Lesson 25 Gender and Labor

In this lesson, we were able to:

- Understand fully the relationship of gender, gender equality, and labor.
- Determine the status of gender equality in the various sectors of the labor market.
- Comprehend the salient policies on gender equality in the labor market.

Definition of Terms:
 Labor – activities pertaining to developing goods and delivering services for economic reasons.
 Labor market – refers to the supply of and demand for labor in which employees provide (supply)
and employers provide (demand).
 Economic Zone – an area which the business trade laws are different from the rest which includes
increased trade balance, employer, increase investment, job creation and effective administration.
 Gender Equality – all genders have equal rights, responsibilities and opportunity
 Gender – socially constructed characteristics of men and women
 Gender mainstreaming – a tool of achieving a gender equality perspective at all stages and levels
of policies, programmes and projects.
 Unionization – The act/process of organizing workers to become members of a labor union
 Workforce – a sector in the population engaged in economic and productive activities.

Gender gaps are one of the most pressing challenges facing the world of work today. Globally,
women are substantially less likely than men to participate in the labor market, and once in the workforce,
they are also less likely to find jobs than men. Even For LGBT+ workers, not women, are also facing
labor market discrimination around the world in every employment sectors. Indeed, their access to
quality employment opportunities remains restricted.
For women, they are more likely to work longer hours than men when both paid and unpaid
work is taken into account.
 Aside their 8-hour shift from work, they still have to do chores
 making sure that the house is clean before and after they got from work
 preparing their children’s needs for school and attending the needs of the whole family from
cooking, laundry and among others.

Moreover, when in paid employment, on average, women work fewer hours for pay or profit either
because they opt to work part-time or because part-time work is the only option available to them.
Women face different constraints form men in the labor market. This is recognized in the Republic Act
9710, known as the Magna Carta of Women, enacted in 2009. This act recognizes that equality of men and
women entails the abolition of the unequal structures and practices that perpetuate discrimination and
inequality. (PCW 2010)
AGRICULTURE
 Women farmers do not have an equal opportunity to acquire land or register it in their own names.
 Women have fewer inheritance rights than male farmers.
 Women are hindered in their access to extension services, skills development including training in
management and marketing skills; and improves farming equipment.
INDUSTRY AND MANUFACTURING
 Women working in economic zones is estimated to represent 64% of total employment and may be
much higher in some industries, such as electronics and apparel (World Bank 2011a)
 Report suggests that working and living conditions are poor, that women find it difficult to obtain
work while pregnant and after the birth of their baby, and that unionization is uncommon.
TOURISM
 Few women have the educational qualifications or foreign language skills to complete for front-of-
house positions in the hotel industry, as tour guides, or in travel agencies.
 Women are more likely to be employed as housekeepers.
 Waitresses or similar low-level positions
BUSINESS PROCESSING OUTSOURCING
 The Philippines’ information Technology- business process outsourcing road map (2011-2016) is
not gender-responsive and does not address women’s constraints in accessing higher paid work in
non-voice services or the likely growth information technology and engineering
GOVERNMENT SERVICES / PUBLIC SECTORS
 Women are constrained by being predominantly employed in traditional, gender-stereotyped care
sector government occupations such as health and education and they are underrepresented in the
higher-paying subsectors.
 Generally, women in the civil sector will still be underpaid, given their levels of education,
experience and ability.
ENTREPRENEURSHIP
 There has been rapid surge in the number and proportion of female entrepreneurs in developing
countries (Minniti and Naude 2010, 280).
 One survey indicated that women entrepreneurs are more likely than men to be motivated by
necessity; these are livelihood-entrepreneurs attempting to escape employment (Vietnam wWomen
Entrepreneurs Council 2007)

