🌿 CHAPTER 12 — ECOSYSTEM

Detailed, Easy + Exam-Oriented Notes

PART A — 12.1 ECOSYSTEM: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

1. What exactly is an ecosystem?

Before understanding an ecosystem, remember that there are two kinds of things around us.

Living things → Biotic components

Examples: Plants, Animals, Bacteria, Fungi, Algae

Non-living things → Abiotic components

Examples: Sunlight, Water, Air, Soil, Temperature, Minerals, Humidity

But an ecosystem is not simply a collection of living and non-living things. The important point is their
interaction. For example: A plant needs: Sunlight + water + CO₂ + minerals. The plant produces food.
A grasshopper eats the plant. A frog eats the grasshopper. When the frog dies, decomposers break its
body down. The nutrients released from the dead organism return to the soil/water and can again be
used by plants. Therefore, everything is connected.

⭐ Definition for examination:

An ecosystem is a functional unit of nature in which living organisms interact among themselves and
with the surrounding physical environment.

Example: Pond ecosystem

A pond contains:
Abiotic components: Water + minerals + sunlight + temperature + soil
Biotic components: Phytoplankton + algae + aquatic plants + zooplankton + fish + bacteria + fungi
All these interact with each other.

2. Why is an ecosystem called a "functional unit"?

This is a very important conceptual question. An ecosystem is called a functional unit because
different organisms and environmental components perform different functions and are connected
through: Food relationships, Energy flow, Decomposition, Nutrient cycling.

For example: Sun → plant → herbivore → carnivore → decomposer. At the same time: Dead
organisms → decomposers → nutrients → plants. So the ecosystem works like an interconnected
system.

Exam answer: An ecosystem is called a functional unit because its biotic and abiotic components
interact with each other through processes such as productivity, decomposition, energy flow and
nutrient cycling.
3. Size of an ecosystem

An ecosystem can be: Very small (Example: A small pond) or Very large (Example: Forest, Ocean).
The entire biosphere can also be considered a global ecosystem because it contains many local
ecosystems.

4. Structure of an ecosystem

The interaction between biotic and abiotic components produces a characteristic physical structure.
Different organisms may occupy different positions or layers. This vertical distribution is called: ⭐
STRATIFICATION

Definition: Stratification is the vertical distribution of different species occupying different levels or
layers of an ecosystem.

Example: Forest
Imagine a forest from top to bottom:
Top → Trees
↓
Middle → Shrubs
↓
Bottom → Herbs and grasses

Why does this happen? Different plants require different amounts of: Light, Space, Water, Nutrients.
Therefore, they occupy different vertical layers.

5. Four major functions of an ecosystem

According to the page, the components of an ecosystem function as a unit through four major
processes:

1. Productivity
2. Decomposition
3. Energy flow
4. Nutrient cycling

These four are extremely important for exams. Think of the ecosystem like this: Plants produce food ↓
Organisms consume food ↓ Dead material is decomposed ↓ Nutrients are returned ↓ Plants use the
nutrients again. And energy keeps moving through the system.

6. Pond ecosystem — complete explanation

The NCERT uses a pond as an example because a pond is a relatively simple and self-sustaining
ecosystem. A pond contains both: Abiotic components and Biotic components.

Abiotic components of pond:

1. Water: This is the main physical medium of the pond.
2. Dissolved inorganic substances: Examples: Minerals, Inorganic salts, Nutrients
3. Dissolved organic substances: Organic materials dissolved in water.
4. Soil deposits: The bottom of the pond contains rich soil deposits.
5. Solar energy: Sunlight provides the energy required by producers for photosynthesis.
6. Temperature: Temperature affects the activities of organisms and decomposers.
7. Day length: The duration of sunlight also affects biological activities.
8. Other climatic conditions: These influence the functioning of the pond ecosystem.

7. Producers in a pond

Producers are organisms that prepare their own food. They are therefore called: Autotrophs.
Examples mentioned in the chapter include: Phytoplankton, Algae, Floating plants, Submerged plants,
Marginal plants. They use sunlight to perform photosynthesis.

Basic idea: CO₂ + H₂O + sunlight → organic food + O₂. The organic food produced by plants becomes
the starting point of food relationships.

8. Consumers in a pond

Consumers cannot prepare their own food. They depend directly or indirectly on producers. Examples
include: Zooplankton, Free-swimming animals, Bottom-dwelling animals. For example: Phytoplankton
→ Zooplankton → Fish. Here: Phytoplankton = producer, Zooplankton = primary consumer, Fish =
higher-level consumer.

9. Decomposers in a pond

The pond also contains decomposers. Main examples: Fungi, Bacteria, Flagellates. They are
especially abundant near the bottom where dead organic material accumulates. They break down
dead organisms and release simpler substances and nutrients.

10. How does the pond perform all ecosystem functions?

Let's follow one organism. Suppose algae are growing in the pond.
Step 1 — Production: Algae use sunlight to produce organic food.
Step 2 — Consumption: Zooplankton eat the algae.
Step 3 — Higher consumption: Fish may eat zooplankton.
Step 4 — Death: When organisms die, their bodies become dead organic matter.
Step 5 — Decomposition: Fungi and bacteria decompose the dead matter.
Step 6 — Nutrient release: Inorganic nutrients are released.
Step 7 — Reuse: Plants again use these nutrients.
This shows: Productivity + consumption + decomposition + nutrient cycling

11. Energy flow in the pond

Energy enters mainly through sunlight. The sequence is: Sun → producers → consumers → higher
consumers. But energy does not return to the Sun or go backward. At every step, some energy is lost
as heat. Therefore: ⭐ Energy flow is unidirectional.
 PART B — 12.2 PRODUCTIVITY

12. What is primary production?

Plants are the main producers of organic matter in an ecosystem. Through photosynthesis, plants
convert inorganic materials into organic matter. The amount of organic matter/biomass produced by
plants per unit area over a period of time is called primary production.

Simple example: Suppose a grassland produces: 500 g of plant biomass per m² in one year. That is
its primary production for that period.

13. What is productivity?

The rate of biomass production is called productivity. So don't confuse:

Production: Amount produced.
Productivity: Rate at which it is produced.
Productivity can be expressed as: g m⁻² yr⁻¹ or kcal m⁻² yr⁻¹

14. Why is productivity expressed per unit area?

Suppose: Forest A produces 10,000 kg of biomass. Forest B produces 5,000 kg. We cannot
immediately say Forest A is more productive because maybe Forest A is much larger. Therefore,
productivity is expressed relative to: area + time. This allows ecosystems of different sizes to be
compared.

15. Gross Primary Productivity — GPP

This is one of the most important concepts. Definition: Gross primary productivity is the rate of
production of organic matter by plants during photosynthesis. Think: Plants perform photosynthesis
and make food. The total amount made is GPP. But plants don't keep all of it. They use some food for
respiration.

16. Respiration and GPP

Suppose a plant makes: 100 units of organic matter through photosynthesis. But it uses: 30 units for
respiration. Then: 100 = total produced, 30 = respiratory loss, Remaining: 70 = available biomass. This
remaining amount is NPP.

17. Net Primary Productivity — NPP

Formula ⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐
NPP = GPP − R
Where: GPP = Gross Primary Productivity, R = Respiratory losses, NPP = Net Primary Productivity

Example: GPP = 500 g m⁻² yr⁻¹, Respiration = 200 g m⁻² yr⁻¹, Therefore: NPP = 300 g m⁻² yr⁻¹
18. Why is NPP important?

Because NPP represents the organic matter that remains available for: Herbivores, Other consumers,
Decomposers. Therefore: ⭐ NPP = biomass available for heterotrophs

19. GPP vs NPP

GPP: Total organic matter produced by plants, Includes material used in respiration, Higher value,
GPP is total production.
NPP: Organic matter remaining after respiration, Respiratory loss is already subtracted, Lower than
GPP, NPP is available biomass.
Important relationship: NPP = GPP − R. NPP is always lower than GPP because some energy/organic
matter is always used in respiration.

20. Secondary productivity

Plants are producers, but consumers also form new organic matter in their bodies. The rate at which
consumers form new organic matter is called: ⭐ Secondary productivity.

Example: Grass → Cow. Cow eats grass. Some nutrients and energy from the grass are used to
produce: Muscle, Body tissue, Growth. That new organic matter formed by the cow represents
secondary production.

21. Primary productivity vs secondary productivity

Primary productivity: Organic matter produced by: Producers through photosynthesis.

Secondary productivity: New organic matter formed by: Consumers.

22. Factors affecting primary productivity

Primary productivity does not remain the same everywhere. It depends on: 1. Plant species (Different
plants have different photosynthetic abilities), 2. Availability of nutrients (Plants need minerals and
nutrients for growth), 3. Photosynthetic capacity (Plants with higher photosynthetic capacity may
produce more organic matter), 4. Environmental factors (Examples: Light, Temperature, Water,
Nutrients, Climate). Therefore, different ecosystems have different productivity.

23. Productivity of the biosphere

The chapter gives an approximate annual primary productivity of the whole biosphere as: 170 billion
tonnes of dry organic matter. Oceans cover around 70% of Earth's surface, but their productivity is
much lower than might be expected from their huge area. The chapter gives ocean productivity at
around: 55 billion tonnes. One important reason is that productivity in large parts of oceans is limited
by nutrient availability.
 PART C — 12.3 DECOMPOSITION

24. What is decomposition?

When plants or animals die, their bodies do not remain permanently in the ecosystem.
Microorganisms break down their dead organic matter. This process is called: ⭐ Decomposition.

Definition: Decomposition is the breakdown of complex organic matter into simpler inorganic
substances such as carbon dioxide, water and nutrients by decomposers.

25. Why are decomposers important?

Imagine if dead leaves, dead animals and faecal matter never decomposed. Dead material would
continuously accumulate. Nutrients would remain locked inside dead organisms. Plants would
eventually face nutrient shortages. Decomposers solve this problem by breaking down dead organic
matter and returning nutrients to the environment. Therefore, decomposers are essential for nutrient
recycling.

26. What is detritus?

Dead plant and animal material forms: Detritus. Examples: Dead leaves, Bark, Flowers, Dead animal
remains, Faecal matter. This detritus becomes the raw material for decomposition. Remember:
Detritus = dead organic material.

27. Who are decomposers?

Main decomposers: Fungi, Bacteria. They are heterotrophic organisms. They are also called:
Saprotrophs. They obtain their nutrients from dead organic matter.

28. How do decomposers actually digest dead material?

Decomposers generally cannot simply swallow large pieces of dead material and digest everything
internally. They release: Digestive enzymes. These enzymes act on complex organic matter. They
break it into simpler substances. The decomposers can then absorb the simpler materials.

29. Five processes of decomposition

This is a very important 3/5-mark question. The five processes are: 1. Fragmentation, 2. Leaching, 3.
Catabolism, 4. Humification, 5. Mineralisation.

30. Fragmentation

Detritus is often present as large pieces. Detritivores break it into smaller pieces. Example: A dead leaf
falls onto soil. An earthworm feeds on the leaf and breaks it into smaller particles. This is: ⭐
Fragmentation. Main organisms: Detritivores. Example: Earthworm.
31. Leaching

Some nutrients present in detritus are water-soluble. When rainwater passes through the dead
material: Water dissolves soluble substances ↓ They move downward into the soil. ↓ Some may
become unavailable as salts. This process is called: ⭐ Leaching.

32. Catabolism

Bacteria and fungi produce enzymes. These enzymes break complex organic substances into simpler
inorganic substances. This enzymatic breakdown is called: ⭐ Catabolism.

33. Humification

During decomposition, a dark-coloured amorphous substance called: Humus is formed. The process
of formation of humus is: ⭐ Humification.

34. Properties of humus

Humus is: Dark coloured, Amorphous, Highly resistant to microbial decomposition, Decomposed
extremely slowly, Colloidal in nature, A reservoir of nutrients. Why is humus important? Because it
stores nutrients and releases them slowly. Think of humus as a: Nutrient bank. It holds nutrients in the
soil and makes them available gradually.

35. Mineralisation

Humus can still be further degraded by microorganisms. During this process: Inorganic nutrients are
released. This is called: ⭐ Mineralisation. Simple chain: Dead matter → humus → microbial
degradation → inorganic nutrients. These inorganic nutrients can again be used by plants.

36. Humification vs Mineralisation

Humification: Forms humus. Mineralisation: Releases inorganic nutrients. Remember: Humification

→ HUMUS; Mineralisation → MINERALS/nutrients.

37. Are the five decomposition processes always strictly sequential?

No. This is an important NCERT conceptual point. Fragmentation, leaching, catabolism, humification
and mineralisation can operate simultaneously on detritus. Don't write that they must always happen
one after another in a perfectly fixed sequence.

38. What controls the rate of decomposition?

Decomposition is largely an: Oxygen-requiring process. Therefore, oxygen availability is important.

The rate also depends on: Chemical composition of detritus, Temperature, Soil moisture, Oxygen
availability.

39. Effect of lignin and chitin

If detritus contains high amounts of: Lignin, Chitin; decomposition becomes: Slow. Why? Because
these compounds are difficult for decomposers to break down.
40. Effect of nitrogen and soluble sugars

If detritus is rich in: Nitrogen, Water-soluble substances such as sugars; decomposition becomes:
Fast. These materials are easier for decomposers to use.

