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d
CONTROL & CO-ORDINATION

Chapter Outline

 Control
 Co-ordination
 Plant movements
 Co-ordination in Plants
 Control & Co-ordination in Animals
 Human Nervous system
 Neuron
 Brain
 Spinal Cord
 Sense Organs
 Reflex Action

 Control
Control is the power of restrain & regulation by which a process can be started, slowed
down or stopped.

 Co-ordination
Coordination is orderly working of different but interrelated parts to perform one more
activities very smoothly.

There are 2 modes of control & coordination, Chemical & nervous. Plant do not have a
nervous system.
They posses only chemical control & coordination.
dd
Animals have both chemical & nervous control & coordination.

Note:-
 The changes in the environment to which the organisms respond and react are called
stimuli.
 The response of organisms to a stimulus is usually in the form of some movement of
their body part.
 Nervous and chemical coordination are combinely called as integrated system.
 Nervous control is faster than chemical control.

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  Plant Movements
The plants are fixed at a place with their roots in the ground, so they cannot move from
one place to another.
The plant movements made in response to external stimuli fall into two main categories:
tropisms and nasties.

 Tropisms:
 A growth movement of a plant part in response to an external stimulus in which the
direction of stimulus determines the direction of response is called tropism.
 If the growth (or movement) of a plant part is towards the stimulus, it is called positive
tropism.
 If the growth (or movement) of a plant part is away from the stimulus, then it is called
negative tropism.
Based on the type of stimulus, there are five types of tropic movements.
i) Phototropism:- It is the movement of plant part in response to light. Plants need
sunlight, so the stems (or shoots) respond to sunlight by growing towards it is due to
positive phototropism. The root of plant, however, bends away from the direction from
which the sunlight comes is due to negative phototropism.

ii) Geotropism:- It is the movement of plant part in response to gravity. The roots of
plants always grow downward in response to gravity, this is known as positive
geotropism. The stems (or shoots) of plants always grow up, away from the pull of
gravity, this is known as negative geotropism.

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 iii) Chemotropism:- It is the movement of plant part in response to chemical stimulus.
This growth of the pollen tube in response to chemical substance.

iv) Hydrotropism:- It is the movement of plant part in response to water. The roots grow
in the direction of source of water showing positive hydrotropism.
v) Thigmotropism:- It is directional growth movement of a plant part in response to the
touch of an object. The climbing parts of the plants such as tendrils grow towards any
support which they happen to touch and wind around that around support. So,
tendrils, of plants are positively thigmotropic.

STIMULUS TYPE OF TROPISM

Light Phototropism
Gravity Geotropism
Chemical Chemotropism
Water Hydrotropism
Touch Thigmotropism

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  Nasties:- The movement of a plant part in response to an external stimulus in which the
direction of response is not determined by the direction of stimulus is called nastic
movement.
The main difference between tropic and nastic movements is that tropic movement is a
directional movement of a plant part but nastic movement is not a directional movement.
i) Thigmonasty:- it is the non-directional movement of a plant part in response to the
touch of an object is called Thigmonasty. An example of this is touch-me-not plant
(Mimosa Pudica), if we touch the leaves of this plant with our fingers, then its leaves
fold up and droop almost immediately.

COMPETITIVE LEVEL

Figure: The leaves of sensitive plant fold due to the loss of water from pulvins at their
base.

ii) Photosnasty:- It is the non-directional movement of a plant part in response to light.

A dandelion flower opens up in the morning in bright light but closes in the evening
when the light fades and it gets dark.
Whereas the petals of moonflower close during the day when there is bright light but
open up at night when it is dark and there is no light.

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 COMPETITIVE LEVEL
 Photoperiodism:- Flowering and germination of seeds in plants is controlled by duration
of day light (photoperiod). This phenomenon is called photoperiodism.
On the basis of length of photoperiod requirement of plants, they have been classified into.

 Short day plants – Xanthium, Sugarcane.

 Long day plants – spinach, Radish.
 Day neutral plants – Cotton, Sunflower.
Response of plants to photoperiodic stimulus is due to a specialized pigment Pytochrome.

 Co-Ordination in Plants
Plants do not have any special structure for perception of stimuli. In plants control and co-
ordination is performed by chemical substances known as plant hormones or
hytohormones.
Phytohormones, which bring about control and co-ordination, in plants are broadly divided
into two groups.

1) Growth promoters:- Chemicals that promote some or other aspect of growth (Auxins,
Gibberellins and Cytokinnis).
a) Auxin:-
 Indole acetic acid is the principle naturally occurring auxin found in all plants
including fungi.
 Auxin initiate as well as promote cell division, cell eleongation, root formation.
 Causes apical dominance and prevents abscission layer formation.
 Initiation of flowering.
 Regulates plant growth movements (e.g. phototropism and geotropism).

b) Gibberellins:-
 Elongation of internodes that leads to elongation of stem.

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  Leaf expansion
 Reversal of dwarfishm.
 Breaking of dormancy.
 Promotes flowering and seed germination.

C) Cytokinin:-

 Promote cell division and cell enlargement.

 Contraction of apical dominace.
 Breaking of dormancy.

2) Growth inhibitors:- chemicals that inhibit or more aspects of growth (Ethylene and
Abscissic Acid).
a) Ethylene:-
 Ethylene is a volatile gas.
 Has inhibitory effects on growth (prevents elongation of stem and roots)
 Promotes fruit growth and ripening.
 Promotes seed germination.
 Promotes abscission of leaves, flowers and fruits.

c) Abscissic acid:-
 Also known an stress hormone.
 Promotes abscission, senescence, bud dormancy.
 Causes growth inhibition.
 ABA suppresses the growth promoting effects of gibberellins and hence is also known
as antigibberellins.

Note:- Gibberellins were fist identified in studies of a disease of rice in Japan, the Bakane
(foolish seeding) disease caused by Gibberella fujikuroi.

 Control and Coordination in Animals

The control and co-ordination in higher animals called vertebrates (including human
beings) takes place through nervous system as well as hormonal system called endocrine
system.

 Endocrine System
 Any chemical substance which is formed in the tissues of endocrine glands are carried
by the blood to other parts of the body for its specific actions is termed as hormone.

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 COMPETITIVE LEVEL
DIFFERENT ENDOCRINE GLANDS, THEIR LOCATION IN THE BODY & THE HORMONES SECRETED BY THEM .

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  Pituitary Gland :-
 Somatotropic hormone (Growth hormone) (SH/GH): Controls growth of somatic cells
influences protein, Carbohydrate and fat metabolism. It’s deficiency during childhood
leads to dwarfishm and over secretion leads to gigantism and acromegaly in adult.

COMPETITIVE LEVEL

 Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH): Stimulates growth of ovarian follicles in

ovary of female and controls spermatogenesis in males.
 Leutinizing hormone(LH) Stimulates ovary to produce estrogen in female and
testis to produce androgens in male.
 Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): Stimulates adrenal cortex to grow
and secrete its hormones.
 Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH): Regulates the growth of thyroid gland
and secretion of thyroxine.
 Prolactin: Controls development of mammary glands and stimulates corpus
luteum to secrete progesterone.
 Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH): Stimulate melanocytes.
 Vasopressin/ Anti Diuretic Hormone (ADH): Controls tubular reabsorption
of water in kidney. Also increases blood pressure.
 Oxytocin: Controls uterine contraction during parturition, stimulates lactation
to increase milk secretion.

COMPETITIVE LEVEL

 Pineal Gland:
 It is small gland reddish-grey in colour, about the size of a pea, attached to the roof the
third ventricle of the brain.
 It regulates the biological clock (circadian rhythm).
 It contributes in regulating gonadal development. It controls development &
concentration of melanin. It secretes melatonin hormone.

 Thyroid:
The thyroid gland consists of two lobes joined together by an isthmus.
It is situated in the lower part of the neck and is enlarged in the condition of goiter. The hormones
secreted by the thyroid gland are:

 Thyroxine:- It is the principal hormone secreted by the thyroid gland.

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 Its main role is to increase the metabolic rate of the organs and tissues of the whole body.
Cretinism affects children and is due to congenital defect of either absence or defect of the
gland.
Iodine deficiency simple goiter.

COMPETITIVE LEVEL
 Calcitonin:- This hormone lowers the calcium level in two ways:
By inhibiting renal tubular calcium reabsorption.
By inhibiting bone calcium reabsorption.

 Parathyroid:
These are small ovoid pea shaped glands. They lie on the posterior of the thyroid gland.
Parathormone
 It regulates the balance between the calcium in bones and in extracellular tissue fluid,
thus affecting the amount of calcium in the blood.
 It also controls the excretion of phosphates in the urine, probably by reducing tubular
reabsorption of phosphorus by the kidney tubule.

 Thymus Gland:
 This gland is situated in the thorax in middline under the sternum in front of trachea.
 It secretes a hormone namely thymosin.
 It is one of the sites of lymphocyte formation in children.
 It helps in producing antibodies.

 Pancreas
Pancreas is the heterocrine gland in the human body.
 It acts as exocrine as well as endocrine gland.
 It acts as exocrine as it secretes pancreatic juice which is poured into the duodenum with
the help of pancreatic duct.

COMPETITIVE LEVEL
 The endocrine tissue of the pancreas is the form of clumps of secretory cells known as the
islets of Langerhans.
 The islet cells are of three types-alpha, beta delta.
 The alpha cells of pancreas secrete glucagon, the metabolic effects of which are opposite
to those of insulin.
 It causes the breakdown of liver glycogen, thereby releasing glucose into the blood stream.

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  Insulin is secreted by the beta cells and like other hormones, passes directly into the
blood.
 Insulin is required to convert glucose into glycogen (glycogenesis) and store it in liver.
 Deficiency of insulin due to defect in islets of langerhans results in diabetes mellitus, a
condition in which blood glucose is high and is passed in the urine.

COMPETITIVE LEVEL

 The third hormone somatostatin is secreted by the delta cells of the islets of Langerhans.
 It is able to inhibit the secretion of many hormones.
 As it inhibits the release of growth hormone of pituitary gland.
 It is also known as growth hormone release inhibiting hormone (GHRIH).

 Adrenal Gland
 There are two small semilunar structures lying one each on upper pole of the kidneys.
That is why they are also known as suprarenal glands.

Each gland consists of two structurally & physiologically separate parts known as cortex
and medulla.

COMPETITIVE LEVEL

 Cortex secretes three different kinds of hormones known as corticosteroids. They are:
 Mineralocorticoids: These regulate sodium and potassium balance in the body.
 Glucocroticoids: These derive their name from their influence on carbonydrate
metabolism.
e.g. Glycogenesis is promoted in liver.

 Sex hormones: Small quantities of sex hormones as androgens and oestrogen are
produced by adrenal glands which influence sexual development and growth.

 Adrenal medulla: It secretes two hormones.

i) Adrenaline: it is a stress hormones causes increases in systolic blood pressure,
dilation of coronary blood vessels, increased sweating and increase in metabolic rate.

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 It brings restlessness, muscle fatigue and anxiety.

COMPETITIVE LEVEL
ii) Noradrenaline: It is a general vasoconstrictor, increase both systolic and diastolic
pressure.
Both of these hormones are helpful in emergency conditions. Thus are called as “Fight
fright or flight response “ or 3F’ s.

 Ovaries
Ovaries secrete three hormones:
i) Oestrogen: FSH on the anterior pituitary controls the secretion of oestrogen by acting
on the Graffian follicles.
ii) This hormone effects the development of female secondary sex characters.

COMPETITIVE LEVEL

 The oestogen secretion influences the follicular phase.

 Its secretion is maximum during ovulation period. Moreover during the oestrogen
secretion by placenta keeps on increasing till full term.

iii) Progesterone: It is secreted by corps luteum.

 This hormone in contract to oestrogen which is produced continuously during the
reproductive years, is secreted only after ovulation.
 Progesterone prepares the uterus for receiving the embryo.
 If ovum gets fertilized, the corpus luteum continuous to play a role in maintaining the
pregnancy.
 This hormone is essential for the maintenance of pregnancy and is therefore called
pregnancy hormone.

COMPETITIVE LEVEL
iv) Relaxin: This hormone is secret3d during later stages of pregnancy0 and leads to
relaxation of musculses of the pelvic area to enable easy child birth and reduce the
pressure on the foetus.

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  Testes:
 Testosterone: Is the main testicular hormones secreted by interstitial cells of the testis.
it is mainly concerned with the development and maintenance of male sex characters and
enhancing the process of spermatogenesis (sperm formation).

COMPETITIVE LEVEL

 Hypothyroidism: Myxoedema is the condition caused by thyroid hormone deficiency in

adults.
 Hyperthyroidism: Excessive amount of thyroxine is poured into the blood this condition
being known as toxic goiter or exophthalamic goiter (grave’s disease)
 The basal metabolic rate (B.M.R) is increased in hyperthyroidism and reduced in
hypothyroidism.

