CHAPTER 2 ENERGY, ENERGY TRANSFER, AND GENERAL ENERGY ANALYSIS Vaibhav Arghode, Department of Aerospace Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur ‘Adapted from the lecture slides by Mehmet Kanoglu Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Education Permission required for reproduction or display.Objectives Introduce the concept of energy and define its various forms Discuss the nature of internal energy Define the concept of heat and the terminology associated with energy transfer by heat Define the concept of work, including electrical work and several forms of mechanical work Introduce the first law of thermodynamics, energy balances, and mechanisms of energy transfer to or from a system Determine that a fluid flowing across a control surface of a control volume carries energy across the control surface in addition to any energy transfer across the control surface that may be in the form of heat and/or work Define energy conversion efficiencies -* If we take the entire room—including the air and the refrigerator (or fan)—as the system, which is an adiabatic closed system since the room is well-sealed and well-insulated, the only energy interaction involved is the electrical energy crossing the system boundary and entering the room * Due to conversion of electric energy consumed by the device to heat, the room temperature will rise Afan running in a well-sealed and well-insulated room will raise the temperature of air in the room Well-sealed and well-insulated room A refrigerator operating with its door open in a well- sealed and well- insulated room ) FanEnergy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and their sum constitutes the total energy, E ofa system Macroscopic forms of energy: Those a system possesses as awhole such as kinetic and potential energies Kinetic energy, KE: The energy that a system possesses as a result of its motion relative to some reference frame Potential energy, PE: The energy _Ficure 2-4 that a system possesses as a result The macroscopic energy of an object changes with velocity and elevation of its elevation in a gravitational field n* Microscopic forms of energy: Those related to the molecular structure of a system and the degree of the molecular activity + Internal energy, U: The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy, such as: sensible, latent, chemical and nuclear 7 SY p < Molecular Molecular translation rotation A @ LSS 7 Electron Molecular translation vibration x w Electron Nuclear spin spin FIGURE 2-6 The various forms of microscopic energies that make up sensible energy.Constituents of Internal Energy Sensible energy: The portion of the a internal energy of a system associated with the kinetic energies of the molecules Latent energy: The internal energy associated with the phase of a system Chemical energy: The internal energy associated with the atomic bonds in a molecule Nuclear energy: The tremendous —— amount of energy associated with the The internal energy of a system strong bonds within the nucleus of the Bite sonrotall tooms-ctiie Bie Hele microscopic energies. en ee :Microscopic kinetic energy of molecules (does not turn the wheel) Y Macroscopic kinetic energy (turns the wheel) FIGURE 2-8 The macroscopic kinetic energy is an organized form of energy and is much more useful than the disorganized microscopic kinetic energies of the molecules.Kinetic energy KE = hor (kJ) (Extensive) Z y2 Kinetic energy per ke = > (kJ/kg) unit mass (Intensive) _ - 7) Potential energy PE = mgz (kJ) (Extensive) ) Potential energy per unit mass (Intensive) pe = gz (kJ/kg aa Total energy of a E=U+KE+PE=U+m = + mgz (kJ) system (Extensive) Vv? Total energy of a system bt ket pe =a b= +.ez (kJ/kg) per unit mass (Intensive) a E Total energy m (ki/kg) per unit mass 8Stationary Systems * Most closed systems remain stationary during a process and thus experience no change in their kinetic and potential energies + Closed systems whose kinetic and potential energies remain constant during a process are referred to as stationary systems + We will assume a closed system to be stationary unless stated otherwiseEnergy Flow Rate * Control volumes typically involve fluid flow for long periods of time, and it is convenient to express the energy flow associated FIGURE 2-5 with a fluid stream in the Mass and energy flow rates associated rate form with the flow of steam in a pipe of inner diameter D with an average velocity of V,... Mass flow rate: m= pV = pAV, — (kg/s) Energy flow rate: E = me (kJ/s or kW) 40Heat Transfer and Work * The total energy of a system, can be contained or stored in a system (property of a system), and thus can be viewed as the static forms of energy + The forms of energy not stored ina System boundary system can be viewed as the dynamic forms of energy or as energy interactions system * The dynamic forms of energy are estat ane recognized at the system boundary as they cross it, and they represent the energy gained or lost by a system FIGURE 2-14 during a process Energy can cross the boundaries of a closed system in the form * The only two forms of energy : : 5 % 5 of heat and work. interactions associated with a closed a system are heat transfer and workHeat and Work The difference between heat Ronan transfer and work: An energy = interaction is heat transfer if its driving force is a temperature Nolet transfer difference, otherwise it is