Definition of Signal

A signal is a function that conveys information about the behavior or attributes of some
phenomenon. Mathematically, a signal is defined as a function of one or more independent
variables.
 Common form: x(t) for continuous-time signals
 x[n] for discrete-time signals

Classification of Signals
(A) Continuous-Time (CT) Signals
 Defined for every value of time t
 The function x(t) is continuous over time.
Example:
Let x (t)=sin(2 πt )
This is defined for all real values of t , so it's continuous-time.

(B) Discrete-Time (DT) Signals

 Defined only at discrete intervals of time
 Represented as x[n], where n is an integer
Example:
Let x [n]=3n for n=0 , 1, 2 , …
This is a discrete-time signal.

3. Periodic and Non-Periodic Signals

(A) Periodic Signal
A signal x(t) or x[n] is periodic if it repeats after a fixed interval:
 For CT: x (t)=x (t+T ), for all t , where T > 0
 For DT: x [n]=x [n+ N ], for all n, where N is a positive integer
Example 1 (CT):
x (t)=cos(4 πt)
 2π
Period T = =0.5
4π
Hence, periodic with period 0.5
Example 2 (DT):

x [n]=sin ( π4 n)
π 2π
Check: ω= ⇒ N= =8
4 ω
Hence, periodic with period N = 8

(B) Non-Periodic Signal

If a signal does not repeat after a fixed interval, it's non-periodic.
Example 1 (CT):
−t
x (t )=e
It decays over time, never repeats → non-periodic
Example 2 (DT):
2
x [n]=n
No fixed repetition → non-periodic

Continuous-Time
Type Example Discrete-Time Example Periodic?
Sine Wave x (t)=sin(2 πt ) x [n]=sin(πn/4 ) Yes
−t n
Exponential Decay x (t )=e x [n]=0.9 No
Unit Step Function x (t)=u(t) x [n]=u [n] No
Cosine Function x (t)=cos(3 πt) x [n]=cos(nπ /2) Yes

Numerical 1 (CT Periodicity):

Q: Is x (t)=cos(6 πt)+sin (4 πt) periodic?
 2π 1
 Period of cos (6 πt)= =
6π 3
2π 1
 Period of sin(4 πt)= =
4π 2
1 1 1
 LCM of , =
3 2 6
Yes, periodic with period = 1/6

Numerical 2 (DT Periodicity):

Q: Is x [n]=cos ( 23πn )+sin ( 34πn ) periodic?

2π
 Period of first term: N 1= =3
2 π /3
2π 8
 Period of second term: N 2= = → Not integer
3 π /4 3
Not periodic since both terms do not have integer common period.

1. Deterministic and Random Signals

Deterministic Signal
A signal whose value at any time can be exactly predicted using a mathematical expression.
 Example: x (t)=5sin (2 πt)

 Numerical Example: Evaluate x (t)=5sin (2 πt) at t=0.25 sec.

π
x (0.25)=5 sin(2 π ⋅0.25)=5 sin( )=5 (1)=5
2

Random Signal
A signal whose value cannot be predicted precisely; it follows a probabilistic model.
 Example: Noise signal in a communication system.

 Numerical Conceptual Example: Let x (t) represent white Gaussian

noise with zero mean and standard deviation σ =1. Then
P(¿ x (t)∨¿ 1.96)≈ 95 % (from Gaussian distribution properties).
2. Energy and Power Signals
Energy Signal
A signal is an energy signal if its total energy is finite and power is zero.
 Condition:
∞
E=∫ ¿ x (t )¿ dt <∞ , P=0
2

−∞

 Example: x (t)=e−t u(t), where u(t ) is the unit step function.

 Numerical Example:

[ ]
∞ ∞
−1 −2 t 1
E=∫ e
−2 t
dt= e =
0 2 0 2

Power Signal
A signal is a power signal if it has finite power and infinite energy over infinite time.
 Condition:
lim 1 T
P=
T→∞
2T
∫ ¿ x (t)¿2 dt < ∞
−T

 Example: x (t)=10 cos(2 πt)

 Numerical Example:
lim 1 T
P=
T→∞
2T
∫ 100 cos 2 (2 πt)dt =100 ⋅ 12 =50
−T
3. Analog and Digital Signals
Analog Signal
A signal that varies continuously with time and amplitude.
 Example: x (t)=sin(2 πt ), ECG signal, sound waves.

 Numerical Example: At t=0.1, x (0.1)=sin(2 π ⋅0.1)=sin(0.2 π )≈ 0.587

Digital Signal
A signal that takes discrete time and amplitude values; often binary (0 and 1).
 Example: Binary signal: x [n]={1 , 0 ,1 , 1, 0 }

 Numerical Example: Let x [n]={2 , 4 , 6 , 8 } for n=0 to 3. It is digital if it

occurs at fixed intervals (say every 1 ms) and values are from a finite
set.