Also, for the people out of the gender binary, sadly, many workers of the LGBT+ community around
the world still face strong labour market discrimination. Even in countries with legislation protecting people
from discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation or gender identity, it still happens. When compared
with the general population, LGBTQ people have faced increased risk of experiencing economic
insecurities, such as higher rates of poverty, unemployment, and public benefits use. It was also
found out in the research conducted by Fric in 2019 wherein it comes to the point that gays and
lesbians conceal their sexual orientation more in hostile workplaces as perceived discrimination
and concealment of sexual orientation positively relate to the probability of being unemployed. This
implies a vicious circle in which hostile attitudes force LGBTQ employees to conceal their sexuality which in
turn limits their ability to confront discriminatory behaviour. Even The experiences of LGBTQI+ workers,
including LGBTQI+ workers of color and transgender workers, within the labor market have not
been well documented due to a lack of available data.
Key mechanisms for attaining inclusive growth for women and LGBT requires expanding
employment opportunities and decent work outcomes for them to
promote gender equality in labor markets.

SALIENT POLICIES ON GENDER EQUALITY IN THE LABOR MARKET

1. 1987 Constitution enshrined the following:
 The Philippine has ratified 34 ILO conventions and is party to all of the fundamental United
Nations human rights covenants and conventions. Hene, the 1987 Constitution has enshrined
these rights in Section 3, Article XIII (Bill of Rights) and in Section 14, Article II, which ensures
fundamental equality of women and men before the law.

2. Article III, Chapter 1 of Labor code Act 6725, 7192, 7877, and 8551 – provide fundamental rights
protection, including anti-discrimination provisions and they ensure fundamental equality, prohibition
of sexual harassment and temporary special measure
3. Magna Carta of Women (Women rep Act 9710) - an overall legislative framework that articulates
the specific rights, needs and support required by women in their general and working lives. In
2012, the Philippines became the first country in Asia to ratify the ILO Domestic Workers
Convention , 2011 (189)
4. Rep. Act 10361 “Batas Kasambahay” (Domestic Workers Act) - In 2013, Pres. Aquino signed a
new law (RA 10361) known as “Batas Kasambahay” (Domestic Workers Act) in order to protect this
large group of mostly young female workers.

SUMMARY
Gender, gender equality and labor market are very important principles and are related to one
another. Gender equality is not properly implemented in the labor market as women still are treated
with disfavor and discrimination. Policies are in place to address gender inequality, still, the issue
persists and prevails up to present.
 Lesson 26 Gender and Media
In this lesson, we were able to:
- Understand media and media stereotypes
- Analyze importance of Media representation
- Appreciate the progress in media representation of gender

Today, from traditional legacy media to online media, still hugely influence our perceptions and ideas
about the role of girls, women, and LGBTQ+ people in society. What we have unfortunately seen until now
is that media tend to perpetuate gender inequality. Research shows that from a young age, children are
influenced by the gendered stereotypes that media present to them.

Media Representation
We live in a world where so much of our daily lives is influenced by the media - from the most
mundane interests to the most profound questions of identity. One very important aspect of this, which you
may have heard about, is the media's representation of gender. According to Almy et al. (1984), media
portrayals of gender are significant as they reinforce a dominant (hegemonic) ideology - representing men
as superior and women as subordinate.
Media represents our social realities as it mirrors ideologies, belief, systems, and stereotypes.
Research has found that exposure to stereotypical gender portrayals and clear gender
segregation correlates:
(a) with preferences for ‘gender appropriate’ media content, toys, games and activities;
(b) to traditional perceptions of gender roles, occupations and personality traits; as well as
(c) to attitudes towards expectations and aspirations for future trajectories of life”.

