Reproduction

Reproduction is the biological process by which living organisms produce new

individuals of the same species, ensuring the continuity of the species.
Types of Reproduction
There are two major types:
Asexual Reproduction
Sexual Reproduction

Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction is the production of offspring from one parent only, without the
fusion of gametes.

Types of Asexual Reproduction

1. Binary Fission
The parent divides into two identical daughter cells.
Examples:
Amoeba
Paramecium
Bacteria
2. Budding
A small outgrowth (bud) develops on the parent and later separates.
Examples:
Hydra
Yeast
3. Spore Formation
Spores are produced and dispersed to form new organisms.
Examples:
Rhizopus
Mucor
Ferns
Mosses
4. Fragmentation
The parent body breaks into pieces, and each fragment grows into a new individual.
Example:
Spirogyra
5. Vegetative Propagation
New plants arise from vegetative parts.
Natural Methods
Rhizome (Ginger)
Tuber (Irish potato)
Bulb (Onion)
Corm (Cocoyam)
Runner (Grass)
Sucker (Banana)
Artificial Methods
Cutting
Layering
Grafting
Budding

Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote.

Types of sexual reproduction

[Link]: It involves the transfer of nucleic materials from the the cell to the male
conjugant to the nucleus of the female conjugant through the conjugation tube. It occurs
in spirogyra, Paramecium et.c.
[Link] of gamete:It is the union of the male and female gametes of higher organism to
form a zygote which develops into a new offspring.

Processes of Sexual reproduction in higher animals

Meiosis is the type of cell division that produces four haploid (n) cells from one diploid
(2n) cell. It occurs in the reproductive organs to form gametes (sperm and egg cells).
Before Meiosis
Interphase
DNA replicates.
Each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids joined at the centromere.
Meiosis I (Reduction Division)
1. Prophase I
Chromosomes condense and become visible.
Homologous chromosomes pair up (synapsis) to form bivalents (tetrads).
Crossing over occurs, leading to genetic variation.
Nuclear membrane disappears.
Spindle fibers form.
2. Metaphase I
Homologous chromosome pairs line up at the equator.
Spindle fibers attach to the centromeres.
3. Anaphase I
Homologous chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles.
Sister chromatids remain joined.
4. Telophase I
Chromosomes reach the poles.
Nuclear membranes may reform.
Cytokinesis occurs, producing two haploid cells.
Meiosis II (Equational Division)
5. Prophase II
Chromosomes condense again.
Nuclear membrane disappears (if it had reformed).
New spindle fibers form.
6. Metaphase II
Chromosomes line up singly at the equator.
7. Anaphase II
Centromeres divide.
Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles.
8. Telophase II
Chromatids reach the poles.
Nuclear membranes reform.
Cytokinesis occurs.

Importance of sexual reproduction

1. It promotes genetic variation as a result of:
a) Random fertilization
b) Crossing over of genetic material during meiosis
c) Independent assortment
2. It produces offsprings that are more adaptive to environmental changes
3. It allows for the production of desirable traits
4. It promotes the production of new hybrids/species

Mode of growth and development of zygote (reproductive strategies in sexual

reproduction)
[Link] - It is a process of sexual reproduction that animals lay eggs with yolk and the
yolk nourishes the embryo to grow and develop and hatch into a young animal.
Fertilization could be external or internal.
e.g fishes, amphibians, or internal e.g reptiles, birds

2. Ovoviviparity - A process that an animal carries the eggs in its body and the eggs
hatch into young ones in the parents body before they release the young ones to the
environment.
e.g rays, shark (some fishes), some reptiles, insects.

3. Viviparity - It is a process where animals do not lay eggs but give birth to their young
ones alive. The embryo receives nutrients and oxygen from the mother through the
placenta, grows and develops in the mother's womb until it is given birth alive.
e.g human, cow, rat, dog, rabbit, goat etc. Fertilization is usually internal.

