MEMORY AND FORGETTING

Meaning of Memory
 Memory refers to the mental process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information.
 It is the ability of an individual to remember or recall information, experiences, or situations
encountered in the past.
 In psychology, memory is defined as the capacity to register, store, and recall information
over time.
 Memory allows individuals to retain past experiences, learn, and use information when
needed.

Processes of Memory
There are three (3) processes of memory which include the following:
 Encoding: This is the process of receiving information through the senses and transforming
it into a form the brain can store. For example, repeating a phone number to yourself helps to
encode it in short-term memory.
 Storage/Retention: This is the process of keeping encoded information over time.
Information may be stored for a few seconds (short-term memory) or many years (long-
term memory).
 Retrieval: This is the process of bringing stored information back into consciousness (for
use) when needed. For example, remembering an answer during an exam.
 The process of memory involves three main stages namely;

Encoding Storage/Retention Retrieval

Stages of Memory
There are three Stages of Memory which include:
(a) Sensory Memory (SM)
 This is the first stage of memory.
 This stage holds information from the senses for a very brief period (less than a second for
vision, 2–4 seconds for hearing).
 It functions to prevent information from disappearing before it can be processed.
 At this stage, the person just recognizes that he/she has encountered something by seeing or
hearing it. The person only recognizes the stimulus briefly without deeper processing. For
example, hearing a spoked word and holding it very briefly before processing it, recognizing
that you have seen a tree in front of you and others.

(b) Short-Term Memory (STM) / Working Memory

 This is the second stage of memory which is also referred to as working memory.
 It holds small pieces or amounts of information briefly for 15–30 seconds unless it is
rehearsed.
 It is referred to as active memory because it holds information in use. For example;
- Remembering a phone number long enough to dial it.
- Holding a sentence in mind while reading or forming a reply in a conversation.
- Doing an activity or assignment following instructions given without copying from a
paper.

 STM has a limited capacity meaning that it holds information in small amounts.
 Information can be retained longer in STM through rehearsal, e.g., repeating a list of words
to yourself.
 STM is the bridge between sensory memory and long-term memory, deciding what
information gets encoded into long-term memory.
 The function of STM is to allow temporary use of information in tasks like reasoning,
learning, and conversation.
(c) Long-Term Memory (LTM)
 This is the last stage of memory and is the most permanent storage system.
 Holds information for hours, days, or a lifetime. Holds in formation for a long time.
 It holds information in large quantities meaning that its capacity is unlimited.
 Examples include:
- Childhood memories.
- Facts learned in school.
- Skills like riding a bicycle.
 LTM type of memory is generally passive and contains information not in
use.
 Generally, information stored in LTM can undergo changes such as increasing
in amount (quantitative changes), and quality (qualitative changes) or vice –
versa or can even decay or disappear.
 Long term memory is affected by the recency and primacy effects. This
implies to the tendency to remember more recent information better than
information encountered earlier or some time back. For example, an individual
is more likely to recall what he/she ate for breakfast on a day or what he/she
learnt about than what he/she ate or learnt about two weeks ago or some time
back.

To note: Memory for recent events is stronger because the information is

still fresh in short-term memory or recently encoded into long-term memory.
Memory Types: Explicit vs Implicit
There are two major types of memory is often classified based on conscious awareness. Each of the
types has subtypes.
The major types include:
(a) Explicit Memory
(b) Implicit Memory

Explicit Memory (Declarative Memory)

This type of memory involves conscious recall of facts and events. You are aware that you are
remembering something. It has the following subtypes:
 Episodic Memory: Memory of personal experiences and events, including time and place.
For example, remembering one’s last birthday party or the first day at university.
 Semantic Memory: Memory of general knowledge, facts, concepts, and meanings. For
example, knowing that Kampala is the capital city of Uganda or that water boils at 100°C.
 Explicit memory has characteristics such as;
- Requires conscious effort to recall.
- Can be verbally expressed.

