1 Recognition of Need (Market Survey): Identify the actual need, purpose, or problem to be solved.

• Design calculations are based on strength of materials approach — direct, bending, torsional and
MACHINE DESIGN This may arise from a customer requirement, a market demand, or a deficiency in an existing product. combined stresses are calculated and compared against permissible stress.
Unit I : Introduction to Machine Design 2 Synthesis (Mechanism): Select a suitable mechanism or set of mechanisms that will perform the • A suitable factor of safety is applied to account for uncertainties in loading, material properties, and
desired function. manufacturing.
3 Analysis of Forces: Determine the forces acting on each element of the machine and the energy • Trial-and-error and iterative hand calculations are used to arrive at a satisfactory size/shape.
1. Engineering Design and Its Classification transmitted by each component. • Heavy reliance on empirical relations, design data handbooks, and past experience for elements that
4 Material Selection: Select the most suitable material(s) for each component, considering the are difficult to analyze purely theoretically (e.g., fillet radii, weld sizes).
1.1 What is Engineering Design? mechanical properties required, cost, and availability. • Design is largely sequential: load analysis → stress analysis → sizing → checking, with limited scope
Engineering design is the systematic, iterative process of conceiving, evaluating, and specifying a device, 5 Design of Elements (Size and Stresses): Determine the size of each component using suitable for automatic optimization.
system, or process that satisfies a given need, subject to functional, economic, safety, and manufacturing strength equations relating the load, allowable/permissible stress and the appropriate factor of safety,
The traditional approach, though time-consuming, remains fundamental because it builds the designer's
constraints. In the context of machine design, it specifically refers to the creation of new machines or ensuring the part neither fails nor deforms excessively in service.
understanding of the underlying physics, which is essential even when modern computer-aided and
improvement of existing machines so that they perform their intended function safely, reliably, and 6 Modification: Modify the dimensions obtained from strength calculations to agree with actual/standard optimization tools are subsequently used.
economically. (preferred) sizes, considering manufacturing constraints.
7 Detailed Drawing: Prepare detailed working drawings of each component and the assembly,
1.2 Classification of Engineering Design specifying dimensions, tolerances, surface finish, and material. 5. Standards and Codes
• Adaptive Design: Involves small adaptations or modifications to an existing design/product. No new 8 Production/Manufacture: The part is manufactured in the workshop as per the drawings produced in
inventive work is required; the designer only adapts known mechanisms to new requirements (e.g., the previous step.
5.1 Engineering Standards
modifying a bracket to fit a new mounting arrangement). A standard is a set of specifications for parts, materials, or processes that have been agreed upon and
Note: This procedure is iterative in nature — the designer frequently returns to earlier steps (e.g., re-selecting
• Development Design: Starts from an existing/adaptive design but requires considerable design effort material or re-analyzing forces) as new information becomes available during the design process. codified by a recognized authority, intended to achieve uniformity, interchangeability, and quality.
and analysis to develop a new design offering improved performance (e.g., increasing the capacity or Standards may specify dimensions, tolerances, material grades, testing procedures, or terminology.
efficiency of an existing machine).
3. Requirements of a Machine Element Purpose / Advantages of Standardization
• New Design (Innovative Design): Requires the application of scientific principles, technical
information, and imagination to develop an entirely new machine or mechanism that did not exist • Ensures interchangeability of parts manufactured by different firms.
Every machine element, irrespective of its function, must satisfy certain basic requirements to ensure the
before. This demands the highest level of design skill and originality. • Reduces variety, thereby lowering production and inventory costs.
safe and efficient working of the machine as a whole:
• Enables mass production and reduces manufacturing/delivery time.
Design can also be classified based on the methodology used:
• Strength: The element must be strong enough to withstand the external loads (static, dynamic, or Simplifies design work since standard components can be selected directly from catalogues.
•
• Rational (Analytical) Design: Based on mathematical formulae of principal stresses and strains impact) acting on it without failure.
• Assures a minimum acceptable quality and reliability of the product.
derived from strength of materials and theories of failure. • Rigidity: The element should possess sufficient stiffness so that deformation under load remains
within permissible limits. • Facilitates easy replacement and maintenance of components.
• Empirical Design: Based on past experience and experimentation rather than on precise
mathematical calculations. • Wear Resistance: Surfaces subjected to relative motion (e.g., bearings, gears) must resist wear to Types of Standards (by origin)
• Industrial Design: Based on industrial production considerations, i.e., a form of design in which maintain functional accuracy over the service life.
• Company Standards: Followed within a particular organization.
technical requirements are combined with the aesthetics, ergonomics, and market appeal of the • Minimum Dimensions and Weight: The element should be as compact and light as possible without • National Standards: e.g., Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS/IS) in India, British Standards (BS) in the
product. compromising strength — important for cost, material saving, and reducing inertia forces. UK, ANSI in the USA, DIN in Germany, JIS in Japan.
• Optimum Design: The best design for the given objective function under the specified constraints — it • Manufacturability: The element must be capable of being manufactured economically using available • International Standards: e.g., International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
may be the design of least cost, least weight, or maximum efficiency. processes and facilities.
• System Design: Design of a complete system consisting of a number of components/sub-systems, • Safety: It must not endanger the operator or surrounding equipment under normal or foreseeable 5.2 Codes
rather than an isolated component (e.g., designing a complete gearbox rather than a single gear). abnormal operating conditions.
A code is a set of specifications for the analysis, design, manufacture, testing, and erection/installation of
• Element Design: Design of an individual machine part/component such as a shaft, key, or bolt. • Economy of Production and Use: Low initial cost, low maintenance cost, and long service life. equipment, prescribed mainly from the point of view of safety. While standards mainly ensure uniformity
• Computer-Aided Design (CAD): Design performed using computer software to model, analyze, • Conformity to Standards: Standard dimensions, fits, and materials should be used wherever possible and interchangeability, codes are chiefly concerned with safety and performance. Examples include
simulate, and optimize the component before manufacture. to ensure interchangeability. codes for pressure vessels, boilers, cranes, and structural steelwork, issued by bodies such as ASME,
IBR (Indian Boiler Regulations), and BIS.
2. Basic Design Procedure 4. Traditional Design Methods
6. Selection of Preferred Sizes
Although design is a creative and iterative process without a single fixed route, most designers follow a Traditional (conventional) design refers to the classical approach to machine design that relies primarily
broadly similar sequence of steps. The general procedure for the design of a machine element (or on analytical methods, empirical data, and design codes/handbooks, as opposed to modern When a designer calculates a dimension (e.g., diameter of a shaft) from strength or rigidity considerations,
machine) is summarized below: computer-based optimization techniques. Its key features are: the calculated value rarely corresponds to a convenient round number. To promote standardization,

