🌍 Earth & Plate Tectonics — Complete Study

Notes
1. Earth
 The Earth is a dynamic planet.
 It is constantly shaped by forces from within the Earth and on its surface.
 Internal processes include:
o Plate tectonics
o Volcanic activity
o Earthquakes
 External processes include:
o Weathering
o Erosion
o Mass movements
 These processes continuously change the Earth's surface and create different landforms.
 The interaction of these forces can cause natural disasters such as:
o Earthquakes
o Landslides
o Volcanic eruptions
o Glacial lake outburst floods

🌎 2. Plate Tectonics
Meaning

Plate tectonics explains that the Earth's outer layer, called the lithosphere, is divided into large
and small plates.

 These plates move over the semi-fluid layer beneath them called the asthenosphere.
 Movement and interaction of plates cause:
o Earthquakes
o Volcanic eruptions
o Mountain formation
o Ocean trenches

Important idea

Plate tectonics explains how the Earth's surface constantly changes over time.

🧩 3. Continental Drift Theory

Proposed by:

Alfred Wegener in 1912

Main points:

 Wegener suggested that all continents were once joined together.

 This single huge landmass was called Pangaea.
 Pangaea later broke apart.
 The continents gradually drifted away from each other.
Evidence:

Wegener gave evidence such as:

 Matching coastlines
 Matching fossils
 Matching rock formations

Limitation:

 Wegener could not explain the mechanism that caused the continents to move.

🌊 4. Seafloor Spreading Theory

Proposed by:

Harry Hess and Robert S. Dietz in the 1950s

Main points:

 New oceanic crust is formed at mid-ocean ridges.

 Volcanic activity causes magma to rise.
 The magma cools and solidifies to form new oceanic crust.
 The new crust pushes older crust away from the ridge.
 This causes the seafloor to spread.

Evidence:

 Magnetic striping on the ocean floor supported this theory.

Importance:

It provided the missing mechanism that helped explain how continents could move over time.

🔥 5. Convection Current Theory in the

Mantle
Main idea:

 Heat from the Earth's core creates convection currents in the mantle.
 These currents help drive the movement of tectonic plates.

How it works:

1. Hot material in the mantle rises.

2. Cooler material sinks.
3. This creates a continuous circular movement called convection.
4. The movement pushes and pulls the plates above it.

Key point:

Heat → convection currents → movement of tectonic plates

🌍 6. Modern Plate Tectonic Theory
The modern theory combines the ideas of:

 Continental Drift Theory

 Seafloor Spreading Theory
 Convection Currents in the mantle

It explains:

 Movement of continental plates

 Movement of oceanic plates
 Earthquakes
 Volcanic activity
 Mountain formation
 Ocean trench formation

Three types of plate boundaries:

Boundary Movement
Divergent Plates move apart
Convergent Plates collide
Transform Plates slide past each other

⭐ Remember:

Divergent = Divide
Convergent = Come together
Transform = Slide past

🪨 7. Interior of the Earth

The Earth has a layered structure consisting of:

1. Crust
2. Mantle
3. Core

As we move towards the centre of the Earth, the density of the layers increases.

🟫 8. Crust
 The crust is the solid outer covering of the Earth.
 It surrounds the interior of the Earth.
 Average thickness: 5–40 km.
 Its thickness is not uniform everywhere.
 It is:
o Thicker under continents
o Thinner under oceans
 It is made up of a great variety of rocks.
 It is the most important shell because it sustains life.
 It includes:
o Continents
o Islands
 o Areas beneath the seas
 The crust is constantly undergoing changes.

🔵 9. Mohorovičić Discontinuity
 The crust and mantle are separated by a boundary.
 This boundary is called the Mohorovičić Discontinuity.
 It is named after geologist Andrija Mohorovičić, who discovered it.

⭐ Exam point:

Crust → Mohorovičić Discontinuity → Mantle

🟠 10. Mantle
 The mantle lies between the crust and core.
 It is a thick layer of rocks.
 Average thickness: about 2,900 km.
 Its density increases with depth.
 The mantle is divided into:
1. Upper mantle
2. Lower mantle

11. Upper Mantle

 It is the upper section of the mantle.
 It lies below the crust.
 The theory of plate tectonics describes the plates moving over the semi-fluid
asthenosphere beneath the lithosphere.