 Feedback Mechanism: The excess or deficiency of hormones has a harmful effect on our
body. For example, the deficiency of insulin hormone results in a disease called diabetes
whereas excess of insulin in the body can lead to coma. So, it is necessary that the
hormones are secreted by the glands in our body in precise quantities which are required
for the normal functioning of the body. This means that there should be some ‘mechanism’
to regulate the production and release of hormones in the body. The timing and amount
of hormones released by various glands are controlled by ‘feedback mechanism’
which is inbuilt in our body.

 Human Nervous System

The function of nervous system is to coordinate the activities of our body. It helps all other
system of our body to work together.

Central Nervous System (CNS): It lies along the main (longitudinal) axis of the body.
In turn the CNS comprises of –
i) Brain or encephalon situated in the head.
ii) Spinal cord is a long and narrow structure located in the neck and trunk.

 Peripheral Nervous System: It consists of nervous, which extend between the central
nervous system and the sense organs or body’s effectors (muscles, glands, etc.) or both. It
carries information to and from the CNS. It mainly controls the voluntary activities of the
body. Peripheral nervous system consists of two sets of nervous –

i) Cranial nervous: 12 pairs of nerves (They arise from or join the brain).

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 ii) Spinal nervous: 31 pairs of nervous (They arise from spinal cord).
 Central nervous system: The function of central nervous system is to integrate
information from various parts of the body and then analyse it.
 Peripheral nervous system: The function of peripheral nervous system is to transmit
information in the form of signals from body parts to CNS and vice-versa.
 Autonomic Nervous System: It consists of nervous which connect the visceral receptors
and effectors with the CNS through the cranial and spinal nerves. It controls involuntary
activities of the body. It in turn has two components-
i) Sympathetic nervous system
ii) Parasympathetic nervous system
The action of sympathetic & parasympathetic nervous system is antagonistic to each
other. Both interact and maintain homeostasis inside the body.

 Neuron
The nervous system is made of special cells called neurons. It is the largest cell in the body
(Which looks like an electric wire). The neurons carry messages in the form of electrical
signals called electrical impulses or nerve impulses.

 Each neuron consists of a cell body called cyton and a number of branches (nerve fibres)
arising from the cyton. Neuron does not divide.
 Cyton contains a nucleus within the cytoplasm & nissl’s granules (formed of RER with
ribosomes) and fine thread like fibres, called neurofibrils.

i) Dendrites: These are short, several, much branched & Contain granules. They carry
impulse towards the Cyton.
ii) Axon: It is a large, single and unbranched structure.

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  It has no nissl’s granules.
 It carries impulses from cyton to the effector organs like glands, muscles, etc. or to the
other nerve.
 Axis cylinder is enclosed in a tin permeable membrane called axolemma or nerve
membrane.
 A layer of fatty material called myelin or medullary sheath is found outside the
axolemma.
 Such fibres are called myelinated (medullated) fibres.
 They seems to be white. Nerve fibres lacking myelin sheath are called non-myelinated
& appear grey in colour.

 Myelin is interrupted at intervals by circular constrictions called Nodes of Ranvier.

 Each telodendron ends in a swollen knob called synaptic knob or terminal button.
 Synaptic knob of one nerve fibre (axon) forms synapse with the dendrites of another
neuron.
 Synapse cleft is a very fine gap between these two neurons. Thus, in the entire
nervous system neurons are liked together.
 Synapse is a junction that ensure the nerve impulses to travel in only one direction.
 Neurotransmitter are those chemical substances which transmit impulse from one
neuron to another neuron. Acetylcholine, serotoin, dopamine act as a neurotransmitter.

 Types of Neurons or Nerve Fibres:

i) Sensory:- It transmits impulse from sensory organs to central nervous system.
ii) Motor:- it carries impulse from brain and spinal cord to effector organs.
iii) Relay:- They serve as links between other neurons.

COMPETITIVE LEVEL
 For the conduction of nerve impulse, Na+ is necessary.
 In human brain more than 100 billion neurons are present.

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  Human Brain

 The brain is covered by cranium & spinal cord is covered by vertebral column.
 Both are also surrounded by three membranes of the connective tissues called
meninges.

COMPETITIVE LEVEL
 The three Meninges are-
 Outer most – Duramater
 Middle – Arachnoidmater
 Inner most – Piamater.

