MATHENGE TECHNICAL TRAINING INSTITUTE(MTTI)

CRAFT IN BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

MODULE 2

BUILDING SERVICE

COURSE CONTENT

CHAPTER 1: WELDING AND FABRICATION

∙ Definitions

∙ Materials

∙ Welding and soldering

∙ Safety regulations

CHAPTER 2: COLD AND HOT WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS

∙ Sources of water

∙ Materials, tools and equipment

∙ Cold and Hot water systems

∙ Sanitary appliances and fittings

CHAPTER 3: DRAINAGE AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING

∙ Definitions

∙ Materials and tools

∙ Drainage systems

∙ Disposal system

∙ Rain water goods

CHAPTER 4: GAS SUPPLY

∙ Materials and tools

∙ Tools and equipment

∙ Installation

∙ Safety

CHAPTER 5: VENTILATION

∙ Criteria

∙ Ventilation types

∙ Ventilation requirements

∙ Installation

CHAPTER 6: FIRE FIGHTING

∙ Types of fire

∙ Methods of fire fighting

∙ Firefighting equipment

∙ Safety regulations

CHAPTER 7: ELECTRICAL SERVICES

∙ Tools

∙ Safety regulations

∙ Types of wiring systems

∙ Power distribution in premises

CHAPTER 1: WELDING AND FABRICATION

Welding is the process of joining together two pieces of metal so that bonding takes place at
their original boundary surfaces. When two parts to be joined are melted together, heat or
pressure or both is applied and with or without added metal for formation of metallic bond.

The joining takes place by means of heat from blacksmith‟s fire, electric arc, electric
resistance or by chemical reactions.

Terms used in Welding

Autogenous Welding: this is the process of joining two similar metals by melting the edges
together without addition of filler metals e.g. Joining iron metal to iron metal

Homogenous Welding: This process of joining similar metals using a filler rod of the same
metal. Eg joining iron with a iron filler rod.

Heterogenous Welding: The process of joining dissimilar metals using filler.

Embosing: a forming process in which a high pressure is applied to a workpiece to change

its surface.

Weldability

This is the defined as the property of metal which indicates the ease of welding metals. This
means metals with good weldability can be easily welded.

Factors Affecting Weldability of Metals

There are various factors affecting the weldability of metals

● Composition of a metal
● Brittleness and Strength of a metal at elevated temperatures
● Thermal properties of the metal ie the melting and boiling points of the metals.
● Welding techniques, fluxing material and filler metal used.
● The type of heat treatment before and after the deposition of the metal.

The common metals used in welding and their weldability in descending Order
Iron

Carbon

Steel

Cast iron

Low alloy of steel

Stainless Steel
Least Weldable

Advantages of Welding/ Welded joint

● The welding structures are normally lighter than riveted or bolted joints structures.
● The alterations and additions can be easily made in the existing structures
● Welding structures is smooth in appearance and pleasing
● Welded joints have greater tension strength than riveted and bolted joints
● The welded joints are rigid hence not easily movable
● The process of welding takes less time than other chances.
● No need to drill hole on parent parts: Welded joint does not require such holed to
be drilled on parent parts, except for edge preparations

Disadvantages of welding/ welded Joints

● It requires a highly skilled labor and supervision.

● Because of uneven heating and cooling, residual stress generates within the welded
structures
● Uneven heating and cooling is also associated with distortion of jointed structures,
which causes dimensional inaccuracy and thus rejected parts
● Welded joints are prone to vibration and thus fail if used for longer duration under
vibration. In such scenario riveted joints are preferable
 ● Checking presence of defects within welded joints is a bit difficult task and need
sophisticated testing methods (non-destructive testing) for inspection, which are
usually costlier

Types of Welding

The welding is broadly divided into the following two groups.

● Forge or Pressure Welding: this a type of welding where work pieces are heated to
plastic state and then the work pieces are joined by application of pressure without
filler metal.
● Fusion or Non- pressure welding: This type of welding where work pieces are
joined with a filler metal heated to a temperature above the melting of the metal and
allowed to solidity.

Types of Welded Joints

1. Butt joint

The parts lie in the same plane and are joined at their edges.
 2. Corner joint

The parts in a corner joint form a right angle and are joined at the center of the angle

3. Lap joint

Lap joint consists of two overlapping parts

4. Tee – Joint

One joint is the right angle to the other joint in the approximate shape of the letter “T”.
 5. Edge Joint

The parts in edge joint are parallel with at least one of their edges in common and the joint is
made at the common edge(s).

N/B: In order to obtain sound welded joints. It is important to clean the faces to be welded from
dust, sand grits oil etc

Welding Position

Welding positions are classified as follows:

● Flat Position Welding

The face of the weld is approximately horizontal

 ● Horizontal Welding Position

In this position, the weld is deposited upon the side of a horizontal and against a vertical surface.

● Vertical Position

The line of welding is in vertical position is in a vertical plane and the weld is deposited upon a
vertical surface.
 ● Overhead Position

The weld is deposited from the under side deposited of the joint and face of the weld is
horizontal.

ARC WELDING

Arc welding is a type of welding process using an electric arc to create heat to melt and join
metals. A power supply creates an electric arc between a consumable or non-consumable
electrode and the base material using either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) currents.
The electric arc is produced when two conductors of an electric circuit are touched together and
the separated by a small distance, such that there is sufficient voltage to maintain flow of current
through gaseous medium.

Types of Arc Welding

Unshielded Arc Welding – Thisis a type of arc welding where large coated filler rod or
electrode is used for welding.

Shielded Arc Welding – This is a type of arc welding where the welding rods with fluxing
materials.

N/B: The fluxing material is applied to the rod by dipping and extrusion.

Types of Electrodes for Arc Welding

The electrodes for arc welding are generally of the following two types.

● Bare or Non – coated Electrodes: This is a type of electrodes with covering or coating
of some fluxing materials.
● Coated Electrodes: This is a type of coated electrode with a flux.

Benefits of coating Electrodes

● Forming a gaseous shield around the weld area

● Removing impurities from the weld
● Introducing deoxidizers into the reaction zone using the coating (to reduce oxidation of
the base metal)
● Formation of a solid coating on the weld as it cools
● Additional alloying elements are introduced through the coating
 ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT

Precautions in Arc welding

● Protect yourself from possible dangerous electrical [Link] insulate yourself from
the work and ground by usingdry insulation
● Avoid breathing welding fumes and gases when welding. Keep your head out of
the
fume. Use enough ventilationand/or exhaust at the arc to keep fumes and gases a
wayfrom the breathing zone.
● Use a shield with the proper filter and cover plates to protectyour eyes from sparks and
the rays of the arc when weldingor observing open arc welding Filter
● Remove fire hazards well away from the area. If this is notpossible cover them to prevent
the welding sparks fromstarting a fire Remember that welding sparks.
 ● Droplets of molten slag and metal are thrown or fall from thewelding arc Protect yourself
with oil free protective garments

GAS WELDING

It is type of fusion welding, in which the heat for welding is obtained by the combustion of a fuel
gas e.g. Oxygen and acetylene.

In gas welding, the edges or surfaces to be joined are melted by the heat of a gas flame.

The most commonly used gas combination used for producing hot flame for welding metals
oxygen and acetylene (C2H2). It has the highest flame temperature of (about 3200oC)

The approximate flame temperatures produced by different combination of gases.

Oxy – acetylene, 3200oc

Oxy – hydrogen, 2400oc

Oxy – propane, 2200oc

Air – acetylene, 2400oc

Air - propane, 1750oc

Equipment for Oxy – acetylene Gas Welding

Function of parts of oxy – acetylene Equipment

Welding Torch – it is a tool for mixing the oxygen and acetylene in the desired volumes and
burning the mixtures.

Welding Torch Tip – is that portion of the torch through which the gases pass just prior to their
ignition and burning

Pressure Regulators

It has 3 functions

● It reduces the source pressure from the cylinders to a workable pressure.

● It maintains constant delivery pressure and gas volumetric rates
● It permits adjustment to deliver gas at a certain desired pressure within its rated pressure
range
 Hose and Hose Fittings

This part offers passage way for gas from the cylinder to the welding torch

The standard color for oxygen hose is black and for acetylene is red.

The hose should be strong, durable, non – porous, light and flexible.

Gas cylinder

It is used to store oxygen or acetylene.

Goggles

The goggles protect eyes from the blinding light of the flame cone molten metal.

N/B: welding rods are used in gas welding to provide extra metal to the weld by melting the
end of the rod.

Procedure for setting up the gas welding equipment

Step 1 ● Turn on Oxygen Tank valve completely and Acetylene

Step 2 ● Crack open Acetylene torch valve and set the regulator to the
correct line pressure.
Step 3 ● Close the Acetylene torch valve.

Step 4 ● Crack open the Oxygen torch valve and set the regulator to the
correct line pressure

Step 5 ● Close the Oxygen torch valve.

Step 6 ● Crack open the Acetylene torch valve and using a striker light
the torch and adjust the Acetylene to get a clean burning flame.

Step 7 ● Open Oxygen torch valve until you get a neutral flame.

Procedure for shutting down the gas welding equipment

● Close the Acetylene torch valve

● Close the Oxygen torch valve

● Close the Oxygen and Acetylene tank valves.

●● Crack open the Oxygen torch valve and drain the Oxygen

line until both the line and tank pressure gauges read zero.

Close Oxygen torch valve.

● Crack open the acetylene torch valve and drain acetylene

line until the line and tank pressure gauges read zero. Close

acetylene torch

● Wrap the hose around the cart handles

 Fluxes

Fluxes is used to prevent oxidation and other unwanted chemical reactions during welding

When metals are heated, the oxygen from the air combines with them and form oxides. These
oxides produce poor quality and low strength welds. In some cases, it makes welding
impossible.

Commonly used fluxes include borax, sodium carbonate, boraic acids and bisulphates

Gas Flame

The combustion of acetylene with pure oxygen takes place into two stages. In the first stage,
the carbon from acetylene combines with oxygen to form carbon monoxide, the hydrogen of
the acetylene is freed.

C2H2 + O2 = 2CO + H2

In the second stage, the carbon monoxide and hydrogen (produced in the first stage). together
with oxygen, form carbon dioxide and water ( steam)

These reactions take place in the large blue flame which surrounds whitish cone.

The flame can be adjusted, to suit welding conditions, by regulating the supply of acetylene
and oxygen. The following three types of flames are used for gas welding.

Oxidizing Flame

Oxidizing welding flames are produced when slightly more than one volume of oxygen is mixed
with one volume of acetylene.
Oxidizing welding flames are commonly used to weld these metals:

● zinc
● copper
● maganese steel
● cast iron

Carburizing Flame

The carburizing flame has excess acetylene; the inner cone has a feathery edge extending beyond
it. This white feather is called the acetylene feather. If the acetylene feather is twice as long as
the inner cone

Used for welding high carbon steel and hard facing such nonferrous alloys as nickel and Monel.
Neutral Welding Flame

The neutral flame has a one-to-one ratio of acetylene and oxygen. It obtains additional oxygen
from the air and provides complete combustion. It is generally preferred for welding. The neutral
flame has a clear, well-defined, or luminous cone indicating that combustion is complete.

Neutural welding flames are commonly used to weld:

● Mild steel
● Stainless steel
● Cast Iron
● Copper
● Aluminum

Welding Techniques

The usual techniques in oxy – acetylene welding are as follows

1. Leftward or Forward Welding

In this technique, the torch is held in the right hand and the filler rod is in the left hand of the

operator. The welding is started from the right hand end of the plate and travels towards left

hand. The torch tip makes an angle of 60-70° and the filler rod makes an angle of 30-40° with

the work surface.

 2. Rightward or Backward Welding:
In this technique, the welding torch is held in the right hand and the filler rod is in the left hand.
The welding is started from the left hand end of the plate and travels towards right hand. The
torch tip makes an angle of 40-50° and the filler rod makes an angle of 30-40° with the work
surface.