Functions of labelled parts of an Amniote egg

1. Shell- is calcareous and porous for gaseous exchange with the inner parts of the egg
2. Shell membrane - Are usually moist, they provide moist surface for the embryo. Are
usually proteinaceous coating
3. Albumen- It provides food mainly protein, mineral salts and water for the embryo
4. Yolk sac - Contains the yolk
5. Chalaza - It holds the yolk and embryo in place within the egg
6. Yolk - Provides food for the embryo mainly protein and fat
7. Air space - It stores air for gaseous exchange.
8. Embryo - It grows and develops into new young age organism
9. Amnion - Secretes amniotic fluid
10. Amniotic fluid - Protects the embryo and provides aquatic environment for the
embryo. And acts as shock absorber to the embryo
11. Chorion - It controls permeability and prevents water loss from the amnion
12. Allantois - It stores embryonic nitrogenous waste and allows gaseous exchange for
embryo

Sexual reproduction in mammals

Parts of the female reproductive system and their functions*

1. Ovaries - Two female in human has two ovaries. The mature ovary eggs in the germinal
epithelium (outermost layer of the ovary). The egg cells and the surrounding cells form
the Graafian follicle (ovarian follicle) which produces oestrogen hormone.
The period in a menstrual cycle when egg is produced is called ovulation period.

Functions of ovaries:
a) For production of egg, and female sex hormones oestrogen and progesterone and
stimulating the development of secondary sex characters in girl.

2. Fallopian funnel - It receives the egg produced by the ovary.

3. Fallopian tube (oviduct) -

a) It is the site for fertilization and also a pathway for passage of the fertilized ovum
(egg) to the uterus.
b) Uterus - site of implantation (attachment of embryo to the endometrium)
c) It keeps and nourishes the embryo (foetus) throughout the gestation period until
birth.

Gestation period - It is the period of pregnancy from implantation to birth (38 weeks).

5. Cervix- It is a ring of muscle with an aperture between the womb and the vagina.
a) It closes immediately after fertilization to prevent abortion.
b) It opens at end of gestation period by the contraction/relaxation of uterine wall for
child birth.
6. Vagina- It receives penis and sperm cell during copulation and also for passage of
foetus from the womb to the external environment during child's birth.

Parts and functions of the male reproductive system in humans

1. Testes- These are two oval shaped structures stored in the scrotum and located
outside the body to provide a cool suitable temperature to produce sperm cells.
Functions:
a) They contain coiled seminiferous tubules for production of sperm cells.
b) They produce male sex hormone called testosterone.

2. Epididymis - For storage of sperm cells produced by the testes until they mature.

3. Scrotum - It keeps and houses the testes outside the body.

4. Vas deferens (sperm duct) - It conducts sperm cells from epididymis to the seminal
vesicle and the urethra.

5. Penis - It is a urinogenital and erectile organ that functions for:

a) The release of sperm cells into the vagina during ejaculation in reproduction process
b) The passing out of urine from urinary bladder during excretion

6. Urethra - It is a narrow tube within the penis for passage of sperm cell into the vagina
during reproduction and passage of urine to the environment during excretion.

[Link] gland
These are glands associated with the sperm duct and urethra in sexual reproduction.
They provide seminal gland fluid to the sperm cells in the sperm duct for specific
function. They are namely:

a) Seminal vesicle - It produces seminal fluid with fructose and energy supply of nutrient
to the sperm cells.

b) Prostate gland* - Secretes seminal fluid to activate the sperm cells for motility.

*c) Cowper's gland* - Secretes seminal fluid to neutralize the acidity of urine in the
urethra and increase the pH of female reproductive system in the process of copulation.
The mixture of the sperm cells and the seminal fluid from the semen. It stores mature
sperm cells till ejaculation.

Structure and part of a male gamete (sperm cell) and their function
1. Acrosome: It is located at the head of the sperm cell. It contains lytic enzyme for
dissolving the membrane of the egg so as to fuse with the nucleus of the egg for
fertilization

2. Nucleus: It is located at the head region of the sperm cell. It contains genetic material.
It fuses with the nucleus of the ovum to form a zygote during fertilization

3. Middle piece: It contains a lot of mitochondria for cellular respiration to release energy
for the sperm cell to swim to meet the egg cell.

