Contents
1- Introduction to measurement
2- Basics
3- Level Primary Elements
1- Introduction to measurement
Instrumentation is the art of measuring the value
of some plant parameter, pressure, flow, level or
temperature to name a few and supplying a
signal that is proportional to the measured
parameter.
The output signals are standard signal and can then
be processed by other equipment to provide
indication, alarms or automatic control.
Instrument System
A basic instrument system consists of three elements:
i SENSOR or INPUT DEVICE
ii SIGNAL PROCESSOR
iii RECEIVER or OUTPUT DEVICE
Most modern analogue equipment works on the
following standard signal ranges.
Electric 4 to 20 mA .1
Pneumatic 0.2 to 1.0 bar .2
2-Basics
Level is measured at the position of the interface
between phases, where the phases are liquid/gas,
solid/gas, or immiscible liquid/liquid.
Level is simply a measure of height. It defines the
position of the interface, that is, the surface where the
two phases meet with respect to a reference point.
3- Level Primary Elements
A- Direct Measurement
1-Glass Gauges
2- Floats
B- Indirect Measurement
1- Differential Pressure Capsules (Head Pressure)
2- Electrical Type Instruments :
2-1- Capacitance Probes 2-2- Resistance tapes 2-3- Conductivity Probes
3- Sonic Type Instruments :
3-1- Sonic 3-2- Ultrasonic
4-Radar
5- magnetic bond method
6-Displacers
A- Direct Measurement
Glass gauges are the most widely used instruments for
measuring the level in a process tank.
1- Glass Gauges
* The gauges are made of glass, plastic, or a combination
of the two materials.
*Two types of level glass gauges are used to measure
liquid level: tubular and flat. The tubular type works in
the same way as a manometer, that is, as the liquid level
in a vessel rises or falls the liquid in the glass tube will
also rise or fall.
* two common applications of tubular sight glasses: an
open or vented process vessel and a pressurized vessel.
Tubular sight glass gauges
Tubular sight glass gauges
For the pressurized tank, the upper end of the tube is
connected to the tank. This creates an equilibrium
pressure in both ends of the tube, and the liquid in the
tube rises to the same level as the liquid in the vessel.
A calibrated scale is normally mounted next to the sight
gauge to indicate the level in the tank.
flat sight gauges
There are two basic types of flat sight gauges: reflex and
transparent.
The reflex-type gauge produces a dark area where liquid is
present and a light area where vapor is present. The
reflex type gauge is normally chosen for liquids that are
colorless, clear, and nonviscous.
The transparent gauge is generally used when the liquid
is colored, viscous, and corrosive.
2-Floats
Floats are similar to displacers, but are swimming
on the liquid’s surface due to the buoyancy.
Hence, the density of the float must be lower
than the density of the liquid.
2-Floats
1- Ball Float
The ball float method is a direct reading liquid level mechanism.
The most practical design for the float is a hollow metal
ball or sphere. However, there are no restrictions to the size,
shape, or material used. The design consists of a ball float
attached to a rod, which in turn is connected to a rotating shaft
which indicates level on a calibrated scale. The operation
of the ball float is simple. The ball floats on top of the liquid in
the tank. If the liquid level changes, the float will follow and
change the position of the pointer attached to the rotating shaft.
1- Ball Float
1- Ball Float
The travel of the ball float is limited by its design to be
within ±30 degrees from the horizontal plane which
results in optimum response and performance. The
actual level range is determined by the length of the
connecting arm .The stuffing box is incorporated to
form a water-tight seal around the shaft to prevent
leakage from the vessel.
2- Tape Float (Chain Float)
In the tape float, a tape is connected to a float on one end
and to a counterweight on the other end to keep the
tape under constant tension. The float motion makes
the counterweight ride up and down a direct scale. The
scale is calibrated to indicate the liquid level in the tank.
Advantages
1- low cost
2- simple in design
3- accurate and reliable
Disadvantages
1- physically large
2- liquids must have a fixed specific gravity to
maintain accuracy
3- installed directly on the process material so
corrosion and chemical affect the float
4- the vessel may have to be taken out of service
for instrument maintenance
Varec Tank Gauge
The Varec Model 2500 Automatic Tank Gauge
(ATG) has been the industry standard in
mechanical automatic tank gauging for over 50
years.
Varec Tank Gauge
Features
•Low cost, continuous measurement – up to
0.2” (4 mm) accuracy
•Large, easy to read display
•Cone roof, floating roof, stilling well, sphere
and cylinder tank installation available
•Used with optional transmitters or limit
switches
Varec Tank Gauge
Guide wires
Varec recommends guide wire installations for
the 2500 and 2520 ATGs.
Guide wires provide stability for the float during •
turbulent conditions
increased accuracy by reducing the horizontal •
movement of the float across the surface of the
product.
Measurement system
The 2500 series Automatic Tank Gauges are
designed to provide continuous liquid level
measurement for low pressure tanks.
The Model 2520 High Pressure Automatic Tank
Gauge is designed to provide continuous liquid
level measurement for medium and high
pressure tanks(300 psig).
Measurement system
The gauge head can be installed on the tank
roof or at the tank side (at grade), which would
facilitate ground level reading by the operator.
If electronic transmission of level data is
required in the control room, then the gauge can
be fitted with an optional tank gauging
transmitter.
Tank gauging transmitter.
The Model 4110 HART Level Encoder mounts directly
to the 2500 Automatic Tank Gauge and provides
precision encoding of level data and then transmits
the data via a HART communication bus to a Hart
host.
Tank gauge operation
The 2500 ATG utilizes a large stainless steel
float that is attached to the stainless steel tape to
detect the liquid level. The
float follows the liquid level as it rises and falls
due to the constant pullback tension provided
by a powerful spring or cartridge motor.
Cone roof tank
Tank side mounting
Cone roof tank
Tank top mounting
Cone roof tank
Stilling well cone roof tank 6"diameter float
Floats
The left float used
with 2500 ATG
The middle and
right floats used
with 2520 ATG
B- Indirect Measurement
1- differential Pressure capsules
*differential Pressure (DP) capsules are the most commonly used devices to
measure the pressure at the base of a tank.
*The pressure at the base of a vessel containing liquid is directly proportional to
the height of the liquid in the vessel. This is termed hydrostatic pressure.
*As the level in the vessel rises, the pressure exerted by the liquid at the base of
the vessel will increase linearly. Mathematically, we
have
P = S⋅H
Where
P = Pressure (Pa)
S = Weight density of the liquid (N/m3) = ρg
H = Height of liquid column (m)
ρ = Density (kg/m3)
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)
Differential Pressure Capsules
Differential Pressure Capsules
Most pressure transmitters are built around the pressure
capsule concept. They are usually capable of measuring
differential pressure (that is, the difference between a
high pressure input and a low pressure input) and
therefore, are usually called DP transmitters or DP
cells.
Differential Pressure Capsules
A differential pressure capsule is mounted inside a
housing. One end of a force bar is connected to the
capsule assembly so that the motion of the capsule can
be transmitted to outside the housing. the high- pressure
fluid applied on one side of the capsule and low-
pressure fluid on the other.
Any difference in pressure will cause the capsule to deflect
and create motion in the force bar. The top end of the
force bar is then connected to a position detector, which
via an electronic system will produce a 4 - 20 ma signal
that is proportional to the force bar movement.
Three Valve Manifold
*used to ensure that the
capsule will not be over
ranged.
-It also allows isolation of
the transmitter from the
process loop.
* During normal
operation, the equalizing
valve is closed and the
two blockvalves are
open.
Open Tank Measurement
Open Tank Measurement
Phigh = Patm + S⋅H
Plow = Patm
Differential pressure ΔP = Phigh - Plow = S⋅H
The level transmitter can be calibrated to output 4 mA
when the tank is at 0% level and 20 mA when the tank
is at 100% level.
Closed Tank Measurement
Closed Tank Measurement
Phigh = Pgas + S⋅H
Plow = Pgas
ΔP = Phigh - Plow = S⋅H
When the low-pressure impulse line is connected directly
to the gas phase above the liquid level, it is called a dry
leg.
Dry Leg System
Dry Leg System
* If the gas phase is condensable, say steam, condensate
will form in the low pressure impulse line resulting in
a column of liquid, which exerts extra pressure on the
low-pressure side of the transmitter.
A technique to solve this problem is to add a knockout
pot below the transmitter in the low pressure side.
Periodic draining of the condensate in the knockout
pot will ensure that the impulse line is free of liquid.
Wet Leg System
Wet Leg System
*In a wet leg system, the low-pressure impulse line is completely
filled with liquid (usually the same liquid as the process) and
hence the name wet leg.
*At the top of the low pressure impulse line is a small catch tank.
*The gas phase or vapor will condense in the wet leg and the
catch tank. *The
catch tank maintains a constant hydrostatic pressure on the
low-pressure side of the level transmitter. This pressure ,being
a constant, can easily be compensated by calibration.
*Steam lines or an electric heating element can be wound around
the wet leg to keep the temperature of the condensate above
its freezing point.
Level Compensation
In some cases, it is not possible to mount the level
transmitter right at the base level of the tank.
Say for maintenance purposes, the level
transmitter has to be mounted X meters below
the base of an open tank Hence, the measuring
system has to consider the hydrostatic pressure of the
fluid in the sensing lines themselves
Zero Suppression
The liquid in the tank exerts a varying pressure that is
proportional to its level H on the high-pressure side of
the transmitter.
The liquid in the high pressure impulse line also exerts
a pressure on the high-pressure side.
However, this pressure is a constant (P = S⋅X) and is
present at all times.
Zero Suppression
Zero Suppression
Phigh = S⋅H + S⋅Xm + Patm
Plow = Patm
ΔP = Phigh - Plow = S⋅H + S⋅Xm
S⋅Xm this constant pressure will cause an output signal
higher than 4mA when the tank is empty and above 20
mA when the tank is full.
The transmitter has to be negatively biased by a value
of -S⋅X .
This procedure is called Zero Suppression and it can be
done during calibration of the transmitter
Effect of Temperature on Level
Measurement
the measured height H of a column of liquid is directly
proportional to the pressure P exerted at the base of
the column and inversely proportional to the density ρ
of the liquid.
H α P/ρ
Density (mass per unit volume) of a liquid or gas is
inversely proportional to
its temperature.
ρ α 1/ T
P remain constant . Hence, H α T
Advantages of Differential Pressure Capsules
1- easy to install
2- has a wide range
3- faster response time
4- simple and accurate
5- simple in calibration( easy adjustments to zero , span
, elevation , suppresion)
Disadvantages of Differential Pressure
Capsules
1- affected by changes in density and should be
used only for liquids with fixed specific gravity
2- Electrical-type Instruments
The common electrical-type level-measuring devices we
will discuss here are capacitance probes, resistance
tapes, conductivity probes.
2-1- Capacitance Probes
A capacitor consists of two conductors separated
by an insulator. The conductors are called plates,
and the insulator is referred to as the dielectric.
The basic nature of a capacitor is its ability to
accept and store an electric charge.
2-1- Capacitance Probes
The equation for a parallel plate capacitor is given by the
following:
C=KA / d
where
A = the area of the plates
d = the distance between plates
K = the dielectric constant
2-1- Capacitance Probes
the capacitance probes suitable for use to detect
the level of material in vessels because changes
in process level change the dielectric constant
hence ,change the capacitance that you can
measure by using an electronic circuit in the
level instrument.
Advantages
1- easy to install , simple in design
2- no moving parts
3- can be used with opened or closed vessels
2-2- Resistance Tapes
In these devices, resistive material is spirally wound
around a steel tape.
This type of probe is mounted vertically from top to
bottom on a process tank.
The pressure of the fluid in the tank causes the resistive
tape to be short-circuited, thus changing the resistance
of the measuring tape .This resistance is measured by
an electronic circuit and is directly related to the liquid
level in the tank.
Advantages
1- the unit handle corrosive liquids
Disadvantages
1- not accurate
2- not suitable for flammable atmospheres
2-3- conductivity probe
It consists of one or more level detectors, an operating
relay, and a controller.
When the liquid makes contact with any of the electrodes,
an electric current will flow between the electrode and
ground. The current
energizes a relay which causes the relay contacts to
open or close depending on the state of the process
involved. The relay in turn will actuate an alarm, a
pump, a control valve, or all three. A typical system
has three probes: a low level probe, a high level probe,
and a high level alarm probe.
2-3- conductivity probe
3- Sonic Type Instruments
3- Sonic Type Instruments
• Sonic and ultrasonic sensors consists of
transmitter and receiver.