12. Lower Mantle

 It is the lower section of the mantle.
 It lies below the upper mantle.
 It extends towards the Earth's core.

🔴 13. Core
 The core is the innermost major layer of the Earth.
 It is about 3,500 km thick according to the textbook.
 It is the densest layer.
 It is made mainly of metals.
 Therefore, it is sometimes called the metallic core.
 The core has two parts:
1. Outer core
2. Inner core
🟠 14. Outer Core
 The outer core is mainly composed of iron.
 It is in a liquid state.

⭐ Remember:

Outer Core = Iron + Liquid

🟡 15. Inner Core

 The inner core is composed of nickel and iron.
 Although its temperature is extremely high, it behaves like a solid.
 This is because of the extremely high pressure exerted by the outer layers.

⭐ Remember:

Inner Core = Nickel + Iron + Solid because of very high pressure

🎯 16. Centre of the Earth

 As we move towards the centre of the Earth:
o Density increases
o Temperature increases
 The textbook states that temperature rises at a rate of about 1°C for every 32 metres as
we move downward.
 The extremely high temperature would cause rocks and metals to melt.
 However, the inner core behaves as a solid because of the extremely high pressure.

🌧️17. Weathering
Definition

Weathering is the process by which rocks exposed on the Earth's surface are broken into smaller
pieces in situ, meaning in the same place.

Factors affecting weathering:

1. Change in temperature and pressure

o Continuous heating and cooling can break rocks.
2. Action of water
o Water enters cracks and pores.
o When temperature falls, water freezes and expands.
o This widens cracks.
o Repeated action eventually breaks the rock.
3. Wind
o Air carrying sand acts like sandpaper.
o It strikes and abrades rock surfaces.
4. Plants
o Plant roots enter cracks.
o Growing roots can break rocks.
 5. Animals and humans
o Their mechanical activities can break rocks.

🪨 18. Types of Weathering

There are three main types:

A. Physical Weathering

 Rocks break down without changing their chemical composition.

 Temperature changes can cause rocks to expand and contract.
 The outer layers may peel away.
 This peeling is called exfoliation.
 In cold areas, freezing and melting of water in cracks causes frost action.

B. Chemical Weathering

 Chemical reactions involving water or air alter or dissolve parts of rocks.

 Soluble minerals such as:
o Rock salt
o Limestone
o Sandstone
can dissolve in water and be removed.
 It can produce features such as:
o Cavities
o Sinkholes
o Caverns

C. Biological Weathering

 Plants and animals help break rocks.

 Plant roots enter cracks and widen them.
 Roots may also produce acidic juices that slowly break rock material.
 Burrowing animals such as rabbits and rats can contribute.
 Human activities can also contribute.

🌊 19. Erosion
Definition

Erosion is the process of carrying away weathered particles from one place to another.

Agents of erosion:

 Rivers
 Rainwater
 Glaciers
 Waves
 Wind

Factors affecting the rate of erosion:

1. Rainfall
2. Temperature
3. Slope of the land
 4. Type of soil
5. Vegetation cover
6. Changes in land-use pattern

Importance:

Weathering and erosion have continued for millions of years and have changed the shapes of:

 Mountains
 Hills
 Plateaus
 Plains

🌍 Mass Movements, Denudation & Rivers —

Complete Notes
1. Mass Movements
 Mass movements bring changes in the Earth's surface.
 They are caused by gravity, which pulls all materials downwards.
 They are quite common in mountainous regions such as:
o Uttarakhand
o Himachal Pradesh
o Jammu and Kashmir
 Loose rock masses can slide down slopes.
 They can cause:
o Environmental hazards
o Loss of human lives
o Damage to property
 Landslides, earthflows and mudflows are all linked with mass movements.
 The type of mass movement depends on:
o Size of the rocks
o Amount of water
o Steepness of the slopes.

🪨 2. Landslides
 When dry soil and rock pieces move down a steep slope, it is called a landslide.
 It is a type of mass movement.
 It is especially common in mountainous regions.
 The movement is generally associated with a steep slope.