4. Flagellum (tail): It propels the sperm cell to swim to the egg cell

The menstrual cycle and structure of the female sex cell (ovum/egg cell)
The menstrual cycle is a cycle of about 28 days that leads to production of a mature
ovum. It is made up of two parts:
a) Ovarian Part of the menstrual cycle
b) Uterine part of the menstrual cycle

The menstrual cycle involves the following processes:

1. Maturation of an ovum in the ovary
2. Thickening of the uterine wall to receive fertilized ovum
3. Release of matured ovum from the ovary
4. Maintenance of uterine wall for fertilized ovum
5. Breakdown of the uterine wall if there is no fertilization and implantation

A. Ovarian Part of the menstrual cycle

1. Female have two ovaries each ovary has many follicles with approximately 1 potential
egg in each
2. Every month follicles develop to reproduce egg monthly and then produced egg
3. A developing follicle that produces egg is called graafian follicle. It produces
oestrogen which increases as the follicle matures
4. A mature follicle that produces egg is called graafian follicle
5. After the production of the ovum, the graafian follicle develop a form called corpus
luteum (a solid yellow body)
6. Corpus luteum produces two hormones, progesterone and small oestrogen
7. If there is no fertilization the corpus luteum shrinks

B. The uterine part of the menstrual cycle

It involves the sloughing (breakdown) of the extra uterine wall formed during ovarian part
of the menstrual cycle which is discharged with blood through the vagina called
menstrual flow.
This is the beginning of another menstrual cycle

Differences between the Sperm cell and the Ovum

 Sperm cell Ovum (egg cell)

1. It is motile and active [Link] is not motile

2. It is relatively smaller [Link] is relatively bigger

3. There is presence of acrosome [Link] is absent

4. Tail (flagellum) is present [Link] is absent

5. It has a head [Link] is absent

6. Yolk is absent [Link] is present

7. Vitelline membrane is absent [Link] membrane is present

Process of Human Reproduction and development of foetus

1. Fertilization: It is the union of sperm cell with the ovum to form a zygote
2. Implantation: It is the attachment of the fertilized ovum to the uterine wall. It occurs
about 7 days after fertilization
3. Continuous production of progesterone and oestrogen by corpus luteum to maintain
the pregnancy
4. Development of placenta: It is a disc shaped structure formed partly from the mother's
uterine wall (endometrium) partly from the embryo allantois chorion
5. Formation of umbilical cord to connect the foetus to the placenta
6. Development of embryonic membranes:
a. Amnion: It secretes and contains the amniotic fluid to enclose and protect the
embryo
b. Amniotic fluid acts as a shock absorber and pad for the foetus
c. Chorion: It forms the embryonic part of the placenta
d. Allantois: It also forms the embryonic part of the placenta for excretion and
respiration of the embryo
7. Formation of the major organs and development from foetus (about 10 - 12 weeks)
8. Growth and development of foetus until complete gestation period (3-9 months) and
birth of the foetus

Functions of Amniotic fluid

1. It contains and protects the embryo
2. It provides sterile and suitable environment for the embryo
3. It act as a shock absorber to the embryo
4. It allows movement of the embryo
5. It provides constant warmth and suitable temperature for the foetus

Function of Placenta
1. It attaches the foetus to the uterine wall of the mother
2. It contains a thin membrane called trophoblast that prevents the mixing of the foetal
and maternal blood
3. It prevents passage of some pathogens from mother to foetus
4. It allows passage of drugs and alcohol from mother to foetus
5. It allows passage of nutrients and antibiotics from mother to foetus
6. It allows gaseous exchange between the mother and foetus (by diffusion)
7. It transfers metabolic waste products from foetus to mother

Function of Umbilical Cord

1. It attaches the foetus to the placenta
2. It suspends the foetus in amniotic fluid
3. It contains the foetus veins for transport of digested food and oxygen from the
placenta to the foetus
4. It contains the foetus arteries for transport of waste products from the foetus to the
placenta

Multiple Birth
1. A woman normally produces one ovum every month which leads to the birth of one
baby if there is fertilization.
2. Multiple birth is a condition that a woman gives birth to more than one baby at a time.
E.g.
a. Identical twins: These are two babies that develop from one ovum fertilized by one
sperm cell and the zygote/embryo splits into two individual embryos (foetus) sharing one
placenta.
b. Fraternal twins: It occurs when a woman releases two ova at the same time and they
get fertilized. Each fertilised egg develop into an individual embryo with its own separate
placenta.