3. VERTICAL WELDING

In this technique, the welding is started from the bottom of the welded joint and goes towards
top of the joint. This may be carried out either by the leftward or rightward technique. The
welding is done by giving oscillating movement to the torch and the filler rod. The torch makes
an angle of 25 to = to 90°, depending upon the thickness of the plates to be welded.

The filler rod makes an angle of 30° with the vertical line. This method is better and economical
for plate‟s thickness of 6mm and above.
4. LINDE WELDING

This is a special welding technique used for butt welding of steel pipes. The edges of the pipes
are bevelled at 70° and butted together with a gap of approximately 2.5mm. The seam is welded
with excess acetylene flame.

Gas and Oxygen Cutting of Metal

Cutting Oxy – Acetylene Equipment

The process of gas cutting consists of preheating the materials, to be cut to its kindling or
ignition temperature (about 1350).

After this temperature is attained, a jet of high pressure oxygen is directed on the hot metal. The
metal is rapidly oxidized.

The molten oxides is formed in the process are washed out by a stream of oxygen. As molten
metal runs down, it heats the cooler metal and makes the cutting operation continuous.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS WHEN USING GAS WELDING

● Provide enough ventilation wherever gas welding, cutting, and heating operations are
performed. Proper ventilation will protect the operator from inhaling toxic fumes and
gases.
● Wear safety goggles made for gas welding and cutting purposes. They will protect your
eyes from radiation burns and from sparks
 ● Keep Areas for welding and cutting clear and free of flammable liquids, such as
gasoline, paints, and solvents; combustible solids, such as paper, packing materials, and
wood; flammable gases, such as acetylene and hydrogen
● Provide a preventive fire extinguisher to help fight accidental fires,
● Never use acetylene at pressures above 15 psi. Using acetylene at pressures in excess of
15 psi gauge pressure is a hazardous practice.
● Prevent cylinder damage; secure cylinders by chain or strap to suitable cylinder carts,
benches, wall, post, or racks.
● Unless in use, cylinder valves should be kept closed at all times. This will prevent
accidental release of gas.

Soldering

Soldering is a joining process used to join different types of metals together using solder usually
made of tin and lead which is melted using a hot iron. The iron is heated to temperatures above
400oc which then cools to create a strong bond.

Solder is melted by using heat from a soldering iron. It is heated up to temperatures beyond its
melting point which then causes it to melt, which then cools creating the soldered joint.

Brazing

This is the process of joining of two metals pieces by means of heat and a special filler metal
(known as spelter commonly made of copper base or silver alloys) having a melting point above
400oc but lower than the melting point of the parts being joined.

In brazing, the two metals pieces to be joined are, first of all, cleaned to remove all grease and
oxides.

N/B; A flux (usually borax) is applied on the joint and then heated to temperature above the
melting point of the spelter.
Types of Brazing

Torch Brazing: This is a type of brazing where heating is done by the means oxy – acetylene
torch.

Furnace brazing: This is a type of brazing where heating is done in a furnace.

Electric Brazing; this a type of brazing where heating is done by means of arc heating

Dip Brazing; This type of brazing which involves dipping the piece of spelter and placing it at
the joint.

Silver Brazing: brazing using a silver alloy as the filler metal. It is used in the tool industry to
fasten hard metal.

Bronze brazing: This is a type of brazing that uses bronze filler rod. The filler metal flows to
the joint

Defects in welding

The lack of training to the operator or careless application of welding technologies may cause
discontinuities in welding. In aluminum joints obtained by fusion welding, the defects such as
porosity, slag inclusion, solidification cracks etc., are observed and these defects deteriorates the
weld quality and joint properties. Common weld defects found in welded joints: These defects
may result in sudden failures which are unexpected as they give rise to stress intensities. The
common weld defects include

i. Porosity

ii. Lack of fusion

iii. Slag Inclusions

iv. Cracking

v. Undercut

vi. Lamellar tearing

i. Porosity

Porosity occurs, when the solidifying weld metal has gases trapped in it. The presence of
porosity in most of the welded joints is due to dirt on the surface of the metal to be [Link] is
found in the shape of sphere or as elongated pockets. The region of distribution of the porosity is
random and sometimes it is more concentrated in a certain region.

Remedy

Porosity is avoided degreasing and cleaning the surface before welding.

ii. Lack of Fusion

It occurs due to too little input or too slow traverse of the welding torch, lack of fusion arises.

Remedy

● Lack of fusion is avoided by increasing the temperature, by properly cleaning the weld
surface before welding and by selecting the appropriate joint design and electrodes.
● It can also be solved by extending the fusion zone to the thickness of the joints fully

iii. Slag Inclusions

It occurs due to the trapping of the oxides, fluxes and electrode coating materials in the weld
Inclusions occur while joining thick plates in several runs using flux cored or flux coated rods
and the slag covering a run is not totally removed after every run and before the next run starts.

Remedy

● It can be avoided maintaining a clean surface before the run is started,

 ● It can also be solved or avoided by providing sufficient space for the molten weld metal
between the pieces to be joined, the inclusions can be prevented.

iv. Cracking

Due to thermal shrinkage, strain at the time of phase change, cracks may occur in various
directions and in various locations in the weld area. Due to poor design and inappropriate
procedure of joining high residual stresses, cracking is observed.

Remedy

● Cracks are avoided by stage-wise pre-heating process and stage-wise slow cooling
● The cracking can be minimized by preferring fillers with low carbon and low impurity
levels.
● The solidification cracking can be avoided by reducing the gaps and cleaning the surface
before welding.

v. Undercutting

Wrong filler metal, excessive heat, fast weld speed, as well as poor welding technique, may all
leads to undercut welding defect on a welding joint. Also, very high weld current, incorrect use
of shielding gas and using the wrong electrode could cause undercuts.

Undercutting can be detected by a naked eye and the excess penetration can be visually detected.

Remedy

● Undercutting in welding can be avoided by employing the right welding technique that
does not involve excessive weaving.

● Lowering the arc length and minimizing the travel speed of the electrode can also help
prevent undercutting.
vi. Warpage

Warpage is an unwanted distortion in the shape of a piece of metal. This occurs when the welder

fails to properly control the expansion and contraction of the base material.

Remedy

● Warpage can be prevented by using only the required amount of heat.

● Opting for moderate travel speed and electrode feed speed while welding can also help

curtail the problem of warpage.

vii. Overlap

Overlap welding defect can arise when using large electrodes greater than the metal size and

High welding current and the use of improper welding technique.

Remedy

Overlap welding defect can be avoided by employing the correct welding Technique, using small

Welding electrode

Types of weld testing:

The majority of weld testing and inspection can be separated into two categories.

Destructive testing:

Destructive weld testing, as the name suggests, involves the physical destruction of the

completed weld in order to evaluate its characteristics.

Non-Destructive Weld Testing

Element's non-destructive testing services evaluate the structural soundness of components

without causing [Link] visual inspection.

Our team of experts can perform a full suite of tests on components and materials to determine

weld strength and integrity without destroying the part. Non-destructive tests are used to check

for cracks and imperfections, and as a quality check for new components.

CHAPTER 2: COLD AND HOT WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS

Sources of Water Supply

Surface sources - Lakes, streams, rivers, reservoirs, run off from roofs and paved areas.

Underground sources - Shallow wells, deep wells, artesian wells, artesian springs, land springs.
TREATMENT PROCESS

The treatment process depends on the type of raw water.

The following are the processes of water treatment.

SCREENING: This is the process adopted to exclude large and floating matter. At is accomplished at the
intake. Screens are fixed in the intake works or at the entrance of treatment plant so as to remove the
floating matters as leaves, dead animals etc.

AERATION: This is the process where elements causing odor and taste are removed.
PLAIN SEDIMENTATION: In this process suspended solids like silt clay and sand are removed by allowing
them to settle in a tank.

SEDIMENTATION WITH COAGULANT: in this process fine suspended particles and some bacteria are
removed by adding a coagulant which enables several particles to unite together to form large
settleable particles which may settle in a tank.

FILTRATION: This is the process which small very fine particles, colloidal matter, and bacteria which
escapes sedimentation process are removed by passing it through filters.

DISINFECTION: this is done to render water safe against disease producing bacteria

OTHER PROCESSES: There are some processes which are used in specific cases only to:

i. Removing hardness if it is beyond permissible limits

ii. Removing color, taste and odor if any
iii. Removing iron and manganese if present
iv. Maintaining fluoride between 1 to 1.5 ppm by adding if in deficiency and removing if in
excess.

Gravitational distribution - the water from upland gathering grounds is impounded in a reservoir. From
this point the water is filtered and chlorinated before serving an inhabited area at lower level. There are
no pumping costs.
Pumped distribution - water extracted from a river is pumped into a settlement tank, subsequently
filtered and chlorinated. Pump maintenance and running costs make this process more expensive than
gravity systems.

Distribution layout

Layout of distribution networks

The four different type of pipe networks are:

i. Dead end system

ii. Grid iron system
iii. Ring system
iv. Radial system

Dead-end system

The dead-end system is also called tree system. This system consists of one main supply pipe from
which originates a number of sub-mains at right angles. Each sub- main divide into several branch pipes
called laterals as shown in the figure below.
Advantages of dead-end system

i. The distribution net-work can be solved easily and it is possible to accurately calculate the discharges
and pressures at different points in the system.
ii. Lesser number of cut-off valves (i.e., sluice valve) are required in this system.
iii. Shorter pipe lengths are needed and laying the pipe is easier.
iv. It is cheap and simple and can be extended or expanded easily

Disadvantages of dead-end system

i. As water reaches a point only through one route, damage and repair in any pipe completely stops
the area fed by that pipe.
ii. There are numerous dead-ends which prevents free circulation of water. The stagnation results in
degradation of quality of water.
iii. Since the system discharges water at a point only through one point the supplies during firefighting
cannot be increased by diverting any other supplies from any other side.

Grid iron system

This system is also known as interlaced system or reticulation system. In this system, the mains, sub-
mains and branches are all inter-connected with each other as shown in the figure below.
It is adopted in well planned city and the pipe lines follow the roads easily

Advantages of grid-iron system

i. Since the water reaches different places through more than one route, the discharges to be carried
by each pipe, friction loss and the size of pipe therefore get reduced.
ii. Incase of repair, very small area gets devoid of complete supply. Some supply reaches the point from
another route.
iii. Because of different interconnections, the dead ends are completely eliminated and therefore
water remains in continuous circulation and not liable to contamination by stagnation.
iv. During fire, more water can be diverted towards the affected point from various directions by closing
and manipulating the various cut-off valves.

Disadvantages of grid iron system

i. This system requires more lengths of pipe lines and a large number of sluice valves.
ii. It is costlier to construct
iii. The design is difficult and costlier and the calculation for determining the accurate sizes of pipes
and pressures at various points is tedious.

Ring System

This system is also called circular system. In this system, a closed ring either circular or rectangular of the
main pipe is formed around the area to be served as shown in the figure below.
The distribution area is divided into rectangular or circular blocks and the main water pipe laid along the
periphery of these blocks with sub-mains diverting from it as shown above. It may be applied for cities
with well planned roads. The main advantages and disadvantages are similar to those of grid iron
system.

Radial system

This type of system consists of reservoirs placed at various centers in the area. Water is therefore
pumped from the water main into the distribution reservoirs at these centers then supplied through
radially laid distribution pipes as shown in below.
This ensures high pressures and efficient water distribution. The calculations of sizes are also simple.

Direct System of Cold-Water Supply

Direct systems source water straight from the mains water supply. All pipes to the cold drew off
points are taken directly from the rising main.
Advantages
● They require smaller storage cisterns and less pipe work than indirect systems.
● They are also cheaper to install.
● Easier to install direct cold water system for you will only need water storage for hot
water. All of your taps with dispense drinkable water as they will be connected to the
mains supply.
Disadvantages
● A direct water supply has a greater risk of pollution than an indirect supply.
● They are also affected by burst pipes, mains repairs and leaks in the system which may
result in a lack of water for your property.
● Direct water supplies are subjected to high pressures which cause wear and tear in your
fittings

● There is a danger of foul water from the sanitary fittings being siphoned back into the
main water.
● During peak periods there is a tendency for the lowering of pressure and with buildings
on higher ground a possible temporary loss of supply.

