Basic Algebra

Foundations of Algebraic Thinking

A 15-page introductory study guide covering the core ideas, applications and review questions of
this topic.

Independent Study Series

Compiled 2026

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Table of Contents
#Topic
Page
1What
3 is algebra?
2Variables
4 and expressions
3Linear
5 equations
4Inequalities
6
5Functions
7 and graphs
6Systems
8 of equations
7Polynomials
9
8Factorisation
10
9Quadratic
11 equations
10E12
xponents and logarithms
11C13
ommon mistakes
12W14
orked problems
13P15
ractice and answers

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 1. What Is Algebra?
Algebra is the language of generalisation in mathematics. Where arithmetic answers questions about
specific numbers, algebra provides tools to express relationships and to reason about quantities that are
not yet known.

Three big ideas

• Generalisation — patterns from specific cases expressed compactly, e.g. 1+3+5+...+(2n-1) = n
squared.
• Equality as balance — any operation on one side must be applied to the other.
• Modelling — real situations translated into equations, solved, then interpreted.
Algebra is often called the great equaliser because it lets us work with unknowns as fluently as with
known quantities.

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 2. Variables and Expressions
A variable is a symbol representing a value from a specified set. A constant is a fixed value. An
expression combines variables and constants using operations.

Examples
• 3x + 7 — a linear expression in x.
• a squared + b squared — the sum of two squares.
• Square root of (y − 5) — defined only when y >= 5.
To evaluate for a given value, substitute and simplify. For x = -2 in 3x + 7: 3(-2) + 7 = 1. When an
expression equals something — say 3x + 7 = 1 — it becomes an equation and the task shifts to solving.

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 3. Linear Equations
A linear equation in one variable can be written ax + b = c with a not zero. Its solution is found by isolating
x.

Standard procedure
• 1. Remove parentheses by distribution.
• 2. Move variable terms to one side, constants to the other.
• 3. Combine like terms.
• 4. Divide both sides by the coefficient of the variable.
• 5. Check the answer by substitution.
Worked example: solve 2(x + 3) − 5 = 4x + 1. Distribute: 2x + 1 = 4x + 1. Subtract 2x: 1 = 2x + 1. Subtract
1: 0 = 2x. Divide by 2: x = 0.

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 4. Inequalities
An inequality compares two expressions using <, <=, > or >=. The solution is typically a range rather than
a single value.

Three rules to remember

• Adding or subtracting the same number on both sides preserves the inequality.
• Multiplying or dividing by a positive number preserves the inequality.
• Multiplying or dividing by a negative number reverses the direction of the inequality.
Worked example: solve -3(x − 1) < 9. Dividing by -3 reverses the inequality, so x − 1 > -3, giving x > -2. On
a number line, an open circle at -2 with shading to the right.

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 5. Functions and Graphs
A function is a rule that assigns each input exactly one output. The graph of a function is the set of all (x,
f(x)) pairs plotted on a coordinate plane.
Term
Meaning
Domain
The set of all allowable inputs.
Range
The set of all actual outputs.
Intercept
Where the graph crosses an axis.
Slope
Rate of change; steepness of a line.
y =Slope-intercept
mx + b form.

Not every curve is a function. The vertical-line test: a graph represents a function if every vertical line
crosses it at most once.

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 6. Systems of Equations
A system of equations is a set involving the same variables; solving it means finding values that satisfy
every equation simultaneously.

Common methods
Method
Idea
Substitution
Solve one equation for one variable and substitute into the other.
Elimination
Add or subtract multiples of equations to eliminate a variable.
Graphical
Plot both lines; the intersection is the solution.
Matrix
Represent
methods
as Ax = b and invert or reduce A.

A system can have a unique solution, no solution (parallel lines) or infinitely many solutions (the same
line).

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 7. Polynomials
A polynomial is a sum of terms of the form a_n times x to the n, where n is a non-negative integer.
Examples include 5x cubed − 2x + 7 and x to the 4 plus 1.