Test tube babies (In-vitro fertilization IVF)

It is a medical technique that specialists:
a) collect the matured eggs from the ovary of a woman and sperm cell(s) from the man
b) The egg cell and sperm cell are placed in a special culture medium bulb that is similar
to the endometrium of a woman for fertilization.
c) The fertilised egg(s) are then placed into the woman
d) If implantation takes place the embryo develops into normal baby
e) First test tube baby was born in 1978

Processes of Birth of a foetus in human

1. The foetus in the womb turns its head down few weeks before birth
2. Less progesterone while more oestrogen are produced. Oxytocin is also produced to
cause rhythmical contraction of the uterine wall (labour)

3 Stages of Labour
a) Dilation of cervix for passage of the head of the foetus
b) Rupture of amnion (breaking of the water bag) to drain the amniotic fluid
c) Expulsion (birth) of the foetus through the dilated cervix and vagina by continuous
contraction of uterine wall and abdominal muscles

F. Family Planning and Birth Control

Family planning is the method adopted by a group of people to space out the child birth
and control the cause of children they want.
Birth control (contraception): are methods to prevent conception

Methods of birth control and family planning

A. Natural method
1) Rhythm method/calendar method: A woman uses calendar to calculate her ovulation
and safe period and avoids sexual intercourse between ovulation period.
Advantage: It does not involve financial cost
Disadvantage: It may be effective if calculate properly. Not so reliable since
miscalculation can lead to unwanted pregnancy.

2) Withdrawal method: The man withdraws the penis from the vagina before ejaculation
Advantage: No financial cost
Disadvantage: May be reliable. Not reliable, some sperm can escape with sex before
ejaculation. Discharge it can escape (pre-ejaculation fluid) is the best or quite reliable

3) Abstinence: It means completely staying away from sexual intercourse

4) Prolonged Breast Feeding inhibits ovulation

Benefits
1. It does not affect natural hormones balance of woman
2. It is safe, simple, convenient
3. It requires no medical expert

Disadvantages
It does not last, only for about 6 months

B. Surgical method
[Link]: This could be
a) Vasectomy: It involves the cutting off of tube of sperm to prevent fertilization
b) Tubal ligation: It involves cutting of tube of sperm cells for fertilization to prevent the
release of sperm cells
 It is a very reliable because it is done by surgery

Disadvantage
It is expensive. Can never produce a child again
6) Use of Intra Uterine Device IUD): e.g copper T - (spring-like device) inserting a copper
or rubber coil or string into the uterus in order to prevent implantation of fertilized egg.

Advantage
It is effective if the woman's body is so compatible with it and does not reject it

Disadvantage
It requires the service of medical personnel. The woman must always go for regular
checkup to see the loop is in its right position.

7) Barrier method: Use of Condom (Rubber sheath) by men to collect sperm cells

Advantage
It is cheap
It is effective if it is used with spermicide cream

Disadvantage
The condom or diaphragm may tear during intercourse.
Sperms can escape for fertilization

8. Use of contraceptive pills or injection by women: Pills are taken continuously for 21
days while injections are taken in every 1 - 3 months

Advantage
It is effective if used with condom

Disadvantage
If the woman misses the pills, it may interrupt her menstrual cycle which lead to

9. Use of spermicide cream by male and female just before sexual intercourse

Advantage
It is effective if used with condom

Disadvantage
Some sperm cell may escape from the cream if not used with condoms

Benefit of family planning

1. It prevent unwanted pregnancy
2. It reduces the risk of illegal abortion
3. It prevent population explosion
4. It enables couples to produce number of children they can cater for
5. It promotes good health and quality education of the children
6. It reduces maternal death caused by frequent pregnancy
7. It reduces dumping of babies in motherless homes
[Link] makes government to provide adequate social amenities for the citizens

Factors that promote effective birth control program

1. Public enlightenment programme
2. Education programs for couples
3. Establishment of family planning clinic with competent well trained staff
4. Rewards for couples that volunteer to have one or two children
5. Encourage newly married couples on importance of family planning