For women and girl, we all know the stereotypes—the femme fatale, the supermom, the sex
kitten, the nasty corporate climber. Whatever the role, television, film and popular magazines are
full of images of women and girls who are typically white, desperately thin, and made up to the hilt
—even after leaping tall buildings or thwarting a gang of terrorists. Many would agree that some
strides have been made in how the media portray women in film, television and magazines, and that the
last few decades have also seen a growth in the presence and influence of women in media behind the
scenes. Nevertheless, female stereotypes continue to thrive in the media we consume every day. Even
Other studies of gender in media have pointed to glaring gaps, including low numbers of female
protagonists in popular films, and an underrepresentation of women in awards shows.
For the LGBTQ+ community, many controversies over negative depictions of queerness
have focused on how such portrayals marginalize and silence LGBTQ+ people. In Hollywood’s early
years, from the 1890s to the 1930s, homosexuality was often presented as an object of ridicule and
laughter. The archetype of “the sissy” – foppish and feminine males, often of delicate sensibilities – was
popular at this time, and Russo notes that such a character was a source of amusement and reassurance
for the audience. As well as stereotyped portrayals, there are a number of harmful storytelling tropes
that often occur depictions of LGBTQ+ people. The loud & boisterous bakla, sex-deprived,
unethical, and unable to feel real love, as well as the wave of AIDS-themed stories. While there have
been some improvements in the visibility, authenticity, and diversity of LGBTQ+ characters,
especially in the rising of BL movies and series, still other harmful tropes remain. The best thing to
do is to use media images to educate audiences and humanize marginalized communities. When it comes
to LGBTQ people, increases in representation are needed to accurately depict these changing
demographics. A unified measure of LGBTQ representation is also needed to have this motivating force for
accountability and greater cultural acceptance.
Even with men, representation of them in the media boxed them into fulfilling that macho
role. The role of macho means physical strength, strong sexual power, self-confidence, and
aggressiveness. This disables them to fully express themselves and show their true vulnerable side
thereby suppressing their emotions. Which could also then lead to mental distress.
Overall, we should really have this transformative role media can play in achieving gender
equality in societies. By creating gender-sensitive and gender-transformative content and breaking
gender stereotypes. By challenging traditional social and cultural norms and attitudes regarding gender
perceptions both in content and in the media houses.

Lesson 27 Gender Politics and Activism

In this lesson, we were able to:

- Understand heteronormativity and its manifestations;
- And the contributions of activism in social change

HETERONORMATIVISM
Not everyone is straight or cisgender. Yet, we live in a heteronormative world, and many students
spend their days in classrooms that are extensions of the world outside them. Through everything from pop
culture to educational learning materials, the messages children receive inside and outside the classroom
often put forth a heteronormative worldview. Beneath heteronormativity lies homophobia and transphobia.
Homophobia and transphobia are multi-layered, and each can include conscious or subconscious beliefs
that someone else or a group of people is “bad,” “wrong” or “less than." ( The bright/ boutan/ gwapo unta
siya pero.. )
Challenging heteronormativity is not about challenging heterosexuality. It is about questioning
the idea that heterosexuality is the only normal, natural, or good form of sexuality. Anyone can be
heteronormative, including people who are not heterosexual, and many heterosexual people are not
heteronormative (i.e. they embrace a diversity of sexualities, forms of sex, and/or gender identities).
No matter who you are or where you come from, we subconsciously learn or are exposed to certain
societal messages. They mold our beliefs, and it’s our belief systems that become the lens through which
we interpret the world. Building an awareness of our implicit biases is key to interrupting heteronormative
thinking.
ACTIVISM
Why gender matters in activism: feminism and social justice movements?
Social justice movements are able to generate deep and lasting changes that policy change and
development interventions alone cannot achieve. However, in many cases, women’s and lgbtq’s rights and
gender justice remain low on the priorities of movements, even when women and lgbtq+ are active
members.
As Meskerem Geset Techane said, a member of the Working Group on discrimination against
women and girls:
“Authorities should support the voices of young activists more; instead of silencing or minimizing
them, they should be used as platforms to empower, generate a change,”

WHAT IS A MAN’S ROLE IN GENDER EQUALITY ACTIVISM?