●
Indirect System of Cold Water Supply

An indirect water supply system is the most common type found in modern houses.
The mains water comes in via a rising main and directly feeds at least one cold tap at the kitchen
sink with „potable‟ water. The rising main also feeds a storage tank at a high point in the building
from where the water is fed to all the other taps using gravity.
Advantages

● There is no risk of back siphonage with this system.

● There is no tendency of water hammer due to the low pressure in the pipework.
● Should there be an interruption in the mains supply there is an adequate store of cold
water.
Disadvantages

● Longer pipe runs are required.

● A larger storage cistern is necessary.
● Drinking water is only available at the kitchen sink.
HotwaterSupply

When a supply of domestic hot water (dhw) is required, the designer has to consider
many factors to ensure the most suitable system for the building

When water is heated it becomes less dense than cooler water. Because hot water rises,it is drawn off
from the top of the storage vessel to supply the various draw-off points (taps).

The cold feed is supplied low down in the vessel, thus preventing unnecessary cooling to the previously
heated water. At the highest point in the system, a vent pipeis run up to terminate, with an open end
just below the feed cistern lid. This pipe is to allow air to escape from the system upon initial filling and
allows air in on draining down.
The vent pipe also acts as a fail-safe device should the cold feed become blocked, preventing the
expanding water passing back up into the cistern. Should this occur,the water is forced over the vent
and discharges into the cistern.
The electrical power supply to an immersion heater must come directly from the consumer unit to
terminate close to the hot storage vessel with a double pole switch.

This unit deals with

I. Direct Domestic hot water supply

II. Indirect Domestic hot water supply

Direct domestic Hot Water System

The direct domestic hot water system is mainly used for soft water (water with low minerals) because
the hot water from the boiler mixes directly with the water in the cylinder. The boiler heats the water
and returns it to the tank higher up. When hot water is drawn from the tank, it is replaced by cold from
the cold tank, which in turn is fed to the boiler. This is direct heating of the water by either the
immersion the boiler. The hot water is simply stored in the tank.

To identify a direct water system you will find the end of the vent pipe fixed above your cold water tank.
This allows for any stem expansion in the cylinder to flow directly into the cold tank and not damage the
cylinder or cause air locks in the system.
Indirect Domestic hot water supply

With an indirect water system, the copper hot water cylinder contains a coil of pipe. This coil
forms part of a run of pipework attached to the boiler. It is heated directly by the boiler.
Indirectly, it heats the water in the cylinder. The coil, or "heat exchanger" forms part of the
central heating circuit, and its water heating abilities are purely a by-product of its main function,
which is to heat the radiators. This heating is called the "primary" circuit, the pipes running to
and from the boiler are called the primary flow and return. The hot water tank operates in exactly
the same way as the direct system.

To identify an indirect system, you will see two water tanks in your loft. The second, smaller
one, is the feed for the primary circuit. It will top up the system when necessary and will also
have a vent pipe over the top. The level of water in this tank will be considerably lower to allow
the water to rise as it expands when it gets hot without overflowing.

Both of the boiler systems above are called "vented" systems. Because of this vent pie, they are
open to atmospheric pressure and operate as "low pressure" systems. They both call for cold
water from a cold tank stored, generally, in the roof space. Because they are low pressure,
sometimes the flow from the taps etc is not as great as one might like and pumps can be
introduced, both for the domestic hot water and the heating, to give greater flow.

HOT WATER CYLINDER

 CHAPTER 3: DRAINAGE AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING

Above Ground Drainage

Above ground drainage is the system of pipe that carries waste water within the
building.

Effluent/ waste from the building is transported by drains to sewers, and from sewers to a
suitable outfall or treatment
Sanitary pipe is the piping system that transports soil and waste matter from the sanitary
appliances to the drainage system.

It is soil pipes pipes and waste pipes either separate or combined and also ventilation or vent
pipes which may be separate to the main soil and waste pipes or part of them.

The main vertical pipes are known as Stacks.

The choice of drainage system used depends on the local bye – laws and regulations and the
type of drainage used in the area.

There are basically three different systems:

● One – pipe system

● Two – pipe system
● Single stack system.

Basic requirements for Drainage System.

● All soil (soil sanitary appliances) and waste pipework (waste sanitary appliances)
should big enough to take the discharge from all appliances i.e should not be in any
case less than the diameter of the appliance‟s outlet.
● Material for drainage system (sanitary pipework) should be strong and durable and
securely fixed to the building structure, while all expansion and contraction with
change of temperature.
● All sanitary pipework should be fixed in an accessible position for maintenance.
● Internal surfaces for all pipes and fittings should be smooth and self – cleaning (able
to remove debris and bacteria by themselves) during use.
● Foul gases from the drainage system must be prevented from entering the building
through the appliances. This should be done fitting traps with water seal to the
appliances unless with integral trap (forming part of the appliance)
● Ranges of waste appliances can discharge into a common waste pipe, with the waste
pipe itself trapped (instead of appliances) before it enters the main discharge stack.
 ● Compatible with outdoor drainage system

N:B Suitable material for sanitary (drainage pipe work )

Main Stack: cast iron, galvanized steel and UPVC (Unplasticized Polyvinyl Chloride)

Branch waste or vent pipes: ABS plastic, copper galvanized steel, lead, polypropylene

Traps

A trap is a U – tube containing water. It can either forming part of the appliances like in the
water closet or separately fitted to the outlet of the sanitary appliances

The water seal must in the trap both during and after use to prevent foul smell from drains
entering the room where the appliance is fixed.

The trap should have a self – cleaning action and should be smooth from inside.

Trap are most commonly nowadays made of polythene, polyproplyne, brass and copper.

All traps should be accessible for cleaning.

Traps are named from their angle of outlet into:

● P – trap
● Q- trap or S - trap

● S – trap
 Crown of trap
Traps are also named from their appearances into:

● Bottle trap

● Bag - trap
● Running trap

Loss of Trap Seal

In some circumstances, it is possible for water seal to be lost. Below are various causes of
loss of water seal.

● Capillary

This is where material with fibre such as strands of hair, cotton or rags temporary stay over
the outlet of the trap and soak water from the seal

● Compression

This happens where pressure builds up inside the waste pipe and causes seal to „blow out”
into the appliances

This mainly happens to the traps fitted near the bottom of the vertical stacks in the builds
with several floors and all appliances drain in the same stack. This causes pressure to build
up of pressure at the bottom of the stack.

● Evaporation
This is where water in the trap evaporates because the appliances is not in use over a long
period of time.

● Leakage or Mechanical Damage

This is where traps get knocked causing them loose or break, resulting to loss of water.

● Momentum

This is caused by a quick discharge of water through the trap causing water seal to “follow”
the discharged water.

● Siphonage

This is caused by a reduction in pressure inside the main discharge stack causing greater
pressure from the inside of the room to force water seal through the outside.

● Wavering Out

In a windy condition, changing air pressure inside the main stack creates wave motion in the
trap water seal causing water to flow over the crown of the trap
N:B the second often cause of loss of water seal is siphonage which is caused by
imbalanced pressure on both side of the seal. The most effective way to keep pressure
balanced is to provide anti- siphonage pipe or branch ventilation pipe connected to a
main ventilation stack
The anti – siphonage pipe should be connected to the top of waste pipe within 300mm of the
crown of the trap but nearer than 75mm to the crown.

The diameter of the anti – siphonage pipe should not than 2/3 of the waste pipe and not less than
32mm.

One – pipe system

In this system a separate vent pipe is added in addition to waste collection pipe hence this
method is more effective than the single stack system.

The vent pipe provides ventilation to the water seals of the entire trap.

The main pipe is directly connected to the drainage system.

If this system is provided in multi-storey building the WC block of various floor are placed one
over the other

Advantages

● In this system there is one soil pipe and all the waster matter from water closets, bath,
sink etc. is discharge in this pipe hence cheaper than two – pipe system
● It offers an improved ventilation than single stack system

Disadvantages

● It is not cost – effective for low rise building because of the additional vent pipe work.
● If there is blockage both soil and waste appliances are affected.
Two – pipe system

In this system two set up of pipe are laid.

One pipe i.e. soil pipe is connected to the soil fixture such as urinal and water closets.

Another pipe i.e. waste water pipe is used to collect the waste matter from bath kitchen etc.

The soil pipe and waste pipe provided with separate vent pipe.
Advantages

● With waste and soil appliances separate it offers convenience for if one pipe gets blocked
block the other still works.
● It is also effective for the because of the extra ventilation works.

Disadvantages

● It is more costly because of the additional pipe work

● It takes longer to install
 Single stack system.

In single stack system a single vertical soil pipe is fixed and all the waste matter from baths,
kitchen, water closet etc. discharge into it.

This pipe also acts as vent pipe.

This system is economical, but its effectiveness entirely depends upon the water seal.

Therefore, the water seal in traps should not be less than 75mm deep.
N/b; sanitary pipe work system should be watertight and prevent foul smell gas from
escaping (Airtight)

Rainwater Collection and Disposal

The method of rainwater collection and disposal depend mainly on the intensity, duration and
frequency of rainfall experienced in the area.

This also influences the local by- laws relating to drainage in the area.
In area experiencing heavy rains, it advisable to discharge rainwater through a separate system of
drainage direct a river, stream or to storage cistern where it could be used for other purposes crop
irrigation, domestic purposes or treated for drinking.

Gutters and downspouts/ down pipes are used to collect rainwater from the roof.

Gutters are fixed are around the eaves (part of a roof that overhangs the walls of a building) to
collect rainwater and discharge it into a downpipe which in turn connects it to a drainage system.

Most gutters are either half – round or rectangular with common sizes 100 – 150 mm in diameter
or cross – sectional length.

Down Pipes range from 63 – 75 mm diameter or cross – sectional length.

Gutter are mostly from light gauge cast iron, cast aluminum, zinc, galvanized steel and UPVC.

Incase one chooses to use plastic gutters, best quality gutter that can with stand high long
duration sunlight and high temperatures.

Both gutter and down pipes should be properly fitted to all for thermal expansion.

Factors to consider when designing rainwater collection.

Roof Pitch:The roof pitch is perhaps the top factor to look at when choosing a gutter. It will
determine exactly how many feet of gutters and accompanying downspouts you‟ll need to make
an effective system.
Material: Choice of material will directly affect the service life of your gutters. Gutter material
that can withstand constant exposure to different climates around the year.

Appearance: gutters need to complement the other components of your exterior

Gutter Capacity:Your gutter‟s capacity must be large enough to carry the maximum expected
flow of water at any point in the system.

Building Regulations:All the requirements for disposal of rainwater are outlined in the Building
Regulations It‟s essentially in place to ensure that rainwater does not damage the foundations of
a building or any adjacent structures

Problems Associated with Rainwater Gutter

Debris: Debris falls onto the roof can get swept into gutters by water and wind. This debris
can prevent water from draining, and can foster mold and insects. Gutters should clean
oftenly.

Gutter Slope: Another common problem related to installation is improper slope. Gutters
must have a low and positive slope towards downspouts. This allows water and debris to
flow toward the openings and leaves the gutters dry afterward.

Downspout Termination: Downspoutsthat dump rainwater right at the base of your exterior
walls can create serious problems. As water pools and soaks into the soil, it can eventually
work its way into the foundation. For this reason, it is important to direct rainwater away
from the house.

Sagging of Rain Gutters: When full of water, rain gutters can become extremely heavy. As
a result, the types made of flexible materials such as aluminum, vinyl, and galvanized steel
can begin to bend and sag and their hangers to loosen. As this happens, they cease to do a
good job of draining rainwater efficiently, allowing water to pool along their lengths. This, of
course, just exacerbates the problem, making them heavier and causing them to sag even
more.
Below Ground Drainage

The below ground drainage system is a set the set of pipes, drains and sewers that carries waste
water from buildings to a collecting point ready for treatment and disposal.

In modern cities drainage system is buried underground.

Drainage Systems

Drainage systems can be classified in three types.