economy, and interchangeability, the calculated value is rounded up to the nearest value from a series of • Preferred where light weight, corrosion resistance, high electrical/thermal conductivity, or It is the capacity of a material to absorb energy within its elastic range and
preferred numbers. non-magnetic properties are required. Resilience release it upon unloading, and this property is important in the design of
springs.
6.1 Preferred Numbers (Renard Series) 7.2 Non-Metallic Materials
It is the slow, progressive, time-dependent deformation of a material that
Creep
Preferred numbers are based on geometric series and are internationally standardized (ISO/IS series R5, • Natural non-metals: Wood, leather, natural rubber. occurs under a constant load, typically at elevated temperature.
R10, R20, R40), originally proposed by Col. Charles Renard. Each series is derived from a geometric • Synthetic non-metals: Plastics (thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics), synthetic rubber, It is the ability of a material to withstand repeated or cyclic loading without
progression with a common ratio, giving a set of round numbers spread uniformly on a logarithmic scale. ceramics, glass, composites (e.g., fibre-reinforced plastics). Fatigue Strength
failure, and it is quantified by the endurance limit of the material.

Series Common Ratio No. of steps per decade Typical use

• Used for gaskets, seals, bushes, insulation, low-load/low-cost components, and where corrosion It is the ease with which a material can be cut or machined to the desired
resistance or electrical insulation is required. Machinability
shape and surface finish.
R5 1.58 (5th root of 10) 5 Very coarse steps
7.3 Classification by Structure / Other Bases
R10 1.25 (10th root of 10) 10 General engineering use