Gender equality is still often considered a “women’s issue”. Furthermore, in the past, gender issues
and gender equality policies have been contextualised mainly as a women’s issue. Gender equality,
however, is a responsibility of all individuals and it has increasingly been acknowledged that men and boys
are also inextricably involved with gender issues and that they have an important role in efforts to achieve
equality. Moreover, it is widely believed that progress towards gender equality will stimulate positive
transformations in the lives of both women and men resulting in a better society.
Men have responded to the feminist and gender equality movement in very different ways,
some supportive, some antagonistic. However, feminists too have at times taken a hard line, separatist
stance, seeing the challenge of achieving gender equality as resting exclusively with women, ignoring the
issue of men and their socialisation within the patriarchal system.
Thankfully, this is changing. Most gender equality advocates now realise that solidarity and an
understanding of intersectionality are essential to achieving our shared objectives.
“Why do you think it’s important for men to participate in efforts to promote gender equality?
“Men hold part of the solution—setting an inclusive culture, promoting a zero-tolerance approach to sexual
harassment and discrimination, and ensuring equal participation. We have to work together to achieve
this.”
– Ambassador Neil Bush, UK Ambassador to the OSCE
What can men do?
1. Acknowledge male privilege
Men must begin by acknowledging the privileges they have been born into as a result of the
patriarchy – the system of society and government in which men hold the power and women are largely
excluded from it. The patriarchal system has historically placed the masculine at the centre of the universe,
favouring men and excluding women and also the lgbtq+
Often men are not aware of this system because they have always enjoyed these privileges. This system
has marked relations and forged unequal power between the genders. This is clear in most countries in the
political, economic, cultural and social spheres, and is a regressive system that must be challenged.

2. Show solidarity
 Although raising awareness of male privilege and acknowledging that girls, women and lgbtq+ face
discrimination shows progress, this alone will not stop the perpetuation of those forms of oppression.
It is necessary to stand with these gender minorities in their daily struggles for the eradication of
patriarchal, sexist, and misogynist constructs so they may have access to equal freedom, equal respect
and equal power.

3. Understand that the causes of gender inequality are universal

The pursuit of gender equality here in our country is unlikely to take the same route as it will in in
other. Context is important, but the root causes of discrimination and inequality are the same – unfair
gender roles, normalised abuse and harassment, and a tendency to undermine women in order to exert
control over them.

4. Challenge negative masculinities

In its most extreme form, negative or ‘toxic’ masculinity is discrimination, subjugation or violence
towards the gender minorities, women and lgbt. In our own country, we often see a toxic masculinity in the
form of social violence that manifests itself in the street, at home, at work, in schools and in public spaces.
This has led to high levels of femicide and murder of individuals because of their sexual orientation, gender
identity or expression.
Negative masculinity can also encompass pressure to display ability and not make mistakes.
Fulfilling this social role leads men to high levels of stress and conversely, an accumulation of emotions.
Such ‘macho’ attitudes affect men’s health and their interpersonal relationships. In short, these
masculinities serve no-one.

5. Have an intersectional lens

Intersectionality has become fundamental within the social justice movement to work towards a
shared vision of progress.
The pursuit of gender equality must include social progress for other groups in society that have
less power. This includes, but isn’t limited to those with disabilities, minority or indigenous groups and the
LGBTIQ+ community.

6. Help transform power dynamics

Men often fear that the empowerment of girls and women will mean losing out but equality benefits
us all. For example, distribution of care and domestic tasks in the home encourages more satisfying and
happy relationships. In the labour force, greater equality leads to better levels of production and
satisfaction.
Simply not displaying male superiority is not enough. We must be allies against all forms of discrimination
and abuse, and we must help create a new type of man by addressing men’s fear and resistance. We can
also become positive role models for other men, to show that caring for ourselves and the wellbeing of
others is not just a feminine trait.
7. Share your platform: support women in taking the lead
Unfortunately, men under patriarchy have tended to massively underestimate girls’ and women’s
power to create change and to benefit the whole community. Therefore, it is our role, as progressive boys
and men, to share those spaces that patriarchy has granted us and promote girls’ and women’s
leadership.
Gender equality is not only a fundamental human right, but the necessary foundation to achieve a peaceful,
thriving and sustainable world. Fighting together for equality and justice is the only way to build an equal
society.