Hormonal control of the menstrual cycle

1. Follicle stimulating hormone
2. Oestrogen
3. Luteinizing hormone
4. Progesterone

1. Follicle stimulating hormone: It starts the menstrual cycle by stimulation of the

development of follicles in the ovary. Not all are developed, follicles mature in the ovary
and one is called mature follicles is called Graafian follicle
2. Oestrogen: Produced by developing follicle. Stimulate building up of endometrium
(uterine wall) and Critical level of oestrogen in the blood stimulates the secretion of
luteinizing hormone from pituitary gland
3. Luteinizing hormone: Stimulate ovulation (release of egg ovum from the Graafian
follicles)
4. Progesterone: Small amount of oestrogen is secreted. Corpus luteum can maintain the
rich endometrium. If there is fertilization and implantation but if there is no implantation,
the corpus luteum shrinks

🌱 VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION IN CROP PRODUCTION

Vegetative propagation is a form of asexual reproduction in plants in which new plants
develop from vegetative parts such as the stem, root, or leaf, rather than from seeds.

🌱
The new plants are usually genetically identical to the parent plant.
1️⃣ Natural Vegetative Propagation

🌿
This occurs naturally without human assistance.

🍠
A. Propagation by Stem
Stem tuber
A swollen underground stem stores food and produces new shoots from its eyes.

🌱
Example: Irish potato.
Rhizome
A horizontal underground stem produces new shoots and roots.

🌿
Examples: Ginger, turmeric.
Runner/Stolon
A slender stem grows horizontally along the ground and produces roots and shoots at its
nodes.

🌰
Examples: Grass, strawberry.
Bulb
A short underground stem surrounded by fleshy storage leaves.

🌿
Examples: Onion, garlic.
Corm
A short, swollen underground stem that stores food.

🌱
Examples: Cocoyam, gladiolus.
B. Propagation by Root
Some plants produce new shoots from their roots.
Examples:
Sweet potato
Cassava

🍃
Dahlia
C. Propagation by Leaf
In some plants, new plantlets develop from parts of the leaf.
Example: Bryophyllum.
Small buds develop along the leaf margins, producing roots and shoots before becoming
independent plants.

🌾 Importance of Natural Vegetative •Propagation in Crop Production

•Produces new plants quickly.
•Maintains desirable characteristics of the parent plant.
•Useful for plants that produce few or no viable seeds.
•Crops mature earlier than many seed-grown crops.
•Enables farmers to multiply certain crops easily.

👨‍🌾
2️⃣ Artificial Vegetative Propagation
This is vegetative propagation carried out deliberately by humans to multiply plants.

✂️
Major methods include:
Cutting
A portion of the stem, root, or leaf is cut from a parent plant and planted to develop into a
new plant.

🌳
Examples: Cassava, sugar cane, rose.
3️⃣ Grafting
Grafting is the process of joining a piece of one plant (scion) to the rooted stem of
another plant (stock) so that they grow together as one plant.

🌱
Important Terms

🌿
Stock → The rooted plant onto which the scion is attached.
Scion → The shoot or twig attached to the stock.
How Grafting Works
Stock + Scion → Joined together → Healing → New plant
The cambium layers of the stock and scion must be placed in contact so that they can
unite.
Examples
Mango
Citrus
Apple
Avocado

Advantages
•Combines desirable characteristics of two plants.
•Can produce plants that bear fruits earlier.
•Allows farmers to use a strong, disease-resistant rootstock.

🌹
•Useful for propagating plants that are difficult to grow from seeds.
4️⃣ Budding
Budding is a form of grafting in which a single bud from one plant is inserted into the
stem of another plant.
The bud develops into a shoot after the tissues unite.
Examples
•Citrus
•Rose
•Peach
JAMB Difference
Grafting: A scion/shoot is attached to the stock.

🌿
Budding: A single bud is attached to the stock.
5️⃣ Layering
Layering is a method in which a branch is encouraged to produce roots while it is still
attached to the parent plant.
After roots develop, the branch is cut off and planted separately.
Examples
•Guava
•Citrus
•Rose

🧠 JAMB QUICK REVISION

🌱 Natural vegetative propagation → Occurs naturally.
🍠 Tuber → Irish potato.
🌿 Rhizome → Ginger.
🧅 Bulb → Onion.
🌱 Corm → Cocoyam.
🍃 Leaf → Bryophyllum.
🌳 Grafting → Scion + Stock.
🌹 Budding → One bud + Stock.
🌿 Layering → Root formation while branch is still attached to parent.
🌸 Parts of a Flower, Their Functions, and Reproductive Process
A flower is the reproductive organ of flowering plants (angiosperms). It produces the
male and female gametes and is responsible for sexual reproduction.

Reproduction in Flowering Plants

Parts of a Flower
Accessory Parts
Sepals – Protect the flower bud.
Petals – Attract pollinators.
Essential Parts
Androecium (Male Part)
Made up of:
Anther – Produces pollen grains.
Filament – Supports the anther.
Gynoecium (Female Part)
Made up of:
Stigma – Receives pollen.
Style – Connects stigma to ovary.
Ovary – Contains ovules.
Ovule – Contains the egg cell.

Parts of a Flower and Their Functions

1. Sepals (Calyx) 🌿
Function
- Protect the flower bud before it opens.
- Support the petals after the flower blooms.

2. Petals (Corolla) 🌸
Function
- Attract pollinators (e.g., insects and birds) with their bright colours and scent.
- Protect the reproductive organs.

3. Stamen (Male Reproductive Organ) ♂️

The stamen consists of:

a. Anther

Function:
- Produces pollen grains containing the male gametes.
b. Filament

Function:
- Supports and holds the anther in a suitable position for pollination.

4. Carpel or Pistil (Female Reproductive Organ) ♀️

The carpel consists of:

a. Stigma

Function:
- Receives pollen grains during pollination.
- Its sticky surface helps pollen grains adhere.

b. Style
Function
- Connects the stigma to the ovary.
- Provides a pathway for the pollen tube to grow to the ovary.

c. Ovary
An ovary is the enlarged bottom part of the carpel

Types of Ovary
Ovaries are classified based on their position on the receptacle
Superior ovary, Half inferior ovary, Inferior ovary

1. Superior ovary: It is located above other floral parts in the receptacle. Flowers with
superior ovary is called hypogynous flower e.g Hibiscus flower, magnolia flower

2. Half inferior ovary: Ovary that lies inside a cup shaped receptacle and other floral parts
appear slightly above it or almost at the same level e.g rose flower. Those flowers are
called perigynous flower.

3. Inferior ovary: ovary that is below other floral parts

Function
- Contains the ovules.
- Develops into the fruit after fertilization.

d. Ovule

Function
- Contains the female gamete (egg cell).
- Develops into a seed after fertilization.

5. Receptacle (Thalamus)

Function:
- Supports all the floral parts.
- Attaches the flower to the stem.

6. Pedicel (Flower Stalk)

Function
- Attaches the flower to the plant.
- Supports the flower.

Reproductive Process in Flowering Plants

1. Pollination
The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma.

Types
- Self-pollination – Pollen is transferred to the stigma of the same flower or another
flower on the same plant.
- Cross-pollination – Pollen is transferred to the stigma of a flower on a different plant of
the same species.

Differences between wind and insect pollinated flowers

Wind pollinated (anemophilous) flowers | Insect pollinated (entomophilous) flowers

1. Flowers are always small and inconspicuous e.g grasses | Flowers are large and
conspicuous e.g Hibiscus flowers
2. They are often unisexual flowers | They are often bisexual flowers
3. They have dull or green colour sepal or petals | sepal and petals (or spathe) have
bright colours
4. They don't have scent (not scented) | They have scent
5. They don't have nectary and produce no nectar | They have nectaries and produce
nectar
6. Flowers are borne above the leaves with stalks to expose the anther | Flowers may or
may not be above the leaves
7. Pollen grains are small, light, dry and not sticky | Pollen grains are rough and sticky or
spiky
8. Large quantity of pollen grains are produced | Relatively small amount of pollen grains
are produced
9. Stigma is elongated sticky with large surface area and hang outside the flower | Stigma
is short with sticky surface and enclosed within the flower
2. Pollen Germination
- The pollen grain lands on the stigma.
- It germinates and forms a pollen tube.
- The pollen tube grows through the style to the ovule.

3. Fertilization

- The male gamete travels through the pollen tube to the ovule.
- It fuses with the female gamete (egg cell) to form a zygote.

In flowering plants, fertilization is double fertilization:

- One male gamete fuses with the egg cell to form the zygote.
- The other fuses with the polar nuclei to form the endosperm, which nourishes the
developing embryo.

4. Seed and Fruit Formation

- The ovule develops into a seed.
- The ovary develops into a fruit.
- The zygote develops into an embryo.

✅
JAMB Facts to Remember
Anther → Produces pollen grains.

✅ Stigma → Receives pollen grains.

✅ Style → Pathway for pollen tube growth.
✅ Ovary → Develops into the fruit.
✅ Ovule → Develops into the seed.
✅ Petals → Attract pollinators.
✅ Sepals → Protect the flower bud.
🧠 Memory Tip
🌸 Petals → Pretty (Attract pollinators)
🌿 Sepals → Shield (Protect the bud)
🌾 Anther → Produces pollen
📍 Stigma → Sticky landing spot
🛣️ Style → Pathway
🥚 Ovule → Becomes seed
🍎 Ovary → Becomes fruit
Fruits
A fruit is a matured fertilised ovary of a flower with one or more seeds, or a enlarged
edible part of a flower without seed that develop from floral parts like calyx, corolla and
receptacles by parthenocarpic process not fertilization

Structure and parts of a fruit

Parts of a fruit are:
1. Pericarp (fruit wall) - This consist of epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp
2. seeds or seeds
3. Fruit stalk or scar of fruit stalk showing point of attachment to the fruit stalk
4. Remains of style or scar showing point of attachment of style

Differences between a fruit and a seed.

A fruit A seed

1. It develops from an ovary [Link] develops from an ovule

2. It contains one or more seeds [Link] contains only one embryo

3. It has a fruit stalk or scar of receptacle [Link] has a hilum or scar of attachment
funicle

4. It has remain or scar of style [Link] remain or scar of style

5. It has pericarp [Link] has seed coat

Classification and types of fruits

1. True and false fruits
(a) True fruits: It is a fruit that develop mainly from fertilised ovary and it has pericarp and
one or more seeds e.g mango fruit, orange fruit etc
(b) False fruits: These are fruits that develop from ovary and other floral parts like base,
pericarp, calyx and other additional structures e.g fig fruit, pineapple, cashew, bread
fruit, strawberry etc

2. Simple, aggregate and composite fruits

(a) Simple fruit: It is a fruit that from a single ovary which could be:
(i) Single monocarpous ovary e.g cowpea, mango, maize etc
(ii) Single syncarpous ovary e.g okra, paw-paw, tomato etc
(b) Composite fruit: It is a fruit that develop from apocarpous pistil (consisting flowers
with several ovaries) each and every ovary develops into a fruitlet.

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Examples:

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Pineapple

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Breadfruit
Fig
(c). Aggregate Fruit
Develops from several ovaries of a single flower.
Each ovary develops into a small fruit called a fruitlet, and all the fruitlets form one

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aggregate fruit.
Example: Strawberry

3. Fleshy and dry fruit

(a) Fleshy fruits: They are fruits that their pericarp are thick, soft and fleshy when they
are ripe. There are different types of fleshy fruits:
(a) Drupe (b) Berry (c) Hesperidium (d) Pome (e) Sorsosis (f) Syconium
(a) Drupe: (i) It is a true simple fruit (ii) The epicarp forms a thin skin (iii) The mesocarp
may be fleshy e.g mango or spongy e.g coconut, almond, oil palm fruit (iv) They have
fibrous mesocarp (v) They have hard woody or stony endocarp e.g mango, coconut,
almond, oil palm fruits, fruitlets of raspberry, cherry etc
(b) Berry: (i) It is a true, simple, fleshy fruit (ii) It has a thin membranous epicarp (iii) The
mesocarp and endocarp form a fleshy edible mass (iv) It has one or more seed which lie
within the fleshy edible mass e.g tomato, paw-paw, guava, melon etc

©Hesperidium: (i) It is a special type of berry (ii) The epicarp and mesocarp are fused
together to form a rind (skin) (iii) The rind (skin) is leathery consisting of aromatic oil (iv)
The endocarps are sheet like structures which project inward to form separate loculus
chambers filled with succulent, pulpy, hair-like structures e.g orange, lemon, lime etc

(d)Pome: (i) It is a simple false fruit (ii) The epicarp and fleshy edible mesocarp develop
from the receptacle. The central core which encloses the seed (seed) is developed from
the ovary (iii) The central core is papery or leathery and non-edible e.g apple, pear
(e)Sorsosis: (i) It is a false composite fleshy fruit (ii) It is formed from a closely dense
inflorescence (iii) Every part of each flower form a part of the fruit e.g pineapple, bread
fruit etc