Vocabulary
• Degree — the highest exponent; determines end behaviour on a graph.
• Leading coefficient — coefficient of the highest-degree term.
• Constant term — value of the polynomial when x = 0.
• Roots or zeros — values of x that make the polynomial zero.
• Turning point — a local maximum or minimum.
Polynomials can be added, subtracted, multiplied and (when divisible) divided. Long division of
polynomials mirrors long division of integers.

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 8. Factorisation
Factorisation rewrites a polynomial as a product of simpler expressions. It is the reverse of expansion
and the key step in solving equations and simplifying fractions.
Pattern
Identity
Common
Factor out
factor
a greatest common divisor: 6x squared + 9x = 3x(2x + 3).
Difference
a squaredof−squares
b squared = (a − b)(a + b).
Perfect
a squared
square
+ 2ab
trinomial
+ b squared = (a + b) squared.
Grouping
Pair terms and find a common factor in each pair.
Trinomial
ax squared + bx + c = (px + q)(rx + s) when pr = a and qs = c.

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 9. Quadratic Equations
A quadratic equation has the form ax squared + bx + c = 0, with a not zero. It can be solved by
factorisation, completing the square or the quadratic formula.
x = (−b ± sqrt(b squared − 4ac)) / 2a
The expression b squared − 4ac is the discriminant: D > 0 → two distinct real roots; D = 0 → one
repeated root; D < 0 → two complex conjugate roots.
Worked example: solve x squared − 5x + 6 = 0. Discriminant = 25 − 24 = 1; x = (5 ± 1)/2, so x = 3 or x = 2.
Check by factorisation: (x − 3)(x − 2) = 0.

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 10. Exponents and Logarithms
Exponents express repeated multiplication: a to the n = a · a · ... · a (n times). Logarithms are inverses —
log base a of x asks 'to what power must a be raised to obtain x?'
Rule
Meaning
a to
Product
the m of
times
powers.
a to the n = a to the (m + n)
(a Power
to the m)
of atopower.
the n = a to the mn
a to the −n =exponent.
Negative 1 / a to the n
a to
Anything
the 0 = (non-zero)
1 to the zero.

Logarithms convert multiplication into addition — essential to early astronomers and central to many
modern algorithms.

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11. Common Mistakes
Mistake
Correction
−(aDistribute
+ b) = −athe
+ bsign: −(a + b) = −a − b.
(a (a
+ b)
+ b)
squared
squared
= a= squared
a squared
+ b+ squared
2ab + b squared.
Forget
Always
to flip
checkinequality
the signwhen
before
dividing
dividing.
by a negative number.
Distributing
Distribute only
fully:one
2(x term:
+ 4) =2(x
2x ++ 4)
8. = 2x + 4
log(a
log(a
+ b)
+ b)
= log
hasano
+ log
simple
b expansion.

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 12. Worked Problems
1. Slope and y-intercept of 3x − 4y = 12. Rewrite as y = (3/4)x − 3 → slope = 3/4, intercept = −3.
2. Solve 2x + y = 7, x − y = 2. Adding gives 3x = 9 → x = 3, y = 1.
3. Factor x cubed − 9x → x(x squared − 9) = x(x − 3)(x + 3).
4. Solve x squared + 4x − 5 = 0 by completing the square. (x + 2) squared = 9 → x + 2 = ±3 → x = 1 or −5.
5. Simplify log base 2 of 8 plus log base 2 of 4 → log base 2 of 32 = 5.
6. Solve absolute value of 2x − 6 = 10 → 2x − 6 = 10 (x = 8) or 2x − 6 = −10 (x = −2).
7. If f(x) = x squared − 3x + 1, find f(2). = 4 − 6 + 1 = −1.

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 13. Practice Sets and Brief Answers
A. Solve 5(x − 2) = 3x + 4 → 2x = 14 → x = 7.
B. Solve x + 2y = 5, 3x − y = 5 → x = 15/7, y = 10/7.
C. Factorise x squared + 7x + 12 → (x + 3)(x + 4).
D. Solve x squared − 6x + 13 = 0 → discriminant = −16, roots are 3 ± 2i.
E. Evaluate log base 3 of 81 = 4, because 3 to the 4 = 81.
Algebra converges on elegance — each technique unlocks dozens of problems that once looked
different.

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