● Separate drainage system

● Combined drainage system
● Partiallyseparatedrainage Drainage.

Separate drainagesystem

In separate system, one pipe carries all the surface water while another carries domestic effluent
and industrial waste water to the waste water treatment Plant (WWTP) before disposal.

Advantage:
 ● all foul sewage is discharged after treatment
● The load on treatment plant is less as only sewage is carried to the plant.
● The size of sewer is small, thus economical
● When pumping is required, the system proves to be economical.
● Natural/storm water is not unnecessarily polluted by sewage

Disadvantages:

● It has two pipes hence expensive to construct

● Cleaning of sewer is difficult due to their small size.
● The self cleansing velocity is not easily obtained.
● The storm sewers come in operation in rainy season only. They may be chocked in dry
season by garbage.
● Maintenance cost is high.
● Sewage sewers are provided below storm sewer which causes greater depth and pumping
at waste water treatment plant (WWTP).

Combined Drainage System

It uses only a single pipe; this collects surface water as well as domestic and industrial waste
water to the waste water treatment Plant (WWTP) before disposal

Combined system is fitted with overflow weirs at strategic points.

These allows excessive amount of storm to escape during periods of heavy rainfall.

Advantages

● Easy cleaning because of larger diameter.

● Reasonable maintenance cost.
● Strength of sewage is reduced due to dilution of sewage by storm water.
● This system requires only one set of sewer making it economical.

Disadvantage:

● In storm season sewer may overflow and the sewer may damage causing serious health
risks
● The combine sewer gets silted and becomes foul in dry days
● Load on treatment plant is more because storm water is also carried there
● The storm water gets polluted unnecessarily
● The system becomes uneconomical when pumping is needed
Partially Separate Drainage System

This system is the compromise between separate and combine system taking the advantages of
both systems

In this system the sewage and storm water of buildings are carried by one set of sewers while the
storm water from roads, streets, pavements etc are carried by other system of sewers usually
open drains
Advantages

● It combines the good features of both systems.

● The silting is avoided due to entry of storm water.
● The storm water from houses is easily disposed off.
● The sewers are of reasonable size

Disadvantages

● A very small fraction of bad features of combined system are there in partially separated
system.

Choice of Drainage System

For new developments, a number of factors have to be balanced in determining the most
appropriate system for a given area. These factors include

● Local geography
 ● The natural and artificial features in the area.

Flow through the System

Gravity flow through drainage system is the best, but where this would require the pipes to
be buried to great depths pumping stations can be used.

To prevent deposits of solids from eventually blocking the system, be laid at a slope to give
water flow a self – cleaning velocity of about 0.75m/s.

At least a slope at least 1:70 is needed for a pipe of diameter 100mm.

1 mm

70mm
Meaning slope 1mm for every 70mm length travelled.
If the slope is too shallow, the flow will be deep and slow enabling solid to settle out.
If the slope is too steep, the flow will be shallow and solid matter is likely to be left
behind.
TEST ON DRAINS

Drains must be tested before and after backfilling trenches.

These tests include:

Air test: in this test the drain is sealed between access chambers and pressure tested by blowing
air into the drain to 100 mm water gauge with hand bellow and a U gauge manometer. The
pressure must not fall bellow 75mm during 5 minutes.
Smoke test: may be used to test leakage. The length of drain to be tested is sealed and smoke
pumped into the pipes from the lower end. The pipe should be inspected for any trace of smoke.
Smoke pellets may be used in the smoke machine or with clay and concrete pipe they may be
applied directly to the pipeline.

Water test: In a Water test illustrated bellow, the length of drain to be tested is blanked off at its
lower end by means of a drain stopper. Another stopper is fitted at the top of the drain with an
upstand pipe of 1.5m height attached. The drain is then filled with water. If the test is performed
before backfilling the joints can be inspected for leaks. If the trench has been backfilled then the
filled drain should be left to stand for up to 2 hours, topping up the water level if necessary to
allow for absorption by clayware pipe material. Provided the water loss is less than 0.05
l/minute for 100mm diameter over a 30 minute period, the drain is assumed sound.
 Sewerage Treatment

The purpose of sewerage treatment is to stabilize the sewage and make it suitable for discharge
into natural waterways without it affecting the natural water.

They are based on natural process of oxidation of the waste by microorganism, with various
method employed to speed up the work of the organism.

CESSPOOL

A cesspool is an acceptable method of foul water containment where main drainage is not available. It is
an impervious chamber requiring periodic emptying, sited below ground level. Traditional cesspools
were constructed of brickwork rendered inside with waterproof cement mortar. Precast concrete rings
supported on a concrete base have also been used, but factory manufactured glass reinforced plastic
units are now preferred. The Building Regulations require a minimum capacity below inlet level of 18000
liters. A cesspool must be impervious to rainwater, well ventilated and have no outlets or overflows
Septic tank

A septic tank is an underground chamber made of concrete, fiberglass, or plastic through which
domestic wastewater (sewage) flows for basic treatment.

The term "septic" refers to the anaerobic bacterial environment that develops in the tank that
decomposes the waste discharged into the tank.

Settling and anaerobic (lack of oxygen) processes reduce solids and organics, but the treatment
efficiency is only moderate/ basic.
Wastewater enters the first chamber of the tank, allowing solids to settle and scum to float. The
settled solids are anaerobically digested, reducing the volume of solids. The liquid component
flows through the dividing wall into the second chamber, where further settlement takes place.
The excess liquid, now in a relatively clear condition, then drains from the outlet into the septic
drain field (a field specifically designed to percolate water in to the ground), also referred to as a
leach field, drain field or seepage field, depending upon locality

Eventually, the accumulation of sediment is removed by pumping into an exhaust tanker to

transport way for disposal.

Provision for Access and Rodding

it is important to provide access to the drainage system at strategic points to enable blockages to
be cleared.

Inspection chambers and fittings with rodding eyes can be installed at suitable locations

Rodding eyes are much cheaper to provide and can be used where drains are close to the surface.

Inspection Chamber
Inspection chamber is usually a small access to underground services with room to access by
hand from the ground surface.

The drain running through the inspection chamber is carried by a half – round channel with
concrete benching to cause any water flow to fall back to the channel.
Manhole

A manhole cover or maintenance hole cover is a removable plate forming the lid over the
opening of a manhole, an opening large enough for a person to pass through that is used as an
access point for maintenance and other work on an underground utility vault or pipe. It is
designed to prevent anyone or anything from falling in, and to keep out unauthorized persons and
material

By – Laws Pertaining to Manhole Construction

(1) Every manhole shall comply with the following internal dimensions –

Depth SIZE

Not exceeding 2 ft .6 in. 2 ft. 0 in. x 1 ft. 6 in.

2 ft. 6 in. – 4 ft. 6 in. 2 ft. 6 in. x 2 ft. 0 in.

Exceeding 4 ft. 6 in. 3 ft. 9 in. x 2 ft. 6 in.

(2) Every manhole shall be constructed of approved materials and in an approved manner. It
shall be watertight, and if constructed of brickwork, solid blockwork or stonework, it shall be
rendered with cement plaster of at least ½ in thickness and finished with a smooth surface and
the walls shall not be less than 6 in in thickness down to a depth of 6 ft and at a greater depth the
wall thickness shall not be less than 9 inches.

(3) The sides of the channels in every manhole, shall be brought up vertically to a height not less
than the diameter of the drains, and shall be benched in good concrete, and such benching , shall
be sloped off from the top of the channels at an angle of thirty degrees from the horizontal, and
finished with smooth cement.

(4) A manhole which is more than 5 ft. in depth, shall be provided with a sufficient number of
step irons.

(5) Every manhole, shall be fitted with a moveable airtight cast iron manhole cover of adequate
size and strength, and fixed in a manner which prevents surface water gaining access into the
drainage system.

(6) In all other respects, an installation of drainage constructed in accordance with the
appropriate British Standard Code of Practice, and with material which comply with the
appropriate British Standard Specifications, shall satisfy the requirements of by-laws 32 of these
bylaws

Access points location

● At changes of direction of less than 135o and at junctions where the branch joins the main
between 900 - 1350
● At or within 12m of the connection of the drain to the sewer.
● At the highest point of the drain
● In long straight runs of the drain at a maximum of 90m intervals.
● Where a backdrop is required to change the level of the drain.

CHAPTER 3: DRAINAGE AND RAIN WATER HARVESTING

Above Ground Drainage

Above ground drainage is the system of pipe that carries waste water within the
building.
Effluent/ waste from the building is transported by drains to sewers, and from sewers to a
suitable outfall or treatment

Sanitary pipe is the piping system that transports soil and waste matter from the sanitary
appliances to the drainage system.

It is soil pipes pipes and waste pipes either separate or combined and also ventilation or vent
pipes which may be separate to the main soil and waste pipes or part of them.

The main vertical pipes are known as Stacks.

The choice of drainage system used depends on the local bye – laws and regulations and the
type of drainage used in the area.

There are basically three different systems:

● One – pipe system

● Two – pipe system
● Single stack system.

Basic requirements for Drainage System.

● All soil (soil sanitary appliances) and waste pipework (waste sanitary appliances)
should big enough to take the discharge from all appliances i.e should not be in any
case less than the diameter of the appliance‟s outlet.
● Material for drainage system (sanitary pipework) should be strong and durable and
securely fixed to the building structure, while all expansion and contraction with
change of temperature.
● All sanitary pipework should be fixed in an accessible position for maintenance.
● Internal surfaces for all pipes and fittings should be smooth and self – cleaning (able
to remove debris and bacteria by themselves) during use.
● Foul gases from the drainage system must be prevented from entering the building
through the appliances. This should be done fitting traps with water seal to the
appliances unless with integral trap (forming part of the appliance)
 ● Ranges of waste appliances can discharge into a common waste pipe, with the waste
pipe itself trapped (instead of appliances) before it enters the main discharge stack.
● Compatible with outdoor drainage system

N:B Suitable material for sanitary (drainage pipe work )

Main Stack: cast iron, galvanized steel and UPVC (Unplasticized Polyvinyl Chloride)

Branch waste or vent pipes: ABS plastic, copper galvanized steel, lead, polypropylene

Traps

A trap is a U – tube containing water. It can either forming part of the appliances like in the
water closet or separately fitted to the outlet of the sanitary appliances

The water seal must in the trap both during and after use to prevent foul smell from drains
entering the room where the appliance is fixed.

The trap should have a self – cleaning action and should be smooth from inside.

Trap are most commonly nowadays made of polythene, polyproplyne, brass and copper.

All traps should be accessible for cleaning.

Traps are named from their angle of outlet into:

● P – trap
● Q- trap or S - trap

● S – trap
 Crown of trap
Traps are also named from their appearances into:

● Bottle trap

● Bag - trap
● Running trap

Loss of Trap Seal

In some circumstances, it is possible for water seal to be lost. Below are various causes of
loss of water seal.

● Capillary

This is where material with fibre such as strands of hair, cotton or rags temporary stay over
the outlet of the trap and soak water from the seal

● Compression

This happens where pressure builds up inside the waste pipe and causes seal to „blow out”
into the appliances

This mainly happens to the traps fitted near the bottom of the vertical stacks in the builds
with several floors and all appliances drain in the same stack. This causes pressure to build
up of pressure at the bottom of the stack.

● Evaporation
This is where water in the trap evaporates because the appliances is not in use over a long
period of time.

● Leakage or Mechanical Damage

This is where traps get knocked causing them loose or break, resulting to loss of water.

● Momentum

This is caused by a quick discharge of water through the trap causing water seal to “follow”
the discharged water.

● Siphonage

This is caused by a reduction in pressure inside the main discharge stack causing greater
pressure from the inside of the room to force water seal through the outside.

● Wavering Out

In a windy condition, changing air pressure inside the main stack creates wave motion in the
trap water seal causing water to flow over the crown of the trap
N:B the second often cause of loss of water seal is siphonage which is caused by
imbalanced pressure on both side of the seal. The most effective way to keep pressure
balanced is to provide anti- siphonage pipe or branch ventilation pipe connected to a
main ventilation stack
The anti – siphonage pipe should be connected to the top of waste pipe within 300mm of the
crown of the trap but nearer than 75mm to the crown.