In this, we hope that everyone, and by everyone, we mean the women, the men, and the LGBTQ+
will have this Solidarity and understanding of intersectionality as these are essential to achieving our
shared objectives of fighting the oppressive patriarchal system and achieving that true gender equality.
POLITICS

EDUCATION
Definitions:
 Gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities and attributes that a given
society considers appropriate for men and women. Masculine and feminine are examples of gender
categories.
 Education is interpreted in a broad sense to cover both formal and informal aspects, including pre-
school, primary, and secondary education; families and youth cultures inside and outside schools;
adult community, further and higher education; vocational education and training, media education;
and parental education.

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF WOMEN AND MEN IN EDUCATION

WOMEN’S EDUCATION MEN’S EDUCATION
At home (reading and writing, music literature and Classroom, private studies, tutoring and colleges
foreign languages). Much more restricted (Philosophy, Mathematics, Rhetoric, training in
knowledge. self-discipline, other academic subjects
Aimed at teaching how to fulfill women’s “natural” Upon the graduation of colleges, they took places
roles (good mothers and partners for their elite among the ruling class as ministers, lawyers and
husbands) other professional job
Gender complexities in Millennium Development Goals: Social and Biological Reproduction
The term ‘reproduction’ is a chaotic concept which not only refers to biological reproduction but also
includes the social reproduction of the family. Social reproduction is meant the care and maintenance of the
household.
Biological reproduction encompasses: Social reproduction:
• childbearing • wide range of tasks related to housework
• early nurturing of infants (only women are • food preparation
physiologically capable of performing) • care for the sick (usually more time-
consuming in developing countries than in
the industrialized world)

In most countries women are also expected to ensure the reproduction of the labor force by
assuming responsibility for the health, education and socialization of children. Poor countries generally offer
less state assistance for these tasks than is provided in post-industrial countries.

Gender complexities in Millennium Development Goals: Social and Biological Reproduction

1990s- fertility proportion had fallen to 40 percent
As women move to cities, become better educated and find new opportunities for work and self-
development outside the home, the birth rate tends to fall. In cities children are less useful as supplemental
labor and are more costly to maintain.
Eight explanations have been advanced for this fertility transition:
• mortality reduction of infants and children;
• higher costs of raising children and reduced economic contributions from children as years in
school increase;
• opportunity costs of childbearing for parents, especially mothers;
• transition from extended to nuclear families leading to changing values and gender roles;
• traditional societal support for large families declines with modernization;
• improved access to contraception and abortion;
• later marriage;
• increased spread of ideas and practices which encourage lower fertility.

In looking at gender differences in educational outcomes, it is important to distinguish between three sets of
outcomes:
(i) educational participation and attainment
(ii) educational achievement
(iii) field of study