⭐ Remember:

Dry soil + rock pieces + steep slope = Landslide

🌧️3. Earthflow
 When rock materials such as clay and silt, saturated with water, move down a gentle
slope, it is called an earthflow.
 It differs from a landslide because:
o Material is water-saturated.
o The slope is gentle.
 o The material includes clay and silt.

⭐ Remember:

Clay + silt + water-saturated + gentle slope = Earthflow

💧 4. Mudflow
 When water-saturated rock debris moves down the channels on steep hill sides, it is
called a mudflow.
 It is also a type of mass movement.

⭐ Remember:

Water-saturated rock debris + channels + steep hills = Mudflow

🌱 5. Denudation
 Denudation literally means making nude or bare.
 It refers to the processes that bring about changes on the face/surface of the land.
 The file discusses different agents of denudation that bring changes to the land surface.

🌊 6. Agents of Denudation
The file gives five agents of denudation:

1. Rivers
2. Rainwater
3. Ice or glaciers
4. Sea waves
5. Winds

7. Rivers as an Agent of Denudation

 Rivers, during their normal course from mountains to the sea, transport huge quantities
of broken rocks to the lowlands.
 They also erode land into:
o Gorges
o Valleys
o etc.

8. Rainwater as an Agent of Denudation

 When rain falls, some water seeps underground through:
o Fissures
o Pores in rocks
 People have used underground water by digging wells.
  In hilly areas, underground water may reappear as springs.
 In regions having soluble rocks such as:
o Limestone
o Salt
 The seepage of underground water creates:
o Caves
o Other landscape features.

9. Ice or Glaciers
 The moving mass of ice on mountains is called a glacier.
 When glaciers melt along their edges, they give birth to rivers.
 The movement of glaciers erodes a V-shaped river valley into a U-shaped valley.

10. Sea Waves

 The action of sea waves causes erosion of the coast.
 They also deposit material along the shore when they recede.
 Therefore, the work of waves includes:
o Erosion
o Transportation
o Deposition

11. Winds
 Wind action is most significant in desert areas.
 Examples given in the file:
o Thar Desert in Rajasthan
o Sahara in Africa
 Winds can easily remove dry particles of:
o Dust
o Sand
from the surface.

👨‍🌾 12. Role of Man in Changing the Land

Surface
The file says that humans also play an important role in changing land surfaces.

Human activities are responsible for the degradation of land in several ways:

1. Cutting trees indiscriminately

 Cutting trees without control turns land into wasteland.

 If there are no trees, there are no rains.
 Without rains, the land is automatically degraded.

2. Indiscriminate building activities

 They not only swallow the land.

  They also make the surrounding land degraded.

3. Factory effluents

 Dirty and poisonous effluents from factories collect in surrounding areas.

 They completely degrade the land and make it waste.

4. Dumping city waste

 Dumping city waste on land can completely lead to its degradation.

⭐ Easy memory:

Trees → Buildings → Factory waste → City waste

🌊 13. River Course

According to the file, because of changes in water supply and slope of the land along a river's
path, the river course is divided into three stages:

1. Upper Course / Mountain Stage

2. Middle Course / Plain Stage
3. Lower Course / Delta Stage

🏔️14. Upper Course / Mountain Stage

Main characteristics:

 The slope of the land is generally very steep.

 The river rushes down with great speed.
 The river:
o Erodes its sides and bed
o Carries stones and fragments of rocks
 The main work of the river is erosion and transportation.

Landforms/features:

 Gorges
 V-shaped valleys
 Waterfalls
 Rapids
 Cascades

Gorge

 When a river flows through an area of hard rocks, it makes a narrow valley with steep
walls.
 Such a narrow valley with steep walls is called a gorge.

V-shaped valley

 When a river flows through an area of soft rocks and heavy rainfall, its sides are easily
eroded.
 This makes the valley sufficiently wide.
 Such valleys are called V-shaped valleys.
Waterfall

 A waterfall is a sudden descent of water over a big vertical step formed in the river
bed.

Rapids

 Sometimes the river bed is sloping and rocky with many ups and downs.
 The river jumps over these and falls downwards continuously.
 These are called rapids.
 A series of rapids, big or small, are called cascades.
 The river is not very useful for navigation during this stage.

⭐ Upper Course = Erosion + Transportation

🌾 15. Middle Course / Plain Stage

 The slope is not so steep.
 It becomes quite gradual.
 The river flows more slowly.
 It becomes useful for:
o Navigation
o Irrigation
 The river deposits alluvial sediments that it brings from the mountains.
 These sediments are deposited on both sides of the river bank.
 This forms flood plains.
 Flood plains are:
o Often level
o Very fertile
 In flat plains, irregularities of the ground cause the river to swing from side to side.
 This creates big loops.
 Such loops are called meanders.
 As the river becomes useful for transport during this stage, many towns grow near its
banks.

⭐ Middle Course = Gentle slope + Deposition + Meanders + Flood plains

🌊 16. Lower Course / Delta Stage

 This is the last stage of the river before it merges into the sea.
 The speed of the river slows down.
 It becomes difficult for the river to carry the sediments it brought.
 Therefore, deposition begins rapidly.
 The level of the river bed rises.
 The river gets divided into many channels called distributaries.
 These distributaries spread before the river reaches the sea.
 A delta is formed.
 Deltas contain deposits of alluvium (soil).
 Therefore, they are very fertile.

⭐ Lower Course = Slow speed + Deposition + Distributaries + Delta

🔥 UPPER vs MIDDLE vs LOWER COURSE
Feature Upper Course Middle Course Lower Course
Also called Mountain Stage Plain Stage Delta Stage
Slope Very steep Gradual Very gentle
River speed Very fast Slower Slowest
Transportation +
Main work Erosion + transportation Mainly deposition
deposition
Important Gorges, V-shaped valleys, Flood plains,
Distributaries, delta
features waterfalls, rapids meanders
Navigation Not useful Useful —
Deposits alluvial Deposits large amounts of
Sediments Carries rocks
sediments sediment

🌍 Major Landforms & Disasters — Complete

Notes
1. Major Landforms of the Earth
 The surface of the Earth is neither even nor regular.
 It gives rise to several landforms such as:
o Mountains
o Plateaus
o Plains

🏔️2. Mountains
Definition

 A mountain is a high landmass with sharply sloping surfaces.

 It is considerably higher than the surrounding areas.
 There is seldom a single mountain.
 Mountains usually occur in chains or ranges extending over hundreds of kilometres.

Examples of important mountain ranges

 Pamir and Himalayan ranges – Asia

 Alpine ranges – Europe
 Rockies – North America
 Andes – South America

Young and old mountains

 Mountains differ in shape and height.

 Young mountains:
o Very high
o Have pointed peaks
o Examples: Himalayas, Alps, Andes and Rockies
 Old mountains:
o Low in height
o Have rounded tops
o Examples: Aravalli and Appalachian
 Their rounded tops are due to erosion by wind and water for thousands of years.
3. Types of Mountains
There are three types of mountains:

A. Fold Mountains

 Fold mountains are created due to internal movements in the Earth.

 Cooling and contracting of molten magma causes the crust at several places to become eroded
and folded.
 The elevated parts become mountains.
 The intervening depressions become valleys.

Examples:

 Himalayan Mountains – India

 Alps – Europe
 Appalachians – North America
 Ural Mountains – Russia

⭐ Remember:

Internal movements → Folding → Fold mountains

B. Block Mountains

 Block mountains are created when large masses of land are broken and displaced vertically.

Examples:

 Rhine Valley
 Vosges

⭐ Remember:

Land breaks + vertical displacement = Block mountains

C. Volcanic Mountains

 Volcanic mountains are formed due to volcanic activity.

Examples:

 Mt. Kilimanjaro – Africa

 Mount Fujiyama – Japan

🏔️4. Life in Mountain Regions

 Life in mountain regions is very hard because of:
o Hard and rocky terrain
o Difficulty in constructing roads
o Difficulty in laying railway lines
 o Harsh climate
 Therefore, very few people reside in mountain regions.

5. Plateaus
Definition

 A plateau is a broad and more or less level stretch of upland.

 It rises sharply above the neighbouring lowland.
 It is also called a tableland.

Characteristics

 The surface is not always smooth.

 It is generally rugged and rocky.
 The Deccan Plateau in India extends over thousands of kilometres.
 The Tibetan Plateau is the highest in the world.
 Therefore, it is called the “Roof of the World.”

Other examples

Large plateaus are found in:

 Africa
 Australia
 Asia
 North America
 South America

Importance/resources

 Plateau land is generally rich in mineral deposits.

Life on plateaus

 Life in plateau regions is also very hard.

 The land is not smooth, so it hinders the laying of roads, railways and canals.
 Therefore, plateau regions are not much populated.

🌾 6. Plains
Definition

 A plain is a relatively flat and low-lying vast expanse of land.

 Some plains are extremely level.
 Others may be rolling or undulating.

Formation

 Most plains are formed by major rivers and their tributaries.

 Rivers bring and deposit:
o Silt
o Stones
o Sand
 These materials are deposited along their courses for ages.
Examples

 Great Northern Plain of India – formed by deposits brought by the Ganga and its tributaries
 Hwang-Ho Plain – China
 Nile Valley Plain – Egypt

Importance

 Plains are the most suitable landform for human habitation.

 Plains formed by river deposits are very fertile.
 Therefore, they are very thickly populated.

⚠️7. Disasters
Definition

 Natural disasters are powerful events caused by natural processes of the Earth.
 They can lead to:
o Widespread destruction
o Loss of life
o Damage to the environment
o Damage to property

Causes

 They occur due to various geological and climatic factors.

 They often strike without warning.

Examples mentioned in the file:

 Earthquakes
 Landslides
 Avalanches
 Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs)
 Dust storms

Effects

 They significantly affect:

o Human settlements
o Natural ecosystems

They may be triggered by:

 Tectonic movements
 Heavy rainfall
 Rapid snowmelt
 Climate change
 Strong winds

Importance of studying disasters

 Understanding disasters helps in:

o Disaster preparedness
o Risk reduction
o Effective management
 Studying their causes, impacts and preventive measures helps communities:
o Protect lives and property
 o Build resilience against future natural hazards.

🌊 8. Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF)

Meaning

 A Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) occurs when water accumulated in glacial lakes is
suddenly released.

Cause

 It happens due to the breaking of natural dams made of:

o Ice
o Moraines

⭐ Remember:

Glacial lake → Natural dam breaks → Water suddenly released → GLOF

🌪️9. Dust Storm

 Dust storms are caused by strong winds.
 Strong winds lift large amounts of dust and sand into the atmosphere.
 This causes:
o Reduced visibility
o Effects on health
o Effects on transportation

⭐ Remember:

Strong winds → Dust + sand lifted → Reduced visibility → Health & transport affected

🌎 10. Earthquakes
What is an earthquake?

 Both the Earth's surface and interior are unstable.

 A sudden shaking of the Earth is caused by this instability and a sudden release of energy.
 An earthquake causes the ground to tremble.

What can shake?

Anything standing on the ground can shake, including:

 Buildings
 Trees
 Poles
 Dams

The amount of shaking depends on the intensity of the earthquake.

⚡ 11. Earthquakes — Onset Type and
Warning
 Earthquakes represent the energetic condition of our planet.
 Humans have not yet been able to invent an instrument that can predict the sudden outburst
of such energy.
 Therefore, an earthquake is regarded as a “sudden-onset hazard.”

Frequency

 Over 1 million earthquakes occur at any time of the year in different parts of the world,
including oceans.
 Underwater earthquakes can generate tsunamis.
 At least four dozen are of serious types that can be highly hazardous to life and property.

Warning systems

 In some western countries and the USA, loud sirens have begun to be played as warning
systems against earthquakes.
 However, they are played only when they prove correct.

⚠️12. Vulnerability
Meaning in the file's context

 Earthquake-prone zones are well marked on maps all over the world.
 Settlements located along geological fault-lines are the most vulnerable to:

1. Earthquakes
2. Landslides
3. Floods caused by the breach of:
o River banks
o Dams

⭐ Key point:

Settlements along geological fault-lines = highly vulnerable

🌎 Earthquakes — Typical Effects &

Mitigation
1. Typical Effects of Earthquakes
The file gives these typical effects:

Panic

 Vibratory waves accompanying the earthquake cause panic among animals and
humans.
 More damage is done by the panic.

Physical Damage
This includes:

 Collapse of buildings
 Cracks in the ground
 Damage to roads
 Damage to bridges
 Damage to walls
 Damage to water tanks
 Damage to bunds
 Damage to rivers and dams

Public Health

 Pollution of water bodies

 Breakdown of sewage and sanitary pipes
 Heart failures and other conditions
 These may lead to epidemics.

Civic Services and Conveyances

The following may be disrupted:

 Water pipes
 Sewers
 Electric connections
 Roads
 Transmission towers
 Transformers

Disruption of Economic Activities

 Widespread damage and destruction severely affect:

o Farming
o Business
o Trade
o Services
 These become major factors in civil unrest.

Fire

 Collapse of containers containing inflammable substances such as:

o Gas
o Petrol
o Kerosene
o Chemicals
 This can cause major fires.
 The file notes that major fires in Japan, USA and India have been caused by
earthquakes.
 Tremors, heat and suffocation can cause further damage.

🏗️2. Main Mitigation Strategies for

Earthquakes
Structural Mitigation
Engineered Structures
  Engineered structures should be designed and built to withstand ground shaking.
 Architectural and engineering inputs should be combined to improve:
o Building design
o Construction practice
 Soil type must be analysed before construction.
 Structures should not be built on soft soil.
 Buildings on soft soil are more likely to be damaged even when an earthquake is not
strong.
 Similar problems occur in alluvial plains and on river banks.
 Heavy damage occurs when the ground is soft.

📢 3. Non-Structural Mitigation for

Earthquakes
Public Awareness and Education
 It is still difficult to predict the exact place where an earthquake will occur.
 Geophysicists and scientists have information about:
o Occurrence of earthquakes
o Intensity of earthquakes
 This information should be made public through:
o Radio
o Television
o Newspapers
 Information should be published well in advance.

Public awareness and education should include:

 The real cause of earthquakes

 How earthquake waves are observed and recorded
 Do's and Don'ts during and after an earthquake
 Awareness about risks and geology of the area
 Sensitisation of people involved in relief work and construction, including:
o Engineers
o Architects
o Masons
o Doctors
o Health personnel
o Government functionaries
o Bankers and financiers.

🏔️4. Landslides
Definition

 A landslide is a sudden movement of masses of:

o Rock
o Earth
o Debris
 It moves down mountain slopes or river banks due to the force of its own weight.

Where they occur

 They are generally associated with mountain terrains.

  They also occur where surface excavation takes place for:
o Highways
o Buildings
o Fly-overs
o Bridges
o Underground railways
o Open-pit mines

Major affected regions mentioned

 Himalayas
 Western Ghats
 North-Eastern region covered by the Poorvanchal Mountains

Effects

 Damage to:
o Life
o Property
o Crops
o Transportation and communication networks
 They can also cause long traffic jams.
 Landslides may occur in floodplains during floods.
 Villages near river banks may experience landslides during floods.
 They can damage:
o Crops
o Cultivable land
o Houses.

⚠️5. Landslide Warning

 Landslides can occur for many reasons, including:
o Heavy rains in hilly areas
o Heavy snowfall
o Earthquakes
o Floods
o Other causes
 Most landslides occur without prior warning.
 Sometimes they occur gradually and can be noticed in advance.
 There are no clearly established warning systems to indicate the occurrence of
landslides.
 Therefore, prediction of landslides is difficult.

Risk identification

 Areas of high risk can be determined using information about:

o Geology
o Hydrology
o Vegetation cover
o Past occurrence
o Consequences in the region
 Better preparation and proper mitigation measures are needed to reduce damage to:
o Life
o Property.
🏗️6. Main Mitigation Strategies for
Landslides
Structural Mitigation
1. Drainage Corrections

 During heavy rains, water infiltration into soil and debris is the most important reason
for landslides.
 The easiest way to reduce water infiltration is to allow excess water to drain off.
 The first and foremost mitigation measure is drainage correction.
 Natural drainage channels in vulnerable slopes of hills and mountains should be
maintained.
 This helps prevent water logging.

