GENES AND INHERITANCE

Chromosomes:

Chromosomes are thread-like structures found in the nucleus of cells that carry genetic
information in the form of DNA. They contain genes, which determine the traits and characteristics
of an organism. Humans typically have 46 chromosomes, arranged in 23 pairs.

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Chromosomal pairs:

We have two of each kind of chromosome. The photograph shows all the chromosomes in a
human cell. They have been lined up in size order. They do not line up like this.

Genes:

Each chromosome is made up of hundreds of different genes. These genes are arranged in a
particular sequence along the chromosome. Each gene helps control a specific characteristic in
the organism. On this diagram of a short chromosome, the stripes represent different genes.

Example:

We know that chromosome 15 helps determine eye colour. Everyone has genes for eye colour in
the same place on chromosome 15. But there are different versions of these genes, so one person
could have a chromosome 15 with a eye colour genes that give them blue eyes, and another could
have a chromosome 15 with a eye colour genes that give them brown eyes.

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DNA

Chromosomes are made of a chemical called DNA. Each chromosome is one enormously long
molecule of DNA. This means that genes are also made of DNA.

A DNA molecule has a shape like a twisted ladder. This shape is called a double helix.

DNA was first discovered in the 1950’s. Since then, scientists have discovered a great deal about
how the DNA in genes helps to determine the characteristics of humans and other organisms. The
DNA in a cell determines what the cell does. It contains a complete set of instructions to make a
functioning cell, and a whole organism.

GAMETES AND INHERITANCE:

GAMETES

Most cells in the human body contain 46 chromosomes. Where did these chromosomes come
from?

Every human being began life as a single cell. This cell was formed when a sperm cell joined with
an egg cell. Sperm cells and egg cells are specialised cells known as gametes. A sperm cell is a
male gamete, and an egg cell is a female gamete.

Sperm cell structure:

Sperm cells are microscopic cells. They are very

active, using their tails to swim vigorously.

Egg cell structure:

Egg cells are much bigger than sperm cells but still very
small. A human egg cell is about the same size as a full
stop. They need to be larger than sperm cells because
they contain food reserves. Another difference from
sperm cells is that egg cells cannot move by themselves.

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FERTILISATION

Gametes ONLY contain 23 chromosomes. Human cells contain 46 chromosomes in their nucleus.
They have two sets, each set containing 23 chromosomes.

BUT gametes have only one set of chromosomes. This means that, when a sperm cell joins with
an egg cell, the new cell produced has two sets. It will have 46 chromosomes.

The joining of a sperm and an egg cell is known as fertilisation.

The new cell that is formed when the nucleus of the sperm cell and the egg join together is called
a zygote.

All humans began their lives like this. Over the following days, weeks and years, this single cell
divides over and over again (mitosis), eventually producing all the million cells in the human body.

BOY OR GIRL

All the chromosomes in the cells in a human body come from the person’s mother and father.
There is one set from the mother and one from the father. We can use this information to explain
how a baby’s sex is determined.

The last two pairs of chromosomes are known as the sex chromosomes. They determine
whether a person is male or female. In the photograph on page 2, there are two X chromosomes.

A person with two X chromosomes is FEMALE, and a person with XY chromosomes is MALE.

All gametes contain one X chromosome. However, sperm cells can either carry an X or Y
chromosome. So, each time fertilisation happens, either an X-containing sperm cell or a Y-
containing sperm cell could join with an egg. So, parents have a 50/50 chance of their offspring
being a boy or a girl.

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INHERITANCE

Inheritance means passing on DNA from parents → offspring. A baby’s sex is determined
because the baby inherits X or Y chromosomes from its parents. We can use the term sex
inheritance to describe this.

All organisms also inherit other features from their parents.

VARIATION WITHIN A SPECIE

Organisms belong to different species and usually look very different from one another. Horses
look different from donkeys. Lions look different from tigers.

However, individual organisms belonging to the same species also have differences. You and
everyone in your class belong to the same species, but we look different to one another.

Example:

WHAT DETERMINES THE VARIATION WITHIN A SPECIES.

DNA
All sperm and egg cells contain chromosomes which contain many genes. These genes are made
of DNA. Different egg and sperm cells contain various versions of these genes, such as height,
eye colour, hair colour, etc.

When a sperm and egg cell fuse at fertilisation, the zygote produced has a new combination of
DNA. The combination is not exactly the same as its parents or its brothers and sisters.

Differences in the DNA of organisms within a species are called genetic differences.

ENVIRONMENT AND VARIATION

Suppose we look at a goat. The size of the goat could be affected by DNA. However, the
environment can also affect the size. For example, one goat might eat more than another, so it
would grow fatter and have a greater body mass. Genes do not cause this. Not all variations within
a species are caused by differences in DNA.

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NATURAL SELECTION

This imaginary story describes how giraffes might have come to have such long necks. This theory
does help explain how almost every species is well adapted to its environment.

We can summarise the theory like this:

1. In every species, there is a variation among individual organisms.

2. Some of this variation among individual organisms.
3. Some individuals have features that make it more likely they will survive than individuals
who do not have these features.
4. The individuals with these advantageous features are, therefore, more likely to reproduce
and pass on the genes that produce the advantageous features to their offspring.
5. Over many generations, the genes that produce these advantageous features get a little bit
more common, and genes that are not so useful get a little bit less common.

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Bacteria and antibiotics

Antibiotics are medicinal drugs we can take to cure diseases caused by bacteria. There are
many different antibiotics. However, doctors are finding that some antibiotics do not work
anymore. Bacteria have become resistant to them.

Peppered moth:

The natural selection of the peppered moth in England is a classic example of evolution in
action. Before the Industrial Revolution, most peppered moths were light-coloured, which
helped them blend in with the lichen-covered trees, protecting them from predators. However,
as industrial pollution darkened the trees with soot, the darker-coloured, or "melanic," moths
became less visible to predators and had a survival advantage. Over time, the population
shifted, with the darker moths becoming more common. This change in moth colouration is a
direct result of natural selection, where the traits that improve survival chances become more
prevalent in the population.

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Extinction

The proportions of dark and pale peppered moths changed over time, when their environment
changed. If the peppered moth had not changed when the tree trunks became darker, most of
them would have died off as they were easily spotted by prey, which could have led to all
peppered moths dying off. This species could have then become extinct.
Extinction in a species occurs when the species dies off quicker than it can reproduce offspring.