 The space between the membranes is filled with a fluid called cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF) that protects the brain from mechanical shocks.
 The brain can be differentiated into three main organs regions: Fore brain, Mid brain
& Hind brain.

 Fore Brain
It consists of olfactory lobes, cerebrum and diencephalon.
A) Olfactory lobes: These are a pair of small, solid, cube shaped bodies. They are fully
covered by cerebrum. They receive impulse for smell.

B) Cerebrum: It is the larges part of the brain.

 It consists of two cerebral hemispheres joined by a band of nerve fibres called corpus
callosum.
 Surface of cerebral hemisphere is made up of grey matter, called cerebrum cortex.
 It becomes highly folded to increase area for accommodation of more neurons.

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 COMPETITIVE LEVEL
 Each Cerebrum Hemisphere into Four Lobes:
 Occipital lobe: Region for visual perception
 Frontal lobe: For muscular activities
 Parietal lobe: For touch, smell, temperature and conscious association.
 Temporal lobe: or auditory reception.

 Cerebrum has sensory where impulses are received from sense organs (receptors).
Similarly it has a general motor are from where impulses are sent to effector organs
(Muscles & glands).
C) Diencephalon: It encloses a cavity called third ventricle.
 It consists of thalamus and hypothalamus.
 Thalamus serve as a relay centre for sensory and motor impulses from spinal cord &
medulla oblongata to cerebrum.
 It recognizes sensory impulses of heat, cold, pain, & pressure.
 Floor of third ventricle is called hypothalamus.
 It possesses control centres for hunger, thirst, thermoregulation, sleep, sex, stresses etc.

 Mid Brain
It consists of two parts:
i) Cerebral peduncles
 It consists of two heavy tracts called Crura cerebri.
 These tracts connect fore brain to the hind brain.

ii) Optic lobes: These are the centres for control of eye movement and hearing responses.
 Hind Brain: It is divided into three parts.

A) Cerebellum: Very large & well developed. It controls co-ordination and adjustment of
movements (equilibrium) and posture.
B) Pons varoli:- It lies above the medulla oblongata. It controls some aspects of respiration.
C) Medulla oblongata: It is the posterior most of the brain and continues into the spinal
cord. It controls involuntary functions of the body such as heart beat, rate of breathing,
secretion of saliva, swallowing, coughing, sneezing, vomiting etc.

 The weight of brain of an adult man is 1400 g and of a female is 1250 g.

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 DIFFERENT PARTS OF BRAIN AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
Parts of Brain Sub-Divisions Function
1. Fore Brain a) Olfactory lobes Sense of smell
b) Cerebrum Centre of memory and intelligence
(largest & most
complex part of
brain)
c) Diencephalon: Centre of emotions, sweating, fatigue, sleep,
Thalamus & think, pain, hunger, body temperature, fear,
Hypothalamus etc.
2. Mid Brain Cerebral peduncles or Receive sensory impulses from eyes, ears
Crura cerebri (fibre and muscles of head.
tracts) Relay impulses back and forth between the
cerebrum, cerebellum, pons and medulla.
3. Hind Brain a) Cerebellum Controls the rapid muscular activities such
as running, typing etc.
b) Pons varoli Relay impulse between medulla oblongata
and upper parts of brain. It contains centres
that work those of medulla oblongata to
regulate respiratory rate.
i) It controls various involuntary
movements of the body.
c) Medulla ii) It has a respiratory centre to
oblongata regulate respiration.
iii) It has reflex centre of swallowing,
vomiting, peristalsis, salivation,
coughing, sneezing, etc.

 Spinal Cord
 It is a long cord which arises from the medulla oblongata and runs through the vertebral
column (backbone). The vertebral column protects the spinal cord.
 The spinal cord is also covered by meanings. A cross section of the spinal cord shows the
central canal, which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid. Around the canal are clusters of
cytons, which form the grey matter.
 The peripheral part has mainly axons and is called white matter. From each side of the
spinal cord two roots, the dorsal and the ventral root arise. The dorsal root is joined by a
nerve called sensory nerve, which picks up sensations from the sense organs (receptors).
 From the ventral root arises the motor nerve, which takes messages from the spinal cord
to the muscles or glands (effectors).
 As many as 31 pairs of nerves arises from the spinal cord. The region between the
thalamus and spinal cord is referred to as brain stem.

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 Spinal cord controls reflex actions such as moving our hand away on touching a hot plate.