Implicit Memory (Non-declarative Memory)

This applies to memory which operates unconsciously. This type of memory influences behavior
without deliberate recall. It has the following sub types:
 Procedural Memory: This applies to memory for skills and actions. For example, riding a
bicycle, typing on a keyboard, or swimming.
 Priming: In this sub type, exposure to a stimulus influences response to a later stimulus. For
example, seeing the word “yellow” makes you faster at recognizing the word “banana.”
 Conditioned Responses: This applied to learned associations that affect behavior. For
example, feeling anxious when hearing a dentist’s drill due to past experiences.
 Characteristics of implicit memory include;
- Does not require conscious awareness.
- Often revealed through performance rather than verbal recall.
Factors that Improve Memory
The following are some of the factors that improve memory
 Long term efficiency in memory is improved by increased motivation. As motivation
increase the level of acting rises and performance improves.
 Distributed practice: Learners should practice what they have learned from time
to time. Teachers should give opportunity to the learners to practice as much as
possible what has been learnt. Distributed practice such as use of short practice
periods rather than long extended periods is very effective in about good results.
 Over learning: This is when a learner is given more time to develop a skill or
understand a concept. The number of times the learned material is repeated
brings about an input in retention. Thus the higher the degree of over learning,
the greater the recall.
 Whole learning: This is in line with Gestalt psychologists who believe that
learning as a whole is better than learning in parts. The whole method is effective
when the material being learnt is short for example a song or poem.
 Imagery: This calls for the use of learning or aids and illustrations that can make
learning easy. The learning aids should help learners form mental pictures in the
mind. This implies that there is need
 for a logical order of presentation and use of daily examples to illustrate the main ideas.
 Mnemonic Aids: This is the use of artificial techniques like verb mediators designed to
make learning and memory easy.
 SQ3R: This requires the use of Survey, Questions, Reading, Reciting and reviewing.
Recitation gives the subject more control over his progress.
 Other factors that are considered as contributing to memory improvement include: having
enough sleep or rest; doing exercise; having good nutrition and others that relate to the
individual’s wellbeing. These improve both the physical and mental state of the
individual which help him/her grasp the ideas encountered and also retain these.

Forgetting
 Forgetting can be defined as the inability to recall, recognize or relearn information that has
already been learnt. Forgetting occurs after learning has taken place. Failure to learn is one
of the most common reasons why students/learners fail in examination.

 Forgetting (retention loss) refers to apparent loss of information already encoded and
stored in an individual's memory, usually long term memory. It is a spontaneous or
gradual process in which old memories are unable to be recalled from memory
storage.
Theories of Forgetting
 Trace-Decay Theory: According to this theory, traces or impressions created by learning
in the cortex fade as time passes. Learning traces that are not actively used tend to fade
away gradually due to passage of time and lack of use. Learners tend to forget what has
been learned in case it is not actively practised.

 Interference Theory: This theory suggests that processes or events that occur before,
during or after learning may affect learning and remembering what has been learnt.
According to this theory, people forget because of interferences with what has already
been learnt.
Note:
- There are two types of interference namely proactive and retroactive
interference.
- In proactive interference, previous learning interferes with the recall of
present learning.
- In retroactive interference, new or current learning interferes with already
learnt material.
  Retrieval Theory: This suggests that forgetting can be caused by failure to retrieve,
activate or access stored information in memory due to technical problems in the memory
cue. This failure to retrieve information may be due to internal factors such as frustrations,
sickness, and thoughts among others.

 Repressive Theory/Motivated Forgetting: This suggests that forgetting may be due to

one’s intention not to remember something which is usually disappointing. Politicians or
religious persons who get converted to new party or organization/group will suppress ideas
related to the old. People usually make an effort to forget bad situations such as loss of dear
ones, failed relationships and others.

Factors that may lead to forgetting

 Lack of interest in the already learnt material
 Lack of appropriate practice with the learned material
 Lack of organisation during the teaching which makes it impossible for learners to
develop concepts easily and so remember them when required
 Misconception of facts during the learning which may create confusion and ability
to remember the facts
 The primacy and recency effects, that is to say facts learnt long ago may tend to be
forgotten than those recently learnt.
 Some factors such as illnesses, frustration may cause failure to retrieve information.
Repressing the memories so that one intentionally forgets ideas or experiences.
Interferences such as proactive and retroactive also lead to forgetting of actual facts.

Role of teachers in reducing forgetting

 Make learning more meaningful to students/learners by using effective strategies.
 Provide a conducive learning environment
 Use a variety of relevant teaching aids that will help to form mental pictures
 Produce opportunity for active participation and enough practice by learners
 Make sure learning/instruction matches with the level of learners
 Reduce as much as possible internal factors such as frustrations and others that may
cause learners to forget facts easily.
 Reduce proactive and retroactive obstacles such as rebuking and punishing un realistically.
 Ensure good organization of content in which there is presentation devoid of confusions or
mix ups. This will help to avoid the facts of interferences
 Ensure clarity of facts especially when there are confusing ideas.

MOTIVATION OF LEARNING
The term motivation is derived from the word ’motive’ which means needs, desires, wants or
drives within
the individuals. It is the process of stimulating people to actions to accomplish the goals.

Motivation is a factor that directs and energizes the behavior of humans and other organisms.
It is a process of arousing action, giving direction and sustaining the activity in progress.
Motivation may take the form of giving prizes or praises, giving promotions to people who are
hard working in a work place, and other forms of appreciation.

Elements of Motivation
 It directs behaviour towards an action to achieve a goal
 It energises an organism to act, that is, it urges or compels people to maintain interest in the
activity.
 It moderates or maintains one’s behaviour.
Note:
- Motivation is a necessity so that learning becomes a continuing, improving,
interesting and hopefully enjoyable process.
- Student motivation is a critical part of the teaching and learning process.
- The stronger the motivations, the greater and more efficient the learning potential of an
individual.

Types of Motivation:
There are two different types of motivation which include:
 Intrinsic (internal or Self)
 Extrinsic/External)

Intrinsic Motivation:
This type of motivation is also referred to as self-motivation. It is the driving force within an
individual which occurs when an individual is internally motivated to do something or
accomplish a task because he/she believes it is important or enjoys doing it. This type of motivation
is usually regulated by that individual. It involves internalized attributes by the individual, for
example, one’s needs, values, personality and others.

Students with this kind of motivation will be happy and excited to do their homework, class
activities, or other learning related aspects because they find these exciting or interesting.

Extrinsic Motivation: This originates from outside the learner. It is made up of all external
drives, such as prizes, jobs, promotions and others. They are incentive values or reinforcers or
rewards upon behaviour. Extrinsic motivation occurs when an individual develops interest in
studying or learning because of external factors such as rewards or other external motivators.

Theories of motivation
There are different conceptual approaches to the study of motivation. They differ in their focus on
biological factors, cognitive factors and social factors. They include the following:

The Instinct Theory/Approaches to Motivation

This theory states that motivation is a result of an inborn, biologically determined pattern of
behavior.
According to this approach, people and animals are born with programmed sets of behavior
essential to their survival. Individuals are naturally motivated to do or be part of certain things, for
example, games and sports, music and others.

Drive Reduction Approach to Motivation (DRT)

This theory suggests that when people lack some basic biological requirements such as water and
food, a drive to obtain these requirements is produced. A drive is tension, arousal that pushes
behavior in order to fulfill some need.
- Primary drives are related to biological needs of the body, for example, hunger, thirst,
sleep, and sex.

- Secondary drives are related to prior experience and learning without the fulfillment
of any biological needs, for example, motivation for academic achievement.

Arousal Approaches to Motivation

According to this approach, each individual tries to maintain a certain level of stimulation and
anxiety. In arousal approaches, if the level of stimulation and activity are too low, one will try to
increase it by seeking stimulation. People differ in their optimal level of arousal.
Incentive Approaches to Motivation
This approach attempts to explain motivation in terms of the nature of the external stimuli;
incentives that direct and energize behavior. According to this view, properties of external stimuli
are major causes for a person’s motivation. An incentive is a reinforcer that increases
performance.
The incentive theory suggests that certain objects (stimuli) in the environment are likely to
motivate learners to act in ways that will make learning more effective. Examples include a good
school, teacher, or nature of subject or generally a good school/learning environment.

Achievement Motivation Theory

This is a stable, learned characteristic in which satisfaction is obtained by striving for and attaining
a level of excellence. People with high achievement motivation tend to compete against some
standards to prove themselves successful. They tend to choose tasks that are of intermediate
difficulty.
People with low achievement motivation tend to be motivated primarily by a desire to avoid failure.
As a result they choose easy tasks. The outcome of high achievement motivation is generally
positive. Research shows that high achievement motivation is associated with future economic and
occupational success.

Cognitive Approaches to Motivation

This approach focuses on the role of our thought, expectations, and understanding of the world.
For example, the degree to which individuals are motivated to study hard depends upon their
expectations for good grades and the value placed on getting good grades.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory of Motivation

Abraham Maslow is the man behind the Hierarchy of Needs Theory of motivation. The theory is
based on the assumption that there is a hierarchy of needs within each individual that range from
lower to higher need levels.
Basic assumptions of the theory
- There are different needs for individuals at different times and that motivation occurs due
to these needs which are based on a hierarchy.
- Different motivational needs are arranged in a hierarchy, which are shown in a pyramidal
shape.
- The more basic needs are at the bottom while the higher level needs are at the top.
- Before higher ordered needs are satisfied in the hierarchy, the primary needs must be
satisfied.
Abraham Maslow’s five hierarchical need levels are shown as indicated below:

These need levels are explained as follows:

 Physiological needs: These are the basic or bodily needs. They are sometimes referred
to as survival needs. They include air, water, food, clothing and shelter. Physiological
needs are the needs for basic amenities of life.
 Safety/Security needs: Safety and security needs imply needs for a sense of
confidence, safety, and freedom from fear or anxiety, particularly with respect to
fulfilling ones present and future needs. These needs include physical, environmental
and emotional others.
  Social needs: Social needs include the need for love, affection, care, belongingness,
and friendship. Love and belongingness needs include the need to obtain and give
affection and contributing to members of some group or society.
 Esteem needs: Esteem needs are of two types: internal esteem needs (self- respect,
confidence, safety and protection. For instance, safety where teaching and learning is
taking place and competence, achievement and freedom) and external esteem needs
(recognition, power, status, attention and admiration). Esteem needs relate to the
development of a sense of worth by knowing that others are aware of one’s
competence and value.
 Self-actualization needs: These include the urge to become what you are capable of
becoming or what you have the potential to become. It includes the need for growth
and self-contentment. It also includes desire for gaining more knowledge, social-
service, creativity and being aesthetic.
The self- actualization needs are never fully satiable. As an individual grows
psychologically, opportunities keep cropping up to continue growing.

Self- actualization is a state of self- fulfillment in which people realize their highest
potential. The concept of self- actualization is applicable not only to few well-known
individuals. In its broader sense it can happen to:
- A parent with excellent nurturing skills;
- A teacher that maximizes students’ opportunities for success;
- A health professional who works hard to alleviate health problems of the country.

According to Maslow, individuals are motivated by unsatisfied needs. As each of these needs is
significantly satisfied, it drives and forces the next need to emerge. Maslow grouped the five needs
into two categories - Higher-order needs and Lower-order needs.

Lower order needs are those at the bottom of the pyramid. These include the physiological and the
safety needs. These lower-order needs are mainly satisfied externally.

The social, esteem, and self-actualization needs constituted the higher-order needs. These higher-
order needs are generally satisfied internally, for example, within an individual.

Education Implications of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

 As far as the physiological needs are concerned, teachers should ensure that learners are
provided the basic necessities of life. They should liaise with parents and other
stakeholders to ensure the needs are fulfilled. Breaks and eating opportunities should be
given to learners.
 As far as the safety needs are concerned, teachers should provide learners with a secure,
safe and hygienic learning environment.
 As far as social needs are concerned, teachers should encourage teamwork and organize
social events. They should provide a sense of belongingness to the learners.
 As far as esteem needs are concerned, teachers should always appreciate and reward
learners on accomplishing tasks or meeting the desired standards. Learners need to be
given respect as well.
 As far as self-actualization needs are concerned, teachers can give the learners
challenging tasks in which their skills and competencies are fully utilized. Moreover,
growth opportunities can be given to them so that they can reach the peak.
How Motivation Affects Learning &Behavior
Motivation has several effects on students' learning and behavior as shown below:
 Motivation directs behavior toward particular goals and determines the specific goals toward
which people strive; thus, it affects the choices learners make. For example, whether to
enroll in an art class or physics, whether to attend a school basketball game during the
week or complete an assignment that is due the next day.
 Motivation also leads to increased effort and energy. This means that it determines whether
the learner will pursue a task, even when it seems difficult, with enthusiasm or a lackluster
attitude.
 Motivation increases the initiation and persistence of activities. Motivation will generally
increase learners' time on task and is also an important factor affecting their learning and
achievement.
 Motivation enhances cognitive processing. Motivation actually affects what and how
information is processed because motivated learners are more likely to pay attention and
try to understand the material instead of simply going through the motions of learning in a
superficial manner.
 Motivation determines what consequences are reinforcing and punishing. For example, a
learner with a high level of motivation for classroom achievement and high grades will
reinforced by receiving a good grade in his/her performance in a given test, but on the
other hand will feel punished or demotivated if he/she receives a low grade.
 Motivation leads to improved performance. This implies that the learner will generally
perform better in all class work or teaching and learning activities due the interest or
motivation he/she develops in dealing with these. Increased effort, initiation, persistence,
cognitive processing and the impact of consequences will lead to improved performance.

Strategies for Motivating Students/Learners in the Classroom

The following are some of the strategies for motivating learners to learn:
 A teacher should arouse learners’ interest to learn through gaining their attention paying
attention to them or showing love and affection to them.
 Teachers should make use of rewards and reinforcement through the use of prizes, praises,
words of encouragement and others to show appreciation of the deeds of the learner. This
will motivate them to continue working harder.
 Teachers should direct learning experiences towards a feeling of success in an effort
encourage a realistic level of aspiration, an orientation towards achievement and a positive
self concept.
 Teachers should provide a conducive learning environment that will arouse their interest
and sustain it in the lesson.
 Teachers should use effective instructional teaching strategies to facilitate a better
understanding of concepts.
 Teachers should use stimulus variation gestures, such as focussing attention and varying
instructional styles, facial expressions and arm or other body gestures.
 Teachers should provide realistic and immediate feedback to enhance the learners’ self
efficacy.
 Teachers should relate subject matter to learners’ own experiences, that is, they should
teach from known to unknown or using learners known or familiar experiences. The use of
a variety, relevant and familiar examples will generate the needed interest in the learning
activities.
 Teachers should involve learners as much as possible and actively in the teaching and
learning activities. Make use of more learners centered approaches that give an opportunity
for learners not to remain passive listeners but part and parcel of the teaching and learning
activities. Teachers should use a variety of student-active teaching and learning activities
which directly engage learners in the tasks and give them opportunities to achieve a level
of mastery.
 Teachers should ensure that learners value and understand the learning [Link]
should set realistic performance goalsand help learners achieve them by encouraging them
 to set their own reasonable goals. Assignments and activities should be designed so that
they are appropriate and challenging in view of the experience and aptitude of the class.
 Teachers should match instruction to the cognitive level of the learners. Teacher should
aim at not making learners get confused because they not get well what they are
encountering. Work should be structured basing on the level of understanding of the
learners.
 Teachers should ensure proper communication during instruction. They should be audible
and fluent, and should use variations in tone.
 Teachers should be role models for student interest. This will instill in the learners interest
and enthusiasm in the teachers and what they are dealing with.
 Teachers should place appropriate emphasis on testing and grading. Tests should be a
means of showing what students have mastered or understood. Avoid grading on the curve
and give everyone the opportunity to achieve the highest standard and grades.