R20 1.12 (20th root of 10) 20 Finer gradation

• Metals and Alloys vs Non-metals (as above). 9. Selection of Materials
• Ferrous vs Non-ferrous (as above).
R40 1.06 (40th root of 10) 40 Very fine gradation Selection of the most suitable material for a machine element is a complex decision governed by several
• By crystal structure: BCC, FCC, HCP materials — influences ductility and strength.
interacting factors. The main considerations are:
Advantages of using preferred sizes: • Composites: Combination of two or more materials to obtain properties not achievable by either
material alone (e.g., fibre-reinforced composites, metal-matrix composites). 9.1 Factors Governing Material Selection
• Reduces the number of distinct sizes of tools, gauges, dies, and stock material needed.
• Smart/Advanced materials: Shape-memory alloys, piezoelectric materials, used in special • Mechanical Properties: Required strength, hardness, ductility, toughness, fatigue and creep
• Ensures compatibility of a part with standard bought-out components (bearings, fasteners, etc.). applications. resistance appropriate to the service loading and environment.
• Promotes rational spacing of a size range so that steps are proportionate at both small and large ends • Physical Properties: Density, thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity, thermal expansion, melting
of the range.
8. Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials point, as relevant to the application.
• Facilitates interchangeability and economy in mass production. • Chemical Properties: Resistance to corrosion, oxidation, and chemical attack in the working
Mechanical properties describe how a material responds to applied forces and are the primary basis on environment.
7. Engineering Materials and Their Classification which a designer selects a material and calculates the required dimensions of a component.
• Manufacturing Properties: Castability, weldability, machinability, formability — the ease with which
the material can be processed into the finished shape.
Selection of the correct material is one of the most critical steps in machine design, since the Property Definition / Significance
• Availability: The material should be readily available in the required form (bar, sheet, casting) and
performance, cost, and life of a component depend directly upon it. Engineering materials are broadly It is the ability of a material to resist externally applied forces without failure by
Strength quantity.
classified as follows: yielding or fracture.
• Cost: Both the cost of the raw material and the cost of processing it must be within the economic
It is the ability of a material to regain its original shape and size completely constraints of the product.
7.1 Metals Elasticity
after the removal of the deforming load.
• Service Life and Reliability: The material's behaviour under the expected duration and conditions of
(a) Ferrous Metals It is the ability of a material to undergo permanent deformation without rupture, service (temperature, corrosive media, cyclic loads).
Plasticity
Ferrous metals contain iron as their main constituent. and it forms the basis of forming and forging processes. • Weight considerations: Especially important in aerospace/automotive applications where
strength-to-weight ratio is critical.
• Cast Iron (CI): Grey CI, White CI, Malleable CI, Spheroidal Graphite (SG)/Ductile CI, Alloy CI — used Ductility
It is the ability of a material to be drawn into thin wires under tensile load
for machine beds, brackets, pipes, etc. before fracture, as seen in mild steel, copper, and aluminium.
9.2 General Procedure for Material Selection
• Wrought Iron: Nearly pure iron with low carbon content; used for chains, hooks, straps. It is the property of a material to break with little or no prior plastic deformation, 1 Determine the properties required based on the functional requirement and service conditions of the
Brittleness
• Steel: Iron-carbon alloy (up to ~1.5% C). as seen in cast iron and glass, and it is the opposite of ductility. component.
• - Plain Carbon Steel: Low carbon (mild steel, <0.3% C), Medium carbon steel (0.3-0.7% C), High It is the ability of a material to be flattened into thin sheets by hammering or 2 Identify candidate materials that can provide these properties.
carbon steel (>0.7% C). Malleability
rolling without cracking, as seen in gold, lead, and mild steel. 3 Evaluate candidate materials for manufacturability with the intended process.
• - Alloy Steel: Steel with added alloying elements (Ni, Cr, Mo, V, W, etc.) to enhance strength, Compare candidates on the basis of cost, availability, and any code/standard requirements.
It is the ability of a material to absorb energy under impact or shock loads 4
hardness, toughness, or corrosion resistance, e.g., stainless steel, high-speed steel (HSS), spring Toughness before fracture, and it is represented by the area under the stress-strain curve 5 Select the material offering the best overall balance among performance, manufacturability, and cost.
steel. up to the point of fracture.

(b) Non-Ferrous Metals It is the resistance offered by a material to indentation, scratching, abrasion, or 10. Manufacturing Considerations and Their Selection
Hardness
• Metals and alloys that do not contain iron as the principal element, e.g., aluminium and its alloys wear.
(duralumin), copper and its alloys (brass, bronze), lead, tin, zinc, nickel, titanium, and magnesium The choice of manufacturing process is closely linked to material selection and significantly affects the
It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under load, and it is measured
alloys. Stiffness (Rigidity) cost, strength, and quality of the final component. A designer must consider the following while selecting a
by the modulus of elasticity (E).
 Machine Design / Strength of Materials UNIT II – Static Loading Machine Design / Strength of Materials UNIT II – Static Loading

manufacturing process:
2. Modes of Failure
• Shape and Complexity of the Component: Complex shapes may favour casting or powder UNIT II
metallurgy, while simple shapes may be economically produced by machining or forming. A machine member is said to have failed when it can no longer perform its intended function
• Quantity of Production: Mass production favours casting, forging, or press-working (low unit cost, STATIC LOADING safely and satisfactorily. Under static loading, the principal modes of failure are:
high tooling cost); small batch/one-off production favours machining or fabrication (low tooling cost).
• Elastic Failure (Yielding): Permanent plastic deformation begins when the stress exceeds
• Material Properties: The chosen process must suit the material — e.g., cast iron is suited to casting, the yield strength of the material. This is the usual design limit for ductile materials.
not forging; ductile metals suit forging and rolling. Stresses under Different Loads • Modes of Failure • Principal Stresses
Theories of Failure (Rankine, Guest, Von Mises) • Design Selection • Fracture (Breaking): Separation of the material into two or more pieces. Brittle materials
• Dimensional Accuracy and Surface Finish: Precision components may require additional finishing
fail by fracture with little prior deformation.
operations (grinding, honing) after primary shaping.
1. Basics – Stresses in Members under Different Types of Loads • Excessive Deformation: Even without fracture, large elastic or plastic deflections may
• Strength Requirements: Forged components generally have better mechanical properties (grain flow,
higher strength) than cast components of the same material.
render a part unusable (e.g., a shaft that bends too much).
When a machine member is subjected to external forces (static loads), internal resisting forces • Buckling: Sudden lateral instability of slender members under compressive load, occurring
• Cost of Production: Includes material cost, tooling/pattern cost, machine time, labour, and finishing
cost — the overall economics must justify the chosen process. develