile.
12 The address bus.
13 Touch screen (also acceptable: modem, network card, headset with microphone).
14 The dot-matrix printer (an impact printer).
15 700 MB.
16 The Control Unit.
17 Arithmetic and Logic Unit · Control Unit · Very Large Scale Integration · Ultra Large Scale
Integration · Magnetic Ink Character Reader · Optical Mark Reader · Optical Character Reader ·
Computer-Aided Design · Computer-Aided Manufacturing · Logical Inferences Per Second.

End of Unit 1 — Computer System

Understand the concept, then memorise the list. In that order, this unit is easy marks.

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