Commonly used signals (for discrete and continuous):

1. Unit Step Signal u(t )

 Definition:

u(t )= {01 t <0

t ≥0

 Example: u(−2)=0 ,u (0)=1 ,u (5)=1

2. Unit Ramp Signal r (t )

 Definition:

r (t )= {0t t <0
t ≥0

 Example: r (−1)=0 ,r (0)=0 , r (3)=3

 Relationship:
t
d
r (t )=∫ u(τ )dτ ⇒ r (t)=u (t)
−∞ dt
3. Unit Impulse Signal δ (t)
(Also called Dirac Delta function)
 Definition:

{
∞
∞ t=0
δ (t)= with ∫ δ(t)dt=1
0 t≠0 −∞

 Relationship:
t
d
u(t )=∫ δ(τ )dτ ⇒ u(t )=δ (t)
−∞ dt

4. Exponential Signal
 Definition (Real exponential):
at
x (t )= A e

 Example: Let A=2 , a=−1 ⇒ x (t)=2 e−t x (0)=2 , x (1)=2 e−1 ≈ 0.735

5. Sinusoidal Signal
 Definition:

x (t)= A sin(ωt +ϕ )
π
 Example: Let A=3 , ω=π , ϕ=0 ⇒ x (t )=3 sin(πt) x (0)=0 , x (0.5)=3 sin ( )=3
2

6. Even and Odd Signals

 Even Signal:

x (t)=x (−t)
Example: x (t)=cos(t)

 Odd Signal:

x (t)=−x(−t)
Example: x (t)=sin(t)

 Decomposition: Any signal x (t) can be written as:

 x (t)=x e (t)+ x o (t)

x (t)+ x (−t) x (t )−x (−t)

where x e (t)= , x o (t)=
2 2

Classifications of Systems

1. Linear vs Non-Linear Systems

 Linear: Satisfies superposition (additivity + homogeneity)

T [a x1 (t )+ b x2 (t)]=aT [ x 1 (t)]+bT [ x 2( t)]

Example: y (t )=2 x (t)

 Non-Linear: Does not satisfy superposition Example: y (t )=x 2 (t )

2. Stable vs Unstable Systems

 Stable: Bounded input → Bounded output (BIBO Stability)

¿ x (t)∨¿ ∞⇒∨ y (t )∨¿ ∞

Example: y (t )=cos (x (t))

 Unstable: Bounded input → Unbounded output Example: y (t )=e x (t ) if

x (t)→ ∞

Causal vs Non-Causal Systems

Causal System:
 Definition: Output at any time depends only on present and past input values (not future).
 Mathematically: y (t )=f (x (t), x (t−τ)), τ ≥ 0
 Example: y (t )=x (t)+ x (t−2)
Non-Causal System:
 Definition: Output depends on future values of the input.
 Example: y (t )=x (t+3)
Numerical Example:
Let x (t)=t .
 For causal system y (t )=x (t−1) , at t=2 ⇒ y (2)=x (1)=1
 For non-causal system y (t )=x (t+1), at t=2 ⇒ y (2)=x (3)=3

Time-Invariant vs Time-Variant Systems

Time-Invariant System:
 Definition: System behavior doesn’t change over time. A time shift in input causes the
same time shift in output.
 Mathematically: If x (t)→ y (t), then x (t−t 0)→ y (t−t 0 )
 Example: y (t )=x (t)+ x (t−2)
Time-Variant System:
 Definition: System behavior changes with time.
 Example: y (t )=t ⋅ x (t)
Numerical Example:
Let x (t)=t 2

 For time-invariant system: y (t )=x (t−1)⇒ y (2)=¿

 For time-variant system: y (t )=t ⋅ x (t)=t 3 ⇒ y (2)=8 , y (3)=27

Invertible vs Non-Invertible Systems

Invertible System:
 Definition: A system is invertible if distinct inputs lead to distinct outputs, and we can
recover the input from the output.
 Condition: There exists an inverse system T −1 such that T −1 (T ( x (t )))=x (t )
 Example: y (t )=2 x (t)⇒ x (t )= y (t )/2
Non-Invertible System:
 Definition: Cannot recover input uniquely from output.
 Example: y (t )=x 2 (t )⇒ x( t )=± √ y (t ), not unique

Numerical Example:
Let:
 x 1 (t)=2 , x 2 (t)=−2
2
 y (t )=x (t )
Then:
  y 1 (t)=4 , y 2 (t )=4 , i.e., different inputs give the same output → non-invertible

Discrete-Time Systems: Basic Blocks

Let the discrete-time input signal be x [n], and output be y [n].

Adder Block
Definition:
Adds two or more discrete-time signals.
y [n]=x 1 [n ]+ x 2 [n]

Example:
Let:
 x 1 [n]=[1 , 2 ,3 ],
 x 2 [n]=[4 , 5 , 6]

Then:
 y [n]=[1+4 , 2+5 ,3+6 ]=[5 ,7 , 9]

Constant Multiplier
Definition:
Multiplies the input signal by a constant k .
y [n]=k ⋅ x [n]
Example:
If x [n]=[2 , 4 , 6], and k =3, then y [n]=[6 , 12 ,18 ]

Signal Multiplier (Point-wise Multiplication)

Definition:
Multiplies two discrete-time signals element-by-element.
 y [n]=x 1 [n ]⋅ x 2 [n]

Example:
Let:
 x 1 [n]=[1 , 2 ,3 ]
 x 2 [n]=[4 , 5 , 6]

Then:
 y [n]=[1 ×4 ,2 ×5 ,3 ×6 ]=[4 , 10 , 18]

Unit Delay Block

Definition:
Delays the signal by one unit.
y [n]=x [n−1]
Example:
If x [n]=[1 ,2 , 3], Then y [n]=[0 , 1 ,2] (assuming x [−1]=0 )
Often used in FIR/IIR filters and difference equations.

Unit Advance Block

Definition:
Advances the signal by one unit.
y [n]=x [n+1]
Example:
If x [n]=[1 ,2 , 3], Then y [n]=[2 , 3 ,0 ] (assuming x [3]=0)
Useful in prediction or preview-based systems.

Problem: Given x (t)=cos(2 πt) and x [n]=cos(0.5 πn). Determine whether each signal is
continuous-time or discrete-time.

Problem: Determine if x [n]=cos ( 34πn ) is periodic. If yes, find the period.

()
n
1
Problem: Determine whether x [n]= u[n] is an energy or power signal.
2
Problem: Given x (t)=et , find its even and odd components.
Problem: Check whether the system y [n]=x [n]⋅ x [n−1] is:
 Linear
 Time-invariant
 Causal

Problem: Check whether the system y [n]=x [n]⋅ x [n−1] is:

 Linear
 Time-invariant
Causal

Problem: Given x [n]=2n , find output of the following system:

 A unit delay block followed by constant multiplier of 3.

Problem: If u(t ) is the unit step function, express unit ramp r (t ) and impulse δ (t) in terms of
u(t ).
Numerical 1: Continuous vs Discrete Time Signal
Problem: Given x (t)=cos(2 πt) and x [n]=cos(0.5 πn). Determine whether each signal is
continuous-time or discrete-time.
Solution:
 x (t)=cos(2 πt) is defined for all real values of t : Continuous-time signal
 x [n]=cos(0.5 πn) is defined for integer values of n: Discrete-time signal
Answer:
 x (t): Continuous-time
 x [n]: Discrete-time

Numerical 2: Periodic or Non-periodic Signal

Problem: Determine if x [n]=cos ( 34πn ) is periodic. If yes, find the period.

ω
Solution: For a discrete-time signal cos (ωn), it is periodic if is a rational number.
2π
3π 3π 3 3
ω= ⇒ = ⇒Period=Least integer N such that N ⋅ =integer ⇒ N =8
4 4 ⋅2 π 8 8
Answer: Signal is periodic, period = 8

Numerical 3: Energy and Power Signal

()
n
1
Problem: Determine whether x [n]= u[n] is an energy or power signal.
2
Solution: Energy:

( ) =∑ ( )
∞ 2n ∞
1 1 n 1 4
E=∑ = = ⇒ Finite energy
n=0 2 n=0 4 1 3
1−
4
Power:
lim 1 N
P=
N→∞
2 N +1 n=− N
∑ 2
¿ x [n]¿ =0 (since decays to 0)

4
Answer: Signal is an energy signal with E=
3
Numerical 4: Even and Odd Components
Problem: Given x (t)=et , find its even and odd components.
x (t)+ x (−t) e t +e−t
Solution: Even: x e (t)= = =cosh (t) Odd:
2 2
x (t )−x (−t) et −e−t
x o (t)= = =sinh(t )
2 2
Answer:
 Even component: cosh (t )
 Odd component: sinh(t)

Numerical 5: System Classification

Problem: Check whether the system y [n]=x [n]⋅ x [n−1] is:
 Linear
 Time-invariant
 Causal
Solution:
 Linearity: Non-linear (product of input terms)
 Time-invariant: Yes (no explicit time-varying operation)
 Causal: Yes (only depends on present and past input)
Answer:
 Non-linear
 Time-invariant
 Causal

Numerical 6: Basic Discrete-Time System Elements

Problem: Given x [n]=2n , find output of the following system:
 A unit delay block followed by constant multiplier of 3.
Solution: Step 1: Unit delay: x [n−1]=2(n−1)=2 n−2 Step 2: Multiply by 3:
y [n]=3 ⋅(2 n−2)=6 n−6
Answer: y [n]=6 n−6
Numerical 7: Unit Step, Impulse, and Ramp Relationship
Problem: If u(t ) is the unit step function, express unit ramp r (t ) and impulse δ (t) in terms of
u(t ).
Solution:
t
 r (t )=∫ u(τ )dτ
−∞
d
 δ (t)= u(t)
dt
Answer:
 Ramp: r (t )= ∫ u (t)dt
d
 Impulse: δ (t)= u(t)
dt