work Heat transfer and work are not properties of a system In daily life, we frequently refer to the thermal energy as heat, and we talk about heat content FIGURE 2-15 of bodies Temperature difference is the driving force for heat tr ‘ The larger the In this course “heat” means temperature differ he higher i “heat transfer’ unless otherwise the rate of heat transfer. mentioned and not the thermal energy 12Mechanical Energy * Some systems do not involve the conversion of nuclear, chemical and thermal energies, also they do not involve heat transfer in any significant amount, and they operate essentially at constant temperature + Such systems can be analyzed conveniently by considering the mechanical forms of energy only and the frictional effects that cause the mechanical energy to be lost (i.e. to be converted to thermal energy) * Mechanical energy: The form of energy that can be converted to mechanical work completely and directly by an ideal mechanical device such as an ideal turbine * Thermal energy is not mechanical energy since it cannot be converted to work directly and completely (second law of thermodynamics) + Kinetic and potential energies are the familiar forms of mechanical energyFlow Energy A pump transfers mechanical energy to a fluid by raising its pressure, and a turbine extracts mechanical energy from a fluid by dropping its pressure Therefore, the pressure of a flowing fluid is also associated with its mechanical energy Note that pressure itself in not a form of energy but a pressure force acting on a fluid through a distance produces work (Pv or P/p), called flow work It is convenient to view flow work as part of the energy of a flowing fluid and call it flow energy¢ Mechanical energy = Flow energy + Kinetic Energy + Potential energy PW i ce, = 4 4 g, Mechanical energy of a mech ~~ 2 ©~ flowing fluid per unit mass > E. = al alas P + ve +92 Rate of mechanical mech ~ MC mech = Mt p 9 82 } energy of a flowing fluid Mechanical energy change of a fluid during incompressible flow per unit mass Ae. ae iain mech a . : (® =P coh = HAC yey = Tid + p (kW) 18® tc Generator Wax = MAC noch = Mg (Z, — 24) = righ = and V, = V, ~ P, atm (a) P/p term actually represents flow work but is included in mechani energy for convenience and we refer to it here as the flow energy Wonax = Wt ACnech = tt Generator since V, ~ V; and z) = 2; (b) FIGURE 2-12 Mechanical energy is illustrated by an ideal hydraulic turbine coupled with an idea In the absence of irreversible losses, the maximum produced power is pro- portional to (a) the change in water surface elevation from the up- stream to the downstream reservoir or (b) (close-up view) the drop in water pressure from just upstream to just downstream of the turbine. erator,* Heat: The form of energy that is transferred between two systems (or a system and its surroundings) by virtue of a temperature difference De Insulation thermal Surrounding air = Heat I It I 1 1 It | al — FIGURE 2-17 FIGURE 2-16 During an adiabatic process, a syste exchanges no t Energy is recognized as heat transfer only as it crosses the system boundary.) Heat transfer per unit q=2 — (ks/ke) s m mass (of closed system) Amount of heat transfer when heat transfer rate is constant Q=QAr (kJ) r! Amount of heat transfer Q= | Qdt (kJ) when heat transfer rate th changes with time FIGURE 2-18 The relationships among q, Q. and Q.¢ Work: A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire crossing the system boundaries are all associated with work interactions v If the energy crossing the boundary of a closed system is not heat, it must be work Work done per unit mass (of closed system) = (kJ/kg) = g : m 7 FIGURE 2-20 The relationships among w, W, and W.+ Heat and work are directional quantities, and thus the complete description of a heat or work Surroundings interaction requires specification of both the magnitude and direction Qin + Formal sign convention: Heat Qout transfer to a system and work done ¥, by a system are positive; heat 7 Wout transfer from a system and work done on a system are negative : ; eae FIGURE 2-21 + Alternative to sign convention is to Specifying the directions use the subscripts ijn and out to of heat and work. indicate direction. This is the primary approach in this course 20Heat and Work as boundary phenomena Both are recognized at the boundaries of a system as they cross the boundaries That is, both heat and work are boundary phenomena System possess energy, but not heat or work Heat and work are not properties of a system Both heat and work are associated with a process, not a state Unlike properties, heat or work has no meaning at a state Win > San SYSTEM Weu au 21Properties are Point functions « Properties of a system are point functions (i.e., their magnitudes only depend on the state of the system) * The property value (or a point function) does not depend on how a system reaches that state (i.e. it is independent of the process path) * They have exact differentials designated the symbol d. A small change in volume, for example, is P, represented by dV, and total volume FIGURE 2-22 change during a process between Properties are point functions: States 1 and 3 is: but heat and work F Properties are point functions (their mag v= V, — V, = AV functions have exact depend on the path followed). “1 differentiats (d) * The volume change during process A and process B is the volume at state 