 Sense Organ
Every organisms has little or more awareness to the different factors of the environment
mainly due to the presence of certain sensitive structures in the body called organs are
receptors.
The sense organs are generally destined to receive only one kind of stimulus and not any
other.
The most common receptors are

 Photoreceptor : Eye
 Phonoreceptor : Ear
 Gustatory receptor : Tongue
 Tangoreceptor : Skin
 Olfactory receptor : Nose

 Reflex Action
 Sudden involuntary responses to stimuli are examples of reflex action. The response may be
different when your conscious through process is involved. For example, when a doctor pricks you
with an injection needle to inject a medicine into your arm, you do not withdraw your arm
immediately.

 The spinal cord is the centre of reflex action. Reflex actions are produced by reflex arcs, which may
be formed anywhere along the spinal cord, nearest to the receptor and effector.
 A reflex arc is formed by a sensory nerve and a motor nerve joined by a connecting nerve present
in the spinal cord.
 If someone hits your leg with a hammer the leg is immediately withdrawn. In this type of reflex
action the impact of the hammer (stimulus) received by the receptor is sent to the spinal cord
through the sensory nerve.
 The message is received by the connecting nerve in the spinal cord. The connecting nerve then
sends a response through the motor nerve to the muscles (effectors) to pull the leg away.

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  Thus, reflex action is a sudden, involuntary motor response to a stimulus. The flow of food in the
alimentary canal, blinking in strong light or in response to s sudden movement in front of the eye,
sneezing, coughing, yawning, hiccupping, shivering, etc., are also reflex actions.

 A reflex action is an unconscious (without will) and involuntary response of effectors (muscles or
glands) to a stimulus. The pathway taken by nerve impulse in a reflex action is called the reflex
arc.
Examples of reflex actions
i) Withdrawal of hand when pricked with a needle.
ii) Closing of eyes when flashed with strong light.

COMPETITIVE LEVEL
 Simple Reflex
It is an inborn, inherited or unlearned response to a stimulus Ex. Nest budding.
 Conditioned Reflex
It is the response acquired as a result of training or experience to a stimulus that originally failed to
evoke the reaction. Father is I.P. Pavlov. Ex. Writing.
 Cranial Reflex: These actions are completed by brain. They are slow actions. E.g. watering of mouth.
 Spinal Reflex: These actions are completed by spinal cord. They are quick actions. E.g. Displacement of
leg at the time of pinching by needle.

Example
1. How is the movement caused in Mimosa plant?
2. Give an example of a slow growth independent response in plants.
3. What are plant hormones? What is the relationship between their site of production and
site of action?
4. Name the hormone responsible for:
5. Name and explain the function of the hormone secreted by the pituitary gland in humans.
6. Why is iodine salt necessary for our body?
7. What is the difference between the functions of central and peripheral nervous system?
8. Name the part of brain specialized for hearing, smell and sight
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 EXERCISE - 1
 Very Short Answer Type Questions

1. Write the function of hormone thyroxin in our body.

2. Which hormone helps in lowering the level of blood calcium in human beings?
3. Which hormone is responsible for the development of moustache and beard in man?
4. Which type of glands in human body secrete hormones?
5. What is the function of the hormone secreted by the endocrine gland pituitary?

 Short Answer Type Questions – Type I

6. Name hormones produced by Neurohypopysis.

7. Name for hormones produced by pituitary gland with function.
8. Why is pituitary gland called master gland?
9. What is the role of oxytocin?
10. Which hormone is called emergency hormone?

 Short Answer Type Questions – Type II

11. Name any four receptor along with the organ in which they occur.
12. Where is medulla oblongata situated?
13. Write a note on ABA.
14. What is reflex action?
15. How do we detect the smell of a perfume?
16. What type of receptors help in detection of
a) Taste and b) smell

17. Name the stimulus in the following responses:

a) Hiding of cockroaches when light is switched on.
b) Growth of roots towards the earth.

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 18. a) State two functions of myelin sheath.
b)identify the phenomenon shown in the below given diagrams (A) and (B).

19. How are the brain and spinal cord protected in human body?
20. How are the information and decision processed in the forebrain?

 Long Answer Type Questions

21. Draw a labeled diagram of brain.

22. Describe the structure of neuron.
23. What is reflex action? Describe the types of reflex action with a suitable diagram.
24. Explain the structure of human brain with labeled diagram.
25. What are tropisms? Explain the types of tropisms.

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