(f)Syconium: It is a false composite fleshy fruit (i) It develops from a cup like fleshy
receptacle that contains many tiny male and female flowers (ii) The inflorescence
receptacle form the fleshy edible fruit. The female flower develop into tiny seeds e.g fig

b) Dry fruits: These are fruits that the pericarp become dry, hardened, woody or fibrous
when it is ripe

Types of Dry fruit

Types of dry dehiscent fruit

a) Legume (pod): (i) It is a simple dry dehiscent fruit formed from a monocarpous pistil
and it has dry pericarp that dehisces longitudinally along both sides to release the seeds
when it is ripe e.g bean, pea, groundnut, cowpea, melon. Third of legumes (pea family)
e.g flamboyant, locust bean etc
b) Follicle: It is a simple dry dehiscent fruit formed from a superior ovary. On the place of
dehisce longitudinally only on one side when it is ripe e.g soursop, apple (calotropis),
streptocaulon, cotton, (morning glory)
c) Capsule: (i) It is a simple dry dehiscent fruit formed from syncarpous ovary. Pericarp
may dehisce longitudinally at more than one place either apically or transversely e.g
cock comb, cotton. It may dehisce by a ring or pore at the top e.g poppy
d) Siliqua: It is a long capsule formed from a bicarpellate ovary. It dehisces longitudinally
on both sutures (sides) e.g moringa, tulip, mustard, moringa

2. Dry indehiscent fruits: These are fruits that do not split open to release their seeds
when they are ripe, they fall to the ground then the pericarp decay to release the seeds.
The fruits are mostly small and produced in large quantities

Types of Dry indehiscent fruits

1. Achene (ii) Cypsela (iii) Caryopsis (iv) Nut (v) Samara (vi) Schizocarp

1. Achene: (i) It is simple, true, dry indehiscent fruit with one seed (ii) It is from a
monocarpous pistil, the pericarp and free from the seed

Cypsela: (i) It is a dry indehiscent fruit that develop from an inferior ovary and the
receptacle (bracts) have hairy (capillary) attached to them. The seed pappus are modified
from the calyx
Caryopsis: A dry monocarpillary indehiscent fruit that the pericarp is fused to the seed
coat to form a covering that covers the entire seed e.g cereals (maize, rice, millet grains
etc)

Nut: (i) It is a simple, true dry indehiscent fruit that develop from bicarpous ovary (ii) It
has one loculus (seed chamber) with one seed (iii) It has a hard woody pericarp (iv) Some
are borne on a fleshy receptacle. e.g walnuts, cashewnut, chest nut, hazelnut, pecans
nut.

Samara: It is a simple true dry indehiscent fruit, that the pericarp extend to form one or
more papery wing-like structure e.g combretum, maple, elm, ash, hoptree fruit

Schizocarpic fruit (schizocarp): (i) It is a simple dry indehiscent fruit that develop from a
syncarpous ovary with many seeds; and when it is ripe, it splits up into mericarps (small
parts) with one seed e.g carrot

🌸 Placentation
Placentation is the arrangement of ovules on the placenta inside the ovary of a flower.

🌱
After fertilization, the ovary develops into the fruit, while the ovules develop into seeds.
Types of Placentation
1. Marginal Placentation
Ovules are attached along the margin of a single carpel.
The ovary is usually unilocular.
Example: Pea.
2. Axile Placentation
Ovules are attached to a central axis.
The ovary is divided into two or more chambers (locules).
Examples: Tomato, orange, lemon, hibiscus.
3. Parietal Placentation
Ovules are attached to the inner wall of the ovary.
The ovary is usually unilocular.
Examples: Pawpaw, cucumber, watermelon.
4. Free-Central Placentation
Ovules are attached to a central column.
There are no septa dividing the ovary into chambers.
Examples: Tomato, Dianthus.
5. Basal Placentation
One or a few ovules are attached at the base of the ovary.
Examples: Sunflower, maize.
6. Superficial Placentation
Ovules occur on the surface of the septa in a multilocular ovary.
Example: Water lily.