2 minus the volume at state 1 as both processes have same initial and final statesHeat and Work as path functions ” * Both heat and work are path functions (i.e., their magnitudes depend on the path followed during a process as well as the end states) * Both heat and work (or path functions) have inexact differentials designated by symbol 6, therefore, a differential amount of heat or work is represented by 6Q or OW, respectively, instead of dQ or dW FIGURE 2-22 r2 Path functions Properties are point functions; | bW = Wo (not AW) _ have inexact but heat and work are path I differentials (5) functions (their magnitudes depend on the path followed). * The total work is obtained by following the process path and adding the differential amounts of work (SW) done along the way and written as W,,. The integral of DW is not W, — W, (i.e. work at state 2 minus work at state 1) which is meaningless since work is not a property and systems do not posses workElectrical Work Electrical work é N coulombs of electric W. = VN charge move through potential difference V Electrical power Ww. = VI (W) tis current When potential difference and current change with time FIGURE 2-27 w.= | wat (kJ) J Electrical power in terms of resistance R, current /, and potential difference V. ben polenllal anetence + Electrical charge crossing the and current remain constant A Pe ee system boundary do electrical W, = VI At (kJ) work on/by the system* There are two requirements for a (mechanical) work interaction between a system and its surroundings to exist: v there must be a force acting on the boundary y¥ the boundary must move in the direction of the applied force Work = Force x Distance W = Fs (kJ) When force is not constant w= |r ds (KI) FIGURE 2-28 The work done is proportional to the force applied (F) and the distance traveled (s). 25The work done on a system by an external force acting in the direction of motion is negative The work done by a system against an external force acting in opposite direction to motion is positive The presence of forces on the boundary without any displacement of the boundary does not constitute a work interaction Likewise, displacement of the boundary without any force to oppose or drive this motion (such as expansion of gas into an evacuated space) is not a work interaction since no energy is transferred 26Shaft Work A force F acting through a moment arm r generates a torque T T=Fr > F= - This force acts through a distance s (n is the number of revolutions) s = (27r)n Shaft work Wy, = Fs = ( The power transmitted through the shaft is the shaft work done per unit time W,, = 2aaT (kW) Torque = Fr FIGURE 2-30 Shaft work is proportional to the torque applied and the number of revolutions of the shaft. * Often torque (7) applied to the shaft is constant which means that force (kJ) (F) applied (say at radius r) is also constant. The work done (W,,,) during n revolutions of the shaft can be determined 2728Spring Work + When the length of the spring changes by a differential amount dx under the influence of a force F, the work done (OW. ,ing) is: OWopring = F dx + For linear elastic springs, the displacement x is proportional to the force applied Rest F=k. (kN) k: spring constant (kKN/m) Position Substituting and integrating eS = . 7 ve ss "i FIGURE 2-32 W spring ok (x3 x2 xi) (kJ) Elongation of a spring under the influence of a force. X; and Xp: the initial and the final displacements 29Work Done to Raise or to Accelerate a Body « When a body is raised in a gravitational field, its potential energy increases, likewise, when a body is accelerated, its kinetic energy increases i Jotor * The work transfer needed to raise a body is equal to the change in the potential energy of the body * The work transfer needed to Elevator car accelerate a body is equal to ==. the change in the kinetic energy of the body FIGURE 2-36 The energy transferred to a body while raised is equal to the change in its potential energy. 30* The first law of thermodynamics (the conservation of energy principle) + The first law states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed during a process; it can only change forms m PE, = 10K) KE, =0 FIGURE 2-40 FIGURE 2-39 The increase in the energy of a potato in an oven is equal to the 4, Energy cannot be created or destroyed: amount of heat transferred to it. it can only change forms.Win = 5K) FIGURE 2-42 The work (electrical) done on an adiabatic system is equal to the increase in the rgy of the system. Wouin= 8 kd FIGURE 2-43 The work (shaft) done on an adiabatic system is equal to the increase in the energy of the system. (Adiabatic) FIGURE 2-44 The work (boundary) done on an adiabatic system is equal to the increase in the energy of the system.Energy Balance ( Total energy ) ( Total energy ) a ( Change in the total ) entering the system leaving the system energy of the system E,, — Eoyw = AE, in out system * The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the system during a process is equal to the difference between the total energy entering and the total energy leaving the system during that process Qin= 15 kd * Energy balance is applicable to any kindof system (Open of The energy change of a system during closed) undergoing any Kind Of a process is equal to the net work and process (quasi-equilibrium or heat transfer between the system and non-quasiequilibrium) its surroundings. FIGURE 2-45