The time required for the sound waves to
travel to the liquid and back to the receiver is
carefully measured. The time is a measure of
level
3- Sonic Type Instruments
Ultrasonic transmitters work on the principle of
sending a sound wave from a peizo electric transducer
to the contents of the vessel.
The device measures the length of time it takes for the
reflected sound wave to return to the transducer.
3-1- Sonic Sensors
Sonic sensors emits pulses with frequency of
10khz . After each pulse , the sensor detects the
reflected echo.
The time of transmitted and received pulses is
converted to a level indication.
3-2- Ultrasonic Sensors
The same as sonic sensors except that the
operating frequency is about 20 khz or higher.
Advantages
1-noncontacting devices
2- reliable, accurate
3- used in dusty applications
4- have no moving parts
Disadvantages
1- strong noise or vibration will affect
performance
2- cant be used for foam because the signal is
adsorbed by the foam
3- various factors can affect the speed of sound
and there for instrument accuracy like vapour ,
temp, pressure , humidity
4- Radar
The two technologies on the market are frequency
modulated continuous wave (FMCW) or pulsed wave
time of flight.
Pulsed Wave systems emit a microwave burst towards
the process material, this burst is reflected by the
surface of the material and detected by the same sensor
which now acts as a receiver. Level is inferred from the
time of flight (transmission to reception) of the
microwave signal.
FMCW systems, continuously emit a frequency signal
and level is inferred from the difference in frequency
between the transmit and receive signals at any point in
time. FMCW is therefore the only method that is
suitable for the high accuracy’s demanded for tank
gauging.
Types of Radar
There are two types of radar level instruments: non contact
and guide dwave (as shown in Figure)
Non contact Type
In the non contact type (shown in Figure a), the output
electromagnetic energy of the radar antenna is very weak. After
the radar signal is transmitted into the air it begins to weaken and
spread out very quickly. The signal reaches the liquid surface
where it is reflected back to the instrument. The strength of the
reflected signal is directly related to the dielectric constant of the
liquid. Liquids with very low dielectric constants, like
hydrocarbon fluids, reflect very little of the signal. On the return
to the instrument, this weak signal loses more energy until the
received signal may be less than 1 percent of its strength at initial
transmission. Liquid turbulence and some foams can further
complicate the measurement by scattering or absorbing the radar
pulse.
Guided wave type
The guided-wave radar unit (shown in Figure b) can
overcome these problems. It is based on Time Domain
Reflectometer (TDR) technology, which uses pulses of
electromagnetic energy that are transmitted down the
probe tube. When a radar pulse reaches a liquid surface
that has a higher dielectric constant than the air in the
process tank, the pulse is reflected back to the
electronic unit. A high-speed electronic timing circuit
precisely measures the transit time and calculates an
accurate measurement of the liquid level in the tank.
5- magnetic bond method
5- magnetic bond method
The magnetic bond mechanism consists of a
magnetic float which rises and falls with
changes in level. The float travels outside of a
non-magnetic tube which houses an inner magnet
connected to a level indicator. When the float
rises and falls, the outer magnet will attract the
inner magnet, causing the inner magnet to
follow the level within the vessel.
6- Displacers
Displacer level gauges operate on Archimedes’ •
principle
6- Displacers
Archimedes’ principle for the buoyancy force, B, is given
by the following:
B = Wd = ρgV
where
Wd = the weight of the displaced fluid
ρ = the density of the displaced fluid
V = the volume of the displaced fluid
g = the gravitational constant
The quantity ρg is often called the weight density of the
fluid; it is the weight per unit volume of the fluid.
Displacer Buoyancy
The buoyancy force acting on an object is equal
to the weight displaced by the object.
As the liquid changes , more or less of the
displacer is submerged in the liquid , the
buoyancy force on the displacer changes .
This change is detected by the spring which the
displacer hangs.
The spring movement causes movement of the
LVDT core.
LVDT
An LVDT is a linear variable differential
transformer consists of a primary coil , two
secondary coils and a steel core (LVDT core).
When the magnetic core is positioned between
the primary and one or both of the secondary
coils , the primary coil is powered and current is
induced in the secondary coils and therefore the
liquid level can be measured.
Advantages
1- simple , dependable , accurate
2- can be mounted internally or externally
THE END