41. Effect of temperature

Generally: Warm conditions → faster decomposition because microbial activity increases. Low
temperature → slower decomposition because microbial activity decreases.

42. Effect of moisture

Adequate moisture generally favours microbial activity. Therefore: Warm + moist → faster
decomposition.

43. Effect of oxygen

Because decomposition is largely oxygen-requiring: Good oxygen supply → decomposition favoured.

Anaerobic/oxygen-poor conditions → decomposition inhibited. When decomposition is inhibited,
organic matter can accumulate.

44. Most favourable conditions for decomposition

Remember: Warm + moist + oxygen-rich conditions favour decomposition. And: Low temperature +
anaerobic conditions inhibit decomposition.

PART D — 12.4 ENERGY FLOW

45. Where does ecosystem energy come from?

For almost all ecosystems: ☀️ SUN = primary energy source. Plants capture solar energy and convert
it into chemical energy through photosynthesis. Exception: Deep-sea hydrothermal ecosystems.

46. What is PAR?

The portion of solar radiation that is useful for photosynthesis is called: ⭐ Photosynthetically Active
Radiation — PAR. Plants and photosynthetic bacteria use this radiation. The chapter states that
plants capture only around: 2–10% of PAR.

47. What happens to solar energy?

Think: ☀️ Sun ↓ 🌱 Plants (Plants capture solar energy) ↓ Chemical energy stored in food ↓ 🐛
Herbivore ↓ 🐦 Carnivore ↓ 🦅 Higher carnivore. At each level: Some energy is lost as heat.
Therefore, the amount of usable energy decreases as we move upward.

48. Why is energy flow called unidirectional?

Energy moves: Sun → Producers → Consumers → Decomposers. But it does not return to the
previous level. For example: Sun → Grass → Cow → Human. Energy cannot move: Human → Cow
→ Grass → Sun. The energy used by organisms is eventually dissipated as heat. Therefore: ⭐
Energy flow is unidirectional.

49. First Law of Thermodynamics and ecosystem

The First Law says: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only be transformed from one
form to another. In an ecosystem: Light energy ↓ Chemical energy. Plants convert solar energy into
chemical energy during photosynthesis. So the ecosystem doesn't create energy. It transforms it.

50. Second Law of Thermodynamics

The Second Law explains why energy transfer is inefficient. Whenever energy is transferred or
transformed: Some energy is dissipated as heat. For example: Plant obtains solar energy. Some is
stored in food. When herbivore eats plant, some energy is used in respiration and released as heat.
The same thing happens at every trophic level. Therefore: Higher trophic level = less available energy.

51. Why does an ecosystem need continuous energy input?

Because energy is continuously lost as heat. Unlike nutrients, energy cannot be recycled back into the
system. Therefore, ecosystems need a continuous input of energy, mainly from the Sun.

52. Producers

Green plants are called: Producers because they produce organic food. They are: Autotrophs.
Examples in terrestrial ecosystems: Grasses, Herbs, Trees. Aquatic producers: Phytoplankton, Algae,
Higher aquatic plants.

53. Consumers

Animals cannot manufacture their own food from inorganic materials. Therefore they depend directly
or indirectly on producers. They are called: Consumers and are: Heterotrophs.

54. Primary consumers

Primary consumers directly feed on producers. Therefore, they are generally: Herbivores. Examples:
Cow, Goat, Grasshopper, Zooplankton. Example: Grass → Goat.

55. Secondary consumers

Secondary consumers feed on primary consumers. Example: Grass → Grasshopper → Frog.

56. Tertiary consumers

Tertiary consumers feed at a higher carnivorous level. Example: Grass → Grasshopper → Frog →
Snake → Eagle. The organisms at the upper end of the food chain are higher-level consumers/top
carnivores.
57. Grazing Food Chain — GFC

A grazing food chain starts from: Living green plants. Then energy passes through herbivores and
carnivores. Example: Grass → Goat → Man.

58. Detritus Food Chain — DFC

A detritus food chain starts with: Dead organic matter. Example: Dead leaves → earthworm → bird.
Here: Dead leaves = detritus, Earthworm = detritivore, Bird = consumer. The detritus food chain is
particularly important in terrestrial ecosystems.

59. Why are decomposers called saprotrophs?

They obtain their food from dead organic matter. They secrete digestive enzymes onto the dead
material. The enzymes break complex organic substances down. The decomposers then absorb the
simpler substances. Hence they are called: Saprotrophs.