Educational Participation & Attainment

There has been a significant relative shift in the patterns of male and female attainment in recent
years. Historically, men in Western countries have tended to have higher educational attainment levels
than women. Currently, among the adult population (that is, those aged 25 to 64), men are found to
have more years of schooling and are more likely to reach upper secondary education (or higher) than
women in two out of three developed countries. If only the youngest age-group is considered (that is, those
aged 25 to 34), the historical pattern is reversed with female attainment levels higher than male rates in two
out of three countries. Currently, upper secondary graduation rates are higher among young women than
young men in most countries.
In the industrialized world of the North there were virtually no gender differences in literacy and this
was true also of South Africa and the Philippines and most of the countries of Latin America and the
Caribbean
Women had the lowest adult literacy rates in West Africa and South Asia but more women than men
were enrolled in tertiary education in most countries of Central and Eastern Europe, Latin America and the
Caribbean, and the Middle East, with the greatest recorded imbalance being in Barbados in 1998 where the
female-to-male ratio was 228.
However, UNESCO estimated that there were 113 million children not attending school in 1998 of
which 60 percent were girls.
Women achieve lower levels of education than men in the majority of developing countries because
of distance between home and school and lack of transport, which may make it dangerous for girls to travel
to school.
The costs of school in terms of the loss of the child’s labour at home and the financial burden of
paying for school supplies, suitable clothing such as uniforms, school fees and bribes to teachers also
means that parents may decide not to educate daughters.
EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT
 Ability test results indicated significant gender differences in verbal, quantitative and spatial
ability : (Maccoby and Jacklin, 1974)
 -girls scoring higher in tests of verbal ability
 -boys achieving higher scores in relation to quantitative and spatial ability.
 -women are more likely to obtain a ‘good’ undergraduate degree (that is, at least an upper second
class honors award)
 -men are more likely than women to achieve the highest award, that of first class honors (Smith and
Naylor, 2001)
FIELD OF STUDY
Gender differences persist in the types of courses taken within the educational system:
 - Engineering courses at upper secondary level tend to be predominantly male.
- Health/welfare, arts/humanities, education courses and social science/business courses are
disproportionately female.
GENDER ISSUES/TRENDS
1. Gender Inequalities in Education - Buchman, C., T.A. DiPrete, and A. McDaniel. 2008.
2. Gender Gap in Education - Grant, M. J., and J. R. Behrman. 2010.
3. Gender Equity in Education - Paqueo, V. B., and Orbeta A. C., 2019.

GENDER INEQUALITIES IN EDUCATION

In educational institutions, gender inequality has been experienced. Girls have been discriminated
against in terms of various aspects as compared to their male counterparts. The primary aspect in terms of
gender inequality has been experienced is in participation:
Example:
Girls were provided with less participation opportunities as compared to their male
counterparts and hence, it led to prevalence of gender inequality.

Therefore, it is vital to formulate measures and programs that are focused upon making provision of
equal rights and opportunities to girls, not only within the course of acquisition of education, but also in the
implementation of other job duties.

FACTORS CAUSING GENDER INEQUALITY IN EDUCATION

1. Condition of Poverty
2. Discriminatory Treatment among Girls
3. Occurrence of Criminal and Violence Acts
4. Child Marriage
5. Education of the Parents
6. Occupation of the Parents

GENDER GAP IN EDUCATION

Conventional wisdom holds that gender gaps in schooling favoring males in developing countries
generally are large, though probably declining.
The gender gap is “the discrepancy in opportunities, status, attitudes, etc., between men and
women” (Oxford dictionary, 2012) which still exists in the ever equalizing world in which we live in today.
The gender gap appears in several areas in society such as in politics, employment and education
although gender inequalities have the biggest impact on education policies (Marsh, 2009). .

PHILIPPINES: Gender Equity in Education

 Historically, Filipino males were somewhat more educated than females. Now the males are lagging
behind the females and the education gender gap is widening. This reversal was predictable early on in the
70s before it manifested itself in national statistics.
First, there should be greater clarity about the meaning of the gender equality objective in education
for situations where boys are lagging behind girls.
Second, how to achieve this more inclusive objective also needs to be clarified. On this, more
evidence-informed strategies and policy tools are needed.
Third, reducing the gender gap should mean in practice improving the educational status of the
educationally disadvantaged gender group (albeit, males in the Philippines) at a faster rate than the
increase in academic achievement of the opposite sex.
Fourth, a mix of interventions to modify household, teacher and school attitudes, norms and
practices should be pursued to eliminate unfair gender biases that unjustifiably impede children’s right to
good education.
Fifth, to find, design and implement a win-win mix of interventions, more and better ideas based on
analytically sound empirical research is needed.
The movement to change these traditional mindsets may be slow, but it is essential for real and
long-term change. Education and awareness are crucial. In Central Luzon, the Department of Education
has begun to train teachers to ensure that all lessons use a gender lens in the curriculum, textbooks,
teaching and learning, and in the design of school facilities. In addition, schools can work in tandem with
companies to sponsor and mentor women to encourage more broad participation in the economy.
The Philippines stands out as a beacon in the Asia-Pacific region for its work on reducing gender
gaps. The country can build on this strong foundation to further empower women and boost the nation’s
economic dynamism and growth.