The diameter of the anti – siphonage pipe should not than 2/3 of the waste pipe and not less than
32mm.

One – pipe system

In this system a separate vent pipe is added in addition to waste collection pipe hence this
method is more effective than the single stack system.

The vent pipe provides ventilation to the water seals of the entire trap.

The main pipe is directly connected to the drainage system.

If this system is provided in multi-storey building the WC block of various floor are placed one
over the other

Advantages

● In this system there is one soil pipe and all the waster matter from water closets, bath,
sink etc. is discharge in this pipe hence cheaper than two – pipe system
● It offers an improved ventilation than single stack system

Disadvantages

● It is not cost – effective for low rise building because of the additional vent pipe work.
● If there is blockage both soil and waste appliances are affected.
Two – pipe system

In this system two set up of pipe are laid.

One pipe i.e. soil pipe is connected to the soil fixture such as urinal and water closets.

Another pipe i.e. waste water pipe is used to collect the waste matter from bath kitchen etc.

The soil pipe and waste pipe provided with separate vent pipe.
Advantages

● With waste and soil appliances separate it offers convenience for if one pipe gets blocked
block the other still works.
● It is also effective for the because of the extra ventilation works.

Disadvantages

● It is more costly because of the additional pipe work

● It takes longer to install
 Single stack system.

In single stack system a single vertical soil pipe is fixed and all the waste matter from baths,
kitchen, water closet etc. discharge into it.

This pipe also acts as vent pipe.

This system is economical, but its effectiveness entirely depends upon the water seal.

Therefore, the water seal in traps should not be less than 75mm deep.
N/b; sanitary pipe work system should be watertight and prevent foul smell gas from
escaping (Airtight)

Rainwater Collection and Disposal

The method of rainwater collection and disposal depend mainly on the intensity, duration and
frequency of rainfall experienced in the area.

This also influences the local by- laws relating to drainage in the area.
In area experiencing heavy rains, it advisable to discharge rainwater through a separate system of
drainage direct a river, stream or to storage cistern where it could be used for other purposes crop
irrigation, domestic purposes or treated for drinking.

Gutters and downspouts/ down pipes are used to collect rainwater from the roof.

Gutters are fixed are around the eaves (part of a roof that overhangs the walls of a building) to
collect rainwater and discharge it into a downpipe which in turn connects it to a drainage system.

Most gutters are either half – round or rectangular with common sizes 100 – 150 mm in diameter
or cross – sectional length.

Down Pipes range from 63 – 75 mm diameter or cross – sectional length.

Gutter are mostly from light gauge cast iron, cast aluminum, zinc, galvanized steel and UPVC.

Incase one chooses to use plastic gutters, best quality gutter that can with stand high long
duration sunlight and high temperatures.

Both gutter and down pipes should be properly fitted to all for thermal expansion.

Factors to consider when designing rainwater collection.

Roof Pitch:The roof pitch is perhaps the top factor to look at when choosing a gutter. It will
determine exactly how many feet of gutters and accompanying downspouts you‟ll need to make
an effective system.
Material: Choice of material will directly affect the service life of your gutters. Gutter material
that can withstand constant exposure to different climates around the year.

Appearance: gutters need to complement the other components of your exterior

Gutter Capacity:Your gutter‟s capacity must be large enough to carry the maximum expected
flow of water at any point in the system.

Building Regulations:All the requirements for disposal of rainwater are outlined in the Building
Regulations It‟s essentially in place to ensure that rainwater does not damage the foundations of
a building or any adjacent structures

Problems Associated with Rainwater Gutter

Debris: Debris falls onto the roof can get swept into gutters by water and wind. This debris
can prevent water from draining, and can foster mold and insects. Gutters should clean
oftenly.

Gutter Slope: Another common problem related to installation is improper slope. Gutters
must have a low and positive slope towards downspouts. This allows water and debris to
flow toward the openings and leaves the gutters dry afterward.

Downspout Termination: Downspoutsthat dump rainwater right at the base of your exterior
walls can create serious problems. As water pools and soaks into the soil, it can eventually
work its way into the foundation. For this reason, it is important to direct rainwater away
from the house.

Sagging of Rain Gutters: When full of water, rain gutters can become extremely heavy. As
a result, the types made of flexible materials such as aluminum, vinyl, and galvanized steel
can begin to bend and sag and their hangers to loosen. As this happens, they cease to do a
good job of draining rainwater efficiently, allowing water to pool along their lengths. This, of
course, just exacerbates the problem, making them heavier and causing them to sag even
more.
Below Ground Drainage

The below ground drainage system is a set the set of pipes, drains and sewers that carries waste
water from buildings to a collecting point ready for treatment and disposal.

In modern cities drainage system is buried underground.

Drainage Systems

Drainage systems can be classified in three types.

● Separate drainage system

● Combined drainage system
● Partiallyseparatedrainage Drainage.

Separate drainagesystem

In separate system, one pipe carries all the surface water while another carries domestic effluent
and industrial waste water to the waste water treatment Plant (WWTP) before disposal.

Advantage:
 ● all foul sewage is discharged after treatment
● The load on treatment plant is less as only sewage is carried to the plant.
● The size of sewer is small, thus economical
● When pumping is required, the system proves to be economical.
● Natural/storm water is not unnecessarily polluted by sewage

Disadvantages:

● It has two pipes hence expensive to construct

● Cleaning of sewer is difficult due to their small size.
● The self cleansing velocity is not easily obtained.
● The storm sewers come in operation in rainy season only. They may be chocked in dry
season by garbage.
● Maintenance cost is high.
● Sewage sewers are provided below storm sewer which causes greater depth and pumping
at waste water treatment plant (WWTP).

Combined Drainage System

It uses only a single pipe; this collects surface water as well as domestic and industrial waste
water to the waste water treatment Plant (WWTP) before disposal

Combined system is fitted with overflow weirs at strategic points.

These allows excessive amount of storm to escape during periods of heavy rainfall.

Advantages

● Easy cleaning because of larger diameter.

● Reasonable maintenance cost.
● Strength of sewage is reduced due to dilution of sewage by storm water.
● This system requires only one set of sewer making it economical.

Disadvantage:

● In storm season sewer may overflow and the sewer may damage causing serious health
risks
● The combine sewer gets silted and becomes foul in dry days
● Load on treatment plant is more because storm water is also carried there
● The storm water gets polluted unnecessarily
● The system becomes uneconomical when pumping is needed
Partially Separate Drainage System

This system is the compromise between separate and combine system taking the advantages of
both systems

In this system the sewage and storm water of buildings are carried by one set of sewers while the
storm water from roads, streets, pavements etc are carried by other system of sewers usually
open drains
Advantages

● It combines the good features of both systems.

● The silting is avoided due to entry of storm water.
● The storm water from houses is easily disposed off.
● The sewers are of reasonable size

Disadvantages

● A very small fraction of bad features of combined system are there in partially separated
system.

Choice of Drainage System

For new developments, a number of factors have to be balanced in determining the most
appropriate system for a given area. These factors include

● Local geography
 ● The natural and artificial features in the area.

Flow through the System

Gravity flow through drainage system is the best, but where this would require the pipes to
be buried to great depths pumping stations can be used.

To prevent deposits of solids from eventually blocking the system, be laid at a slope to give
water flow a self – cleaning velocity of about 0.75m/s.

At least a slope at least 1:70 is needed for a pipe of diameter 100mm.

1 mm

70mm
Meaning slope 1mm for every 70mm length travelled.
If the slope is too shallow, the flow will be deep and slow enabling solid to settle out.
If the slope is too steep, the flow will be shallow and solid matter is likely to be left
behind.
Sewerage Treatment

The purpose of sewerage treatment is to stabilize the sewage and make it suitable for discharge
into natural waterways without it affecting the natural water.

They are based on natural process of oxidation of the waste by microorganism, with various
method employed to speed up the work of the organism.

CESSPOOL

A cesspool is an acceptable method of foul water containment where main drainage is not available. It is
an impervious chamber requiring periodic emptying, sited below ground level. Traditional cesspools
were constructed of brickwork rendered inside with waterproof cement mortar. Precast concrete rings
supported on a concrete base have also been used, but factory manufactured glass reinforced plastic
units are now preferred. The Building Regulations require a minimum capacity below inlet level of 18000
liters. A cesspool must be impervious to rainwater, well ventilated and have no outlets or overflows

Septic tank

A septic tank is an underground chamber made of concrete, fiberglass, or plastic through which
domestic wastewater (sewage) flows for basic treatment.

The term "septic" refers to the anaerobic bacterial environment that develops in the tank that
decomposes the waste discharged into the tank.

Settling and anaerobic (lack of oxygen) processes reduce solids and organics, but the treatment
efficiency is only moderate/ basic.
Wastewater enters the first chamber of the tank, allowing solids to settle and scum to float. The
settled solids are anaerobically digested, reducing the volume of solids. The liquid component
flows through the dividing wall into the second chamber, where further settlement takes place.
The excess liquid, now in a relatively clear condition, then drains from the outlet into the septic
drain field (a field specifically designed to percolate water in to the ground), also referred to as a
leach field, drain field or seepage field, depending upon locality

Eventually, the accumulation of sediment is removed by pumping into an exhaust tanker to

transport way for disposal.

Provision for Access and Rodding

it is important to provide access to the drainage system at strategic points to enable blockages to
be cleared.

Inspection chambers and fittings with rodding eyes can be installed at suitable locations

Rodding eyes are much cheaper to provide and can be used where drains are close to the surface.

Inspection Chamber
Inspection chamber is usually a small access to underground services with room to access by
hand from the ground surface.

The drain running through the inspection chamber is carried by a half – round channel with
concrete benching to cause any water flow to fall back to the channel.
Manhole

A manhole cover or maintenance hole cover is a removable plate forming the lid over the
opening of a manhole, an opening large enough for a person to pass through that is used as an
access point for maintenance and other work on an underground utility vault or pipe. It is
designed to prevent anyone or anything from falling in, and to keep out unauthorized persons and
material

By – Laws Pertaining to Manhole Construction

(1) Every manhole shall comply with the following internal dimensions –

Depth SIZE

Not exceeding 2 ft .6 in. 2 ft. 0 in. x 1 ft. 6 in.

2 ft. 6 in. – 4 ft. 6 in. 2 ft. 6 in. x 2 ft. 0 in.

Exceeding 4 ft. 6 in. 3 ft. 9 in. x 2 ft. 6 in.

(2) Every manhole shall be constructed of approved materials and in an approved manner. It
shall be watertight, and if constructed of brickwork, solid blockwork or stonework, it shall be
rendered with cement plaster of at least ½ in thickness and finished with a smooth surface and
the walls shall not be less than 6 in in thickness down to a depth of 6 ft and at a greater depth the
wall thickness shall not be less than 9 inches.

(3) The sides of the channels in every manhole, shall be brought up vertically to a height not less
than the diameter of the drains, and shall be benched in good concrete, and such benching , shall
be sloped off from the top of the channels at an angle of thirty degrees from the horizontal, and
finished with smooth cement.

(4) A manhole which is more than 5 ft. in depth, shall be provided with a sufficient number of
step irons.

(5) Every manhole, shall be fitted with a moveable airtight cast iron manhole cover of adequate
size and strength, and fixed in a manner which prevents surface water gaining access into the
drainage system.

(6) In all other respects, an installation of drainage constructed in accordance with the
appropriate British Standard Code of Practice, and with material which comply with the
appropriate British Standard Specifications, shall satisfy the requirements of by-laws 32 of these
bylaws

Access points location

● At changes of direction of less than 135o and at junctions where the branch joins the main
between 900 - 1350
● At or within 12m of the connection of the drain to the sewer.
● At the highest point of the drain
● In long straight runs of the drain at a maximum of 90m intervals.
● Where a backdrop is required to change the level of the drain.
Safety when working with drains

Board the sides of the trench to prevent being buried in the trenches.

Always station a helper at the ground level and have a safety rope tied round you if have to
descend to deep inspection chambers with full of hydrogen sulphide gas which can suffocate in a
few minutes.

Always prevent splashes of contaminated water from entering anybody cut.

GRAPHICAL SYMBOLS IN PIPE WORK

CHAPTER 4: GAS SUPPLY
Gas services are provided to most buildings, and safety is of paramount importance. Economy is also
important, and the versatility and controllability of gas are appreciated. It is used for heating, hot-
water production, refrigeration for small and large cooling loads, electrical power generation,
cooking and decorative heating. Gas is converted from its primary fuel state into useful energy at
the point of use. Its distribution energy loss is accounted for in the standing charge to the final
consumer and, although it is charged for, does not appear to be related to the load as for water
pipes or electricity cables. Gas is conveyed in a one-way pipe system and is not returned to the
supplier as are electricity and water.

Important terms

Service pipe: The pipe between the gas main and the customers control cock normally at the
meter.

Service valve: A valve inserted in the service pipe close to the site boundary. The valve allows the
supply of gas to the building to be turned off in an emergency.

Installation pipe: Every pipe between any meter and the point at which the appliance is connected.
Governor: A regulating device for reducing the high transmission pressure to the normal
requirement.

Control cock: a valve fitted at the inlet of the meter to control the supply of gas from the boards
main to consumer.

Meter compartment: An enclosure in which one or more meters are accommodated. The
compartment should be well ventilated and should be constructed of fire resisting material.

Meter bypass: An arrangement of pipes and cocks air valves whereby the gas is led around instead
of through the meter. This is used in schools and factories to ensure continuous supply of gas.

Ordinary meter: a meter which provides a supply of gas for which the amount registered is
periodically charged to the customer on a monthly or quarterly basis.

Pressure gauge: This is an instrument used for finding the pressure of a gas- usually a U tube
containing water.

Primary meter: This is a meter connected to the service pipe, the index reading of which constitute
the basis of the charge by the board for gas used I the premises.

Secondary meter: This is a subsidiary meter for measuring gas used on separate parts of premises
or on separate appliances, the whole of which has passed the primary meter.

Secondary supply pipe: The pipe connecting the inlet of a secondary meter to the outlet pipe from a
primary meter.

MAIN GAS INSTALLATION

The figure below shows a typica gas installation for a house.

A service pipe is the term give to the pipe between the gas main and the primary meter
control. Polythene pipe is used underground ad steel or copper where it is exposed.
Wherever possible the service pipe should enter the building on the side facing the gas main.
That is to simplify excavation and avoid the pipe having to pass through part of the
substructure which could be subject to settlement. The service pipe must not:

● Bass under the base of a wall or foundations to a building

● Be installed within a wall cavity or pass through it except by the shortest possible route
● Be installed in an unventilated void space suspended and raised floors with cross-ventilation
may be an exception
● Have electrical cables taped to it
● Be near any heat source

GAS METERS

The gas meters and their associated controls are the property of the gas authority. It should be
sited as close as possible to the service pipe entry to the building, ideally in a purpose-made meter
cupboard on the external wall. A cupboard should be positioned to provide easy access for meter
maintenance, reading and inspection. The immediate area around the meter must be well ventilated
and the meter must be protected from damage, corrosion and heat. Electricity and gas meters
should not share the same compartment. If this is unavoidable, a fire-resistant partition must
separate them and no electrical conduit or cable should be closer than 50 mm to the gas meter and
its installation pipework. One exception is the earth equi-potential bond cable. This must be located
on the secondary pipework and within 600 mm of the gas meter. The figure below shows a domestic
meter and industrial meter.

These meters measure the volume of gas in cubic feet or cubic meters consumed within a building.
GOVERNOR

A governor is a regulating device for reducing high transmission pressures to normal requirements.

PURGING NEW INSTALLATIONS

Before a meter is fitted, the gas control valve is fully opened to allow gas to pass through and at the
same time clear any dirt in the service pipe. After the meter is fitted, the installation is also purged
before connect. It is very important that new gas installations are thoroughly purged of air and
debris that may remain in the completed pipework. This also applies to existing installations that
have been the subject of significant changes. If air is not removed, it is possible that when
attempting to ignite the gas, a gas air mixture will cause a blow back and an explosion. Before
purging, the system should be pressure tested for leakages.

Procedure:

● Ensure ample ventilation where gas and air will escape from the system.
● Prohibit smoking, use of electrical switches, power tools, etc. in the vicinity of the process.
● Close the main gas control valve at the meter.
● Disconnect the secondary pipework at the furthest fitting. Note: if the last appliance has a
flame failure safety device, no gas will pass beyond it, therefore remove its test nipple
screw.
● Turn on the main gas control valve until the meter is completely purged
● Purging the meter is achieved by passing through it a volume of gas at least equal to five
times its capacity per revolution of the meter mechanism.
● Turn off the main gas control valve and reconnect the open end or replace the last appliance
test nipple.
● Turn on the main gas control valve and purge any remaining air to branch appliances until
gas is smelt.
● Test any previous disconnections by applying soap solution to the joint. Leakage will be
apparent by foaming of the solution.
● When all the air in the system has been removed, appliances may be commissioned.

HOW TO TEST A NEW ISTALLATION

● Close all appliance valves and the main control valve at the meter.
● Remove the test nipple screw on the meter and attach the test apparatus.
 ● Open the main control valve at the meter to record a few millimeters water gauge.
● Close the valve immediately and observe the manometer. If the pressure rises this indicates
a faulty valve.1
● If the valve is serviceable, continue the test by opening the valve fully to record a normal
pressure value. Anything else suggests that the pressure governor is faulty.
● With the correct pressure recorded, turn off the main valve, allow 1 minute for air
stabilization and for a further 2 minutes there should be no pressure fluctuation.
● Check for any leakages as previously described.

MANOMETER OR U GAUGE

This equipment is suitable for measuring gas installation pressure and testing for leakage. It is also
suitable for air testing drains and discharge stacks

The glass tube is coated in a protective metal or wooden box. It is mounted against a scale
graduated in millibars. Water is levelled in the tube to zero on the scale.

GAS BURNERS

For correct combustion of natural gas, burner design must allow for the velocity of the gas-air
mixture to be about the same as the flame velocity. Natural gas has a very slow burning velocity,
therefore there is a tendency for a flame to lift-off the burner. This must be prevented as it will
allow gas to escape, possibly exploding elsewhere. Correct combustion will occur when the gas
pressure and injector bore are correct and sufficient air is drawn in, provided the gas-air velocity is
not too high to encourage lift-off. Some control over lift-off can be achieved by a retention flame
fitted to the burner. Flame lift-off may also be prevented by increasing the number of burner ports
to affect a decrease in the velocity of the gas-air mixture. A box-type of burner tray is used for this
purpose. If the gas pressure is too low, or the injector bore too large, insufficient air is drawn into
the burner. This can be recognized by a smoky and unstable flame, indicating incomplete
combustion and an excess of carbon monoxide. At the extreme, light-back can occur. This is where
the flame passes back through the burner to ignite on the injector.

GAS FLUES FOR GAS APPLIANCES

A gas flue is a tube or a casing used for the passage of the products of combustion. Gas flues
are simpler and cheaper to construct than flues for solid fuels or oil ad they do not require
periodic cleaning. Certain appliances such as cooker and space heater do not require flues
are permitted to discharge their product of combustion into the room where they are installed.
All other appliances require a flue. Gas appliances should however be able to function
without a flue and the flue is only required to discharge the product of combustion to the
 atmosphere and not to create a draught to aid the combustion. A gas flue is therefore
designed to serve two primary purposes:

i. To remove the product of combustion from an appliance.

ii. To assist in the ventilation of the room in which the appliance is installed.

A condition called downdraught may result where burst of smoke is caused by external air
pressure from outside a house pushing smoke back down the flue. A draught diverter is used
for preventing downdraught from interfering with combustion of gas within the appliance.
The length of flue prior to the draught diverter is termed as Primary flue while the flue
between the draught diverter and the terminal is termed as the secondary flue.

Materials used for flues:

i. Asbestos pipes and fittings for internal and external work

ii. Steel and cast-iron pipes
iii. Sheet aluminum
iv. Sheet copper protected by chromium
v. Stainless steel
vi. Brick flues lined with precast concrete
vii. Precast concrete flue blocks

The terminal refers to a device of the flue designed to allow free passage of the products of
combustion to minimize draught and prevent entry of foreign matter which might cause
restriction of the flue. The terminal of a gas flue should be placed in such a position that the
wind can blow freely across it.

CHAPTER 5: VENTILATION

Ventilation refers to means of changing the air in an enclosed space. Ventilation is used to remove
unpleasant smell and excessive moisture by introducing outside air to keep interior building air
circulating and prevent stagnation of interior air.
Reasons for ventilation

1. Provide fresh air for respiration

2. Preserve the correct level of oxygen in the air approx. 21%
3. Control carbon dioxide content to no more than 0.1%. Concentrations above 2% are
unacceptable as carbon dioxide is poisonous to humans and can be fatal
4. Control moisture relative humidity of 30% to 70% is acceptable
5. Remove excess heat from machinery, people, lighting, etc.
6. Dispose of odours, smoke, dust and other atmospheric contaminants
7. Relieve stagnation and provide a sense of freshness air movement of 0.15 to 0. 5 m/s is
adequate.

Design criteria

The design criteria for ventilation systems are as follows:

1. correct fresh air quantity (minimum normally 10.4 l/s per person)

2. avoidance of hot or cold draughts by design of the air inlet system

3. some manual control over air movement;

4. mechanical ventilation to provide a minimum of four air changes per hour to ensure adequate
flushing of all parts of rooms

5. air change rates that can be increased to remove solar and other heat gains

6. air cleanliness achieved by filtration of fresh air intake and recirculated room air.

METHODS USED TO VENTILATE

There are two methods that may be used to ventilate a building: natural, mechanical

NATURAL VENTILATION

In this method air is supplied and removed through an indoor space without use of mechanical systems.

Natural forces (e.g., winds and thermal buoyancy force due to indoor and outdoor air density
differences) drive outdoor air through purpose-built, building envelope openings. This natural
ventilation of buildings depends on climate, building design and human behavior. The ventilation occurs
due to pressure difference or temperature difference. Purpose-built openings include;

i. windows doors
ii. solar chimneys
iii. wind towers
iv. trickle ventilators.
v. air bricks
vi. louvres
vii. door ways
viii. chimneys etc.

PRESSURE DIFFRENCE

Air moves due to from high pressure to low pressure. These types of ventilation are divided into:

a) Window
b) Roof
c) Wall

WINDOW TYPE

Windows/openings are placed on all the walls of the building. Pressures generated on the building by
the building drive air through these openings in the building. The air enters on one side of the building
and leaves through the opposite side of the building.

WALL

This type of ventilation is obtained by making the opening in the wall, such as cavity brick, louvers.
These openings allow air into the chamber through wind pressure effect

ROOF TYPES

Due to difference in temperatures of air inside or outside the building, the air inside the building is
either more or less dense than the air inside. If there is an opening high in the building and another low
in the building, a natural flow of air is initiated. If the air in the building is cooler than the air outside the
building, the cooler air is drawn out through the lower opening and replaced with warmer air from
outside, whereas if the air inside the building is warmer than air outside, the air escapes through the top
opening and is replaced by cooler air from outside.