2. Engineered Structures

 Buildings and other structures should be built according to engineering inputs.

 Engineered structures with strong foundations can withstand ground movement.
 Underground installations such as:
o Pipes
o Cables
should be fitted flexibly to withstand forces caused by landslides.

3. Retaining Walls

 Retaining walls should be built along slopes.

 They help:
o Withstand forces
o Stop land from slipping or sliding
 The file mentions such walls along roads at hill stations such as Shimla.

4. Earthquake-related mitigation

 Earthquake-related hazards and their effects should also be considered, including:

o Floods
o Landslides
o Fires
o Diseases
o Panic
o Breakdown of essential services
 Earthquakes near sea coasts may trigger undersea events called tsunamis.

5. Vital Lifelines

 Important services such as:

o Roads
o Hospitals
o Electricity
o Telephone
o Water supply
should be restored immediately if affected.

6. Building Bylaws and Codes

 The Bureau of Indian Standards and the Indian Meteorological Department have
prepared maps showing earthquake-prone zones.
 These should be publicised to avoid construction in specified areas.
  Building codes and bylaws have been prescribed.
 People should follow the guidelines strictly.
 Authorities should also follow zoning rules.

7. Vegetation Cover

 Increasing vegetation cover is described as the easiest, cheapest and most effective way
of arresting landslides.
 This can be done through:
o Afforestation
o Avoiding grazing along mountain slopes
 Plants and trees help bind the top layers of soil with their roots.
 Vegetation also:
o Prevents water infiltration
o Prevents soil erosion
o Allows excess water to run off naturally and easily.

📢 7. Non-Structural Mitigation for

Landslides
Land-Use Practices

 Natural vegetation should be preserved and protected.

 Deforestation should be controlled.
 Cutting branches of trees for fuel, timber and other purposes should be restricted.
 Grazing of sheep and goats along mountain slopes should be banned.
 Denuded upper slopes should be reforested with suitable trees.
 Blockage of natural drainage should be avoided during construction of:
o Roads
o Canals
o Buildings

Hazard Mapping

 Government agencies, NGOs and others should prepare hazard maps.

 These should identify and illustrate areas prone to landslides.
 This helps avoid construction of:
o Roads
o Buildings
o Bridges
in landslide-prone areas.

Awareness Generation

 Public awareness about:

o Causes
o Effects
o Areas prone to landslides
is essential.
 Imminent danger should be forecast so that people can take safety measures.

❄️8. Avalanches
Definition
  An avalanche is a sudden and rapid flow of:
o Snow
o Ice
o Sometimes rocks
down a mountain slope.

Important points

 It is one of the most dangerous natural hazards in mountainous regions.

 It is especially common in areas with heavy snowfall.
 Avalanches can:
o Occur naturally
o Be triggered by human activities such as:
 Skiing
 Snowmobiling
 Construction
 They pose serious risks to:
o People
o Infrastructure
o Transportation routes
o Environment.

❄️9. Causes of Avalanches

Avalanches occur when the layer of snow on a slope becomes unstable and collapses.

1. Heavy Snowfall

 A large amount of fresh snowfall in a short period increases the weight on existing snow
layers.
 This makes them unstable.

2. Weak Snow Layers

 Snow accumulates in layers over time.

 If a weak layer forms beneath a heavier layer, it can collapse and trigger an avalanche.

3. Temperature Changes

 Rapid warming can cause snow to melt and lose its bonding strength.
 Sudden cooling can create fragile layers within the snowpack.

4. Steep Slopes

 Avalanches are most common on slopes between 30° and 45°.

 Gravity can easily pull the snow downward.

5. Human Activities

 The following can disturb the snowpack and trigger avalanches:

o Skiers
o Mountaineers
o Vehicles
o Construction activities

6. Earthquakes or Vibrations

 Natural vibrations caused by:

o Earthquakes
o Loud sounds
can initiate avalanches under unstable snow conditions.