Looking Forward
Gender equality remains unfinished business in every country of the world. Women and girls have
less access to education and healthcare, too often lack economic autonomy and are under-represented in
decision-making at all levels. The progress that has been made towards gender equality over the past
quarter of a century, though slow and incremental, does however show that change is possible.
Legal reform, strengthening gender-responsive social protection and public service delivery, quotas
for women’s representation, and support for women’s movements are all strategies that have made a
difference and should be scaled up.
1. Rights to Education
2. Rights within Education
3. Rights through Education
Right to Education
 Gender parity means the equal participation of boys and girls in different aspects of education
  Educational (parity) indicators do not tell us about processes of change/ reproduction in everyday
life. Further, educational indicators do not bring into focus the actual experience of schooling.
Indicators of gender parity in education include:
• The numbers of boys and girls enrolled in education and at intake in grade one
• The numbers of boys and girls who survive up to grade 5 (and thus the numbers that drop out)
• Regularity of attendance of boys and girls
• The numbers of girls and boys who repeat years of schooling
• The average years of schooling attained for boys and girls
• The transitions of boys and girls between levels of education (pre-school-primary; primary-
secondary; secondary-high school/ vocational]
• The number of female and male teachers
• Literacy levels of boys and girls, men and women

RIGHT WITHIN EDUCATION

Gender equality or rights within education thus refers to the right of men and women to non-discrimination
in educational opportunities.

Main Focus: Rights within education measure equality &

• Learning content quality
• Teaching method and process
• Subject choice Educational institutions should function in ways
• Assessment modes that do not impose or maintain gender stereotypes
• Management of peer relationships or promote institutional barriers to the range of
• Learning outcomes possibilities that boys and girls, men and women
can enjoy in relation to the education offer.
• Rights within education relates to equality of
treatment, which in turn is reflected in quality of
outcome
• • In rural schools facilities, especially
sanitation, are often poor and there are few
women teachers, making such schools
especially unattractive to girls.
• For adult women it may be hard for them to
attend adult literacy
• classes because of the demands of their
reproductive tasks. Without
• literacy women may not be aware of their
legal rights and may be
• unable to benefit from opportunities for
further training.
RIGHT THROUGH EDUCATION
• The importance of focusing on ' rights through education' becomes significant particularly when we review
evidence of the inequalities which continue to face women in the world of employment, work and political
representation-the public arena.
EXAMPLE:
 - In 2011, 73% of women aged 15-64 were employed.
- Women occupy 40% of parliamentary seats and 40% of board seats in listed companies.

Gender Balance
However, the gender balance in higher education in the developing world has improved very rapidly.
Between 1965 and 1985 estimated female enrolment in tertiary education in southern Yemen and Qatar
increased from 0 to 19 and 57 per cent of the total respectively; in Guatemala it increased from 9 to 28 per
cent and in Brazil from 25 to 48 per cent.
In Latin America as a whole more women than men were enrolled in tertiary education by the end of
the 1990s, except in Costa Rica, Honduras, Mexico and Peru. However, access to higher education is
strongly dependent on class, location and income.
Within the education system women tend to be channeled into certain subject ghettos, such as
nursing, education and social work, while the courses leading to the best-paid jobs, such as medicine, law
and engineering, are still dominated by men.
The expansion of women in tertiary education, as has occurred in the industrialized North, is related
to the expansion of jobs for educated women and, especially in the Middle East, to a growing interest by
men in better educated wives.
 WE NEED TO BE GENDER RELEVANT NOT GENDER SPECIFIC.
 WE SHOULD GET GO BEYOND SINGLE-SEX EDUCATION.
 FOCUS ON A MORE WHOLESOME WAYS OF LEARNING.