TEMPARATURE DIFFRENCE/ STACK EFFECT

The exchange of air by temperature difference between the inside and outside the building is caused by
the stack effect. The effect occurs when there is temperature difference between the inside and outside
of building. Hot air is less than cold air and rises up to be replaced by cold air. The movement of air by
this effect depends on the following factors;

i. Temperature difference
ii. Height
iii. The size and position of air intake opening

PASSIVE STACK VENTILATION

Passive stack ventilation consists of a vertical or near vertical ducts of 100 to 150 mm diameter,
extending from grilles set at ceiling level to terminals above the ridge of a roof. The systems are applied
to kitchens, bathrooms, utility rooms and sometimes sanitary accommodations. They are energy
efficient and environmentally friendly with no running cost. It works by combining stack effect with air
movement and wind passing over the roof. It is self-regulating, responding to a differential temperature
when internal and external temperatures vary.
ADVANTAGES OF NATURAL VENTILATION

i. Reduction of energy cost: natural ventilation requires no power to run them and hence save
on the entire power consumption of a building
ii. Require little or no maintenance: Natural ventilation systems require no pumps, filters or
fans and therefore require no or very little maintenance.
iii. Produce less noise

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE AIRFLOW IN THE BUILDING

I. Orientation: The largest or main opening should be positioned towards the wind direction.
 II. Obstacles: The speed of wind increases if there are obstructions due to tunnel effect- The air
becomes compressed on the windy side of a building increasing the speed considerably
between the obstacles to the wind.
III. Location of opening: The opening should be positioned in such a way that it is able to
provide adequate air to the living zones at a height of about 2m. If the opening is located on
the upper part of the wall, the wind will flow upwards, and if the openings are located on
the lower part, the wind will flow downwards to floor.
IV. Opening size: smaller inlet opening and larger outlet opening are preferred as they produce
higher speeds
V. Opening method: wind flow is affected by cantilever device and sunshade awnings.

MECHANICAL VENTILATION

Mechanical ventilation systems are frequently applied to commercial buildings, workshops, factories,
etc., where the air change requirements are defined for health and welfare provision.

The capital cost of installing mechanical systems is greater than natural systems of air movement, but
whether using one or more fans, system design provides for more reliable air change and air movement.

There are three categories of system:

1. Natural inlet and mechanical extract

2. Mechanical inlet and natural extract

3. Mechanical inlet and mechanical extract

1. Natural inlet, mechanical outlet: mechanical extract fans in windows or roofs and ducted systems
where the air is to be discharged away from the occupied space owing to its contamination with heat,
fumes, smoke, water vapor or odor. This system can be used in dwellings, offices, factories or public
buildings. A slight reduction in air static pressure is caused within the building, and external air flows
inwards. This inflow is facilitated by air inlet grilles, sometimes situated behind radiators or convector
heaters. There is no filtration of incoming impurities. This system is used particularly for toilet or kitchen
extraction, smoke removal from public rooms and heat or fume removal from industrial premises.
Heating of the incoming air is essential for winter use.
2. Mechanical inlet, natural outlet: air is blown into the building through a fan convector or ducted
system to pressurize the internal atmosphere slightly with a heated air supply. The air leaks out of the
building through adventitious openings and permanent air bricks or louvres. This system can be used for
offices, factories, large public halls or underground boiler plant rooms

3. Mechanical Inlet and outlet: The system extract and inlet use mechanical equipment. The system is
used when the building is to be seated from external environment e.g., cinema, offices etc.

NEED FOR MECHAMICAL VENTILATION

1. Internal rooms which are not exposed to external environment

2. Largely polluted rooms with more than 50 people need facilitated ventilation
3. Mechanical ventilations are also required where close control of environment such as hospital is
required.
4. Mechanical ventilation is required where natural ventilation is impossible as windows cannot be
opened of external noise etc. especially in industrial area.
5. To deal with fumes, odors, smoke etc.
6. Natural ventilation is required in tall buildings where stack effect with natural ventilation is
impracticable.
7. To liberate a room from excess heat e.g., in cooking.
8. Liberation of a moisture from a room such as bathroom.

COMPONENTS OF MECHANICAL VENTILATION

I. Fan
II. Filters
III. Duct work and fire dumpers
IV. Diffusers

FANS

Fans (sometimes called air pumps or blowers) are devices that move air. They are installed in the wall or
in air conditioning systems. Turbine fans are located at the roof to ventilate the roof to keep the building
interior below cool. Types of fans include;

1. Propeller fans
2. Axial fans
 3. Centrifugal fans.

Propeller fan: has 2 or more blades fixed at an angle to a hub. does not create much air pressure and has
limited effect in ductwork. Ideal for use at air openings in windows and walls.

Axial fans: have impellers with blades mounted and rotating on a motor driven shaft. It is located in a
cylindrical casing with adaptation to the duct work. The fan can develop high pressure and is used for
moving air through long sections of ductwork. The fan is integral with the run of ducting and does not
require a base.

Centrifugal fans: The fan consist of a rotating impeller inside a casing shaped like a scroll. Air is drawn
at right angles before discharging it radially through the delivery ductwork.

FILTERS

Filters are used in air flow systems to remove particulates from the air flow a process referred to as air
conditioning. This prevents air borne particles from clogging heating or cooling fans.

Purpose of filtering the air

i. They improve the occupant’s breathable air.

ii. Protects facilities walls ceiling and equipment from airborne damage.
iii. Protect the content of occupied building spaces such as items of historic and cultural value.
iv. To eliminate and minimize fire hazards
v. Removing airborne bacteria from controlled environment such as opening rooms.
Types of filters include:

i. Dry filters
ii. Viscous filters
iii. Electrostatic filter
iv. Activated carbon filter

DRY FILTERS

They are produced from paper, fine woven fabrics, foam plastics or glass fiber.

VISCOUS FILTERS

They are air-cleaning filters having surface coated with viscous liquid to trap particles in the air
streams.

ELECTROSTATIC FILTERS

Electrostatic air filters contain synthetic fibers that create a static electric charge that attract the
particles. The static charge attracts and trap airborne particles into the filter just like a magnet. They are
very effective and can remove up to 95.3 % of airborne particles.

ACTIVATED CARBORN FILTERS

Also known as activated charcoal or activated coal filters.

They are used to remove vapors and odors present within the gas flow.

DUCT WORK

Duct work are circular, square or rectangular in cross-section. Circular ductworks are more efficient, due
to less friction resistance to air flow. Rectangular duct work is also convenient as they are more easily
fitted into fabric.

DIFFUSERS

Diffusers disperses air exiting duct work. Without the diffuser, the air exiting the ductwork would travel
in a straight direction. This would cause a concertation of conditioned air in one section of a room while
the rest of the room remains unconditioned. The direction of diffuser fins depends on the direction the
vent diffuser sends the flowing air.
 CHAPTER 6: FIRE FIGHTING

You can deal with small fire quickly and effectively by using appropriate fire extinguishers.

The fire extinguishers work by cutting off oxygen supply to the fire or making burning material
temporary incombustible by soaking water in it.

CLASSES OF FIRE

Class of Fire Materials involved

Class A Caused by flammable materials such as wood, paper and fabric
Class B Caused by flammable liquids such as petrol, turpentine or paints
Class C Caused by Flammable gases e.g., hydrogen, butane or methane
Class D Caused by flammable metals e.g., magnesium or potassium
Electrical fires Caused by electrical equipment
Class F Fire caused by cooking oils, typically chip pan fire.

Methods of fire fighting

According to the principle of fire triangle, fire is caused by:

i. Heat (temperatures reaching the ignition point)

ii. Combustible material(fuel)
iii. Air
Various methods of firefighting involve the removal of either of the above causes. These
methods include:

1. COOLING
Cooling is done to remove heat. Water is one of the most popular firefighting material
that works by removing heat. As long as the heat generated by the fire is less than that
which is absorbed by water the fire goes out.
Extinguishers that operate in this method are: water and foam extinguishers
2. STARVING
Starving involves removal of burning material or fuel. The fire goes out if it runs out of
the flammable material. For example, a bonfire in open without contact with wood or dry
grass goes out. Similarly, gas fire goes out if the gas supply is cut off.
3. SMOOTHERING: Smothering involves removal of oxygen from the equation. It is also
called blanketing. It involves covering the material to cut off oxygen from the fire.
Smothering is mostly applicable solid fuel flames although some materials may contain
oxygen within their own chemical make up to keep the flame.

Extinguishers that operate in this method are: CO2 and DCP fire extinguishers
4. CHAIN BREAKING: works by breaking the chain.
By applying chemicals that interfere with chemical chain reaction of breaking down fuel
through heat and oxidation
e.g use of dry Chemical powder (DCP)
OPERATION AND WORKING PRINCIPLE OF FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

Fire extinguishers are essential safety devices designed to suppress or extinguish fires in
their early stages. The working principles of various types of fire extinguishers depend on
the type of fire they are intended to combat. The most common types of fire extinguishers
are:

Fire extinguishers are essential safety devices designed to suppress or extinguish fires in
their early stages. The working principles of various types of fire extinguishers depend on
the type of fire they are intended to combat. The most common types of fire extinguishers
are:
[Link]-Based Fire Extinguishers (Class A):

Working Principle: These extinguishers use water to cool and extinguish fires involving
ordinary combustibles like paper, wood, cloth, and plastics.

Operation; When discharged, water is sprayed onto the fire, reducing its temperature and
removing the heat element from the fire triangle (heat, fuel, oxygen).

2.CO2 (Carbon Dioxide) Fire Extinguishers (Class B and C).

Working Principle: CO2 extinguishers use carbon dioxide gas to smother fires by
displacing oxygen and cooling the flames.

Operation: When the CO2 gas is released, it reduces the oxygen concentration around
the fire, interrupting the combustion process.

3. Dry Chemical Fire Extinguishers (Class A, B, and C):

Working Principle: These extinguishers use a dry chemical powder to interrupt the
chemical reaction of the fire.

Operation: The dry chemical forms a barrier between the fuel and the oxygen,
preventing the fire from continuing to burn.

4. Foam Fire Extinguishers (Class A and B):**

Working Principle: Foam extinguishers use a mixture of water and foam concentrate to
suppress flammable liquid fires.

Operation: The foam forms a blanket over the fuel, cutting off the oxygen supply and
suppressing the fire.

5. Wet Chemical Fire Extinguishers (Class K):

Working Principle: Wet chemical extinguishers are designed for kitchen fires involving
cooking oils and fats.
 Operation: They release a wet chemical agent that reacts with the hot cooking oil to form
a soapy layer, preventing reignition.

6. Clean Agent Fire Extinguishers (Class A, B, and C):**

Working Principle: Clean agent extinguishers use non-conductive, gaseous agents like
Halon replacements or inert gases to suppress fires.

Operation: These agents remove heat and displace oxygen, effectively interrupting the
combustion process without leaving residue or causing damage.

7. Dry Powder Fire Extinguishers (Class D):

Working Principle: Dry powder extinguishers contain specialized dry powder agents for
fighting metal fires.

Operation: The powder forms a barrier, preventing oxygen from reaching the fire and
cooling the metal surface.

8. Water Mist Fire Extinguishers (Class A and C):

Working Principle: Water mist extinguishers use high-pressure water to create a fine
mist, cooling the fire and reducing oxygen availability.

Operation: The mist displaces oxygen and cools the fire, suppressing it effectively
without causing electrical conductivity issues.

It's crucial to choose the right type of fire extinguisher for the specific fire hazards in
your environment and to receive proper training on their use and maintenance to ensure
their effectiveness in an emergency. Fire extinguishers should be regularly inspected and
serviced to ensure they function correctly when needed.

FIRE FIGHTING EQUIPMENTS

 Firefighting equipment include:

i. Portable fire extinguishers

ii. Hose reels
iii. Sprinklers
iv. Fixed dry and wet risers

PORTABLE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

Portable extinguishers are manually operated first-aid appliances to stop or limit the growth of small
fires. Staff are trained in their use and the appliances are regularly maintained by the suppliers.

There 5 main types of fire extinguishers used to fight different types of fire.

Type of fire extinguisher Colour of container

Water Fire Extinguisher Red
Form Fire Extinguisher Cream
Dry Powder Fire Extinguisher Blue
CO2 fire extinguishers Black
Wet Chemical Extinguisher Yellow
The table below shows where appropriate each fire extinguisher is used.

Class of Fire Materials involved Fire Extinguisher used

Class A Caused by flammable materials such as Water Fire Extinguisher
wood, paper and fabric
Class B Caused by flammable liquids such as Form Fire Extinguisher
petrol, turpentine or paints
Class C Caused by Flammable gases e.g., Dry Powder Fire Extinguisher
hydrogen, butane or methane
Class D Caused by flammable metals e.g., Dry Powder Fire Extinguisher
magnesium or potassium
Electrical fires Caused by electrical equipment CO2 fire extinguishers
 Dry Powder Fire Extinguisher
Class F Fire caused by cooking oils, typically Wet Chemical Extinguisher
chip pan fire.
Note that the right fire extinguisher should be selected. For example, water fire extinguisher
should not be used on burning liquids or in kitchen as it helps spread the fire.

HOSE REELS

Hose real system is intended for the occupants to use during the early stages of fire. It
comprises, hose real pump, fire storage tank, hose reals, pipework and valves. They are
located where the users are least likely to be endangered by fire, i.e. staircase landing.

The hose most distant from the source of water should be capable of discharging 0 .4 l/s at a 6 m
distance from the nozzle, when the two most remote hose reels are operating simultaneously. A
pressure of 200 kPa is required at the highest reel. If the water main cannot provide this, a
break/suction tank and booster pumps should be installed. Fixed or swinging hose reels are located
in wall recesses at a height of about 1 m above floor level. A 20- or 25-mm diameter, reinforced non-
kink rubber hose in lengths up to 45 m is provided to cover 800 m2 of floor area per installation.
FIRE FIGHTING TECHNICQUES BY HOSE REAL/HOSE REEL ATACK

DIRECT ATTACK: In this technique the flame is suffocated by aiming the stream of water at the base of
fire. It requires a powerful and concentrated jet of water and the fire fighter must have a clear and
direct line of sight to the fire. If the method is used in non-vented area, less steam is produced and the
fire is extinguished faster.

INDIRECT ATTACK: In this method, the stream of water is aimed at the ceiling or wall above and water
drops down and extinguishes the fire from above. The water cools the ceiling, which disrupt the thermal
balance and vapors absorbs the energy. The rest of the water falls like rain and help to extinguish the
fire. It is most effective most effective in closed compartment fire such as high rise environment.

FOG ATTACK: The technique works by use of a fog nozzle at the hose to produce a water fog for
extinguishing the fire rather than the jet of water. It is ideal for closed compartment where there is no
wind which greatly affects its effectiveness.

COMBINATION ATTACK: This technique uses both indirect and direct attack to combat the gases and
flames simultaneously. Two hoes and two teams are used, combining the fog nozzle and solid stream of
water. One team focuses on attacking the flame directly while the other concentrate on preventing any
advancing flame from spreading It is used for fires that are subject to high winds.

SPRINKLERS

Water sprinklers provide an automatic spray dedicated to the area of fire outbreak. Sprinkler heads
have temperature sensitive elements that respond immediately to heat, discharging the contents of
the water main to which they are attached. In addition to a rapid response which reduces and
isolates fire damage, sprinklers use less water to control a fire than the firefighting service, therefore
preventing further damage from excess water.
From a water main, sprinkler heads are suspended fixed at ceiling level.

Sprinkler installations

i. Wet system sprinkler installation

The simplest and most widely used application. The wet system is used in heated buildings where
there is no risk of the water in the pipework freezing. All pipework is permanently pressure charged
with water and the sprinkler heads usually attach to the underside of the range pipes. Where water
is mains supplied, it should be fed from both ends. If the main is under repair on one side, the stop
valve and branch pipe can be closed and the sprinkler system supplied from the other branch pipe.
When a sprinkler head is fractured water is immediately dispersed. Water will also flow through an
annular groove in the alarm valve seating to a pipe connected to an alarm gong and turbine. A jet of
water propels the turbine blades causing the alarm gong to operate. Pipeline flow switches will alert
the local fire service in addition to operating an internal alarm system
 ii. Dry sprinkler installation

In dry system installation pipework above the differential valve is permanently charged with
compressed air. When a fire fractures a sprinkler head, the compressed air escapes to allow the
retained water to displace the differential valve and flow to the broken sprinkler.

Alternate wet-and-dry system may also be provided where a wet system for most of the year, but
during the winter months it functions as a dry system.

FIXED DRY AND WET RISERS

DRY RISER

A dry riser is in effect an empty vertical pipe which becomes a fire fighters hose extension to supply
hydrants at each floor level. A dry riser is installed either in unheated buildings or where the water
main will not provide sufficient pressure at the highest landing valve. A hard standing for the Fire
Service Vehicle is required at the base of the riser. One landing valve is required for every 900 m2 of
floor area.

WET RISER

A wet riser is constantly charged with water at a minimum running pressure of 400 kPa with up to
three most remote landing valves operating simultaneously. A flow rate of 25 l/s is also required.
The maximum pressure with one outlet open is 500 kPa to protect firefighting hoses from rupturing.
To maintain water at the required pressure and delivery rate, it is usually necessary to install
pumping equipment. Direct pumping from the main is unacceptable. A suction or break tank with a
minimum water volume of 45 m3 is used with duplicate power source service pumps.
Safety precautions with respect to fire

● keeping your workplace tidy and having a good standard of housekeeping

● regularly removing combustible waste, including accumulations of dust
● keeping ignition sources away from combustible material or flammable liquids
and gases
● keeping use of flammable liquids to a minimum and closing containers when
not in use

CHAPTER 7: ELECTRICAL SERVICES

 ∙ Tools

∙ Safety regulations

∙ Types of wiring systems

∙ Power distribution in premises

Electricity distribution

Electricity from various substations is transformed to potentials of 400 volts (three phase supply) and
230 volts (single-phase supply) for general distribution. With a three-phase supply, the voltage between
two line or phase cables is 1.73 times that between the neutral and any one of the line cables, i.e., 230
volts *1.73 = 400 volts, where 1.73 is derived from the square root of the three phases.

INTAKE TO A BUILDING

The termination and metering of service cables to buildings is determined by the electricity authority
supply arrangement. Domestic supplies could be underground with service cable terminating at the
meter cup-board as shown in figure below.

Depth of cover to underground cables should be at least 750 mm below roads and 450 mm below open
ground. In remote areas the supply may be overhead. Whatever method is used, it is essential that a
safety electrical earthing facility is provided. e. All equipment up to and including the meter is the
property and responsibility of the supplier. This also includes a fusible cut-out, neutral link and in some
situations a transformer. Meters are preferably sited in a purpose-made reinforced plastic compartment
set in or on the external wall of a building.

CONSUMER UNIT

Electrical installations required a separate fuse and isolator for each circuit. t. Modern practice is to
rationalize this into one `fuse box', known as a consumer's power supply control unit or consumer unit
for short. This unit contains a two-pole switch isolator for the phase/live and neutral supply cables and
three bars for the live, neutral and earth terminals. The live bar is provided with several fuse ways or
miniature circuit breakers to protect individual circuits from overload.

LIGHTING CIRCUIT
Lighting circuits can incorporate various switching arrangements. In a one-way switch circuit, the single-
pole switch must be connected to the live conductor.

To ensure that both live and neutral conductors are isolated from the supply a double-pole switch may
be used, although these are generally limited to installations in larger buildings where the number and
type of light fittings demand a relatively high current flow. In principle, the two-way switch is a single-
pole changeover switch interconnected in pairs. Two switches provide control of one or more lamps
from two positions, such as that found in stair/landing, bedroom and corridor situations. In large
buildings, every access point should have its own lighting control switch.

MASTER SWITCH

The purpose of a `master' switch is to limit or vary the scope of control afforded by other switches in the
same circuit. If a `master' switch (possibly one with a detachable key option) is fixed near the main door
of a house or flat, the householder is provided with a means of controlling all the lights from one
position.
TESTING COMPLETED INSTALLATION

Electrical installations must be tested on completion to verify that the system will operate efficiently and
safely. The tests are extensive, as defined in the Institution of Electrical Engineers Regulations. They can
only be carried out by a competent person, i.e., a qualified electrician or electrical engineer. The
following tests are an essential part of the proceedings:

● Continuity
● Insulation
● Polarity.

Testing is undertaken by visual inspection and the use of a multipurpose meter (multimeter) or an
instrument specifically for recording resistance, i.e., an ohmmeter.

Continuity - This is to ensure integrity of the live, neutral and earth conductors without bridging
(shorting out) of connections.

Insulation - this test is to ensure that there is a high resistance between live and neutral conductors and
these conductors and earth. The test to earth requires all lamps and other equipment to be
disconnected, all switches and circuit breakers closed and fuses left in and ohmmeter readings taken.

Polarity - This is to ensure that all switches and circuit breakers are connected in the phase or live
conductor. An inadvertent connection of switchgear to a neutral conductor would lead to a very
dangerous situation where apparent isolation of equipment would still leave it live.

Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE) Wiring Regulations

The following is a list of basic requirements:

1. Use good workmanship.

2. Use approved materials and equipment.

3. Ensure that the correct type, size and current-carrying capacity of cables are chosen.

4. Ensure that equipment is suitable for the maximum power demanded of it.

[Link] sure that conductors are insulated, and sheathed or protected if necessary, or are placed in a
position to prevent danger.
6. Joints and connections should be properly constructed to be mechanically and electrically sound.

7. Always provide overcurrent protection for every circuit in an installation (the protection for the whole
installation is usually provided by the Distribution Network Operator and ensure that protective devices
are suitably chosen for their location and the duty they have to perform.

8. Where there is a chance of metalwork becoming live owing to a fault, it should be earthed, and the
circuit concerned should be protected by an overcurrent device or a residual current device (RCD).

9. Ensure that all necessary bonding of services is carried out.

10. Do not place a fuse, a switch or a circuit breaker, unless itis a linked switch or circuit breaker, in an
earthed neutral conductor. The linked type must be arranged to break all the line conductors.

11. All single-pole switches must be wired in the line conductor only.

12. A readily accessible and effective means of isolation must be provided, so that all voltage may be cut
off from an installation or any of its circuits.

13. All motors must have a readily accessible means of disconnection.

14. Ensure that any item of equipment which may normally need operating or attending by persons is
accessible and easily operated.;

15. Any equipment required to be installed in a situation exposed to weather or corrosion, or in

explosive or volatile environments, should be of the correct type for such adverse conditions.

[Link] adding to or altering an installation, ensure that such work will not impair any part of the
existing installation and that the existing is in a safe condition to accommodate the addition.

[Link] completion of an installation or an alteration to an installation, the work must be inspected and
tested to ensure, as far as reasonably practicable, that the fundamental requirements for safety have
been met.

RING CIRCUIT

A ring circuit is used for single-phase power supply to three-pin sockets. It consists of PVC sheathed
cable containing live and neutral conductors in PVC insulation and an exposed earth looped into each
socket outlet. In a domestic building a ring circuit may serve an unlimited number of sockets up to a
maximum floor area of 100 m2. A separate circuit is also provided solely for the kitchen, as this contains
relatively high rated appliances. Plug connections to the ring have small cartridge fuses up to 13 amp
rating to suit the appliance wired to the plug. The number of socket outlets from a spur should not
exceed the number of socket outlets and fixed appliances on the ring.
OVERLOAD PROTECTION

Electrical installations must be protected from current overload, otherwise appliances, cables and
people using the equipment could be damaged. Protection devices can be considered in three
categories: 1. Semi-enclosed (rewirable) fuses. 2. High breaking or rupturing capacity (HBC or HRC)
cartridge fuses. 3. Miniature circuit breakers (mcb). None of these devices necessarily operate instantly.
Their efficiency depends on the degree of overload. Rewirable fuses can have a fusing factor of up to
twice their current rating and cartridge fuses up to about 1 „ 6. Mcbs can carry some overload, but will
be instantaneous (0 „01 seconds) at very high currents.

Characteristics:

Semi-enclosed rewirable fuse:

Inexpensive. Simple, i.e. no moving parts. Prone to abuse (wrong wire could be used). Age
deterioration. Unreliable with temperature variations. Cannot be tested.
Cartridge fuse: Compact. Fairly inexpensive, but cost more than rewirable. No moving parts. Not
repairable. Could be abused.

Miniature circuit breaker: Relatively expensive. Factory tested. Instantaneous in high current flow.
Unlikely to be misused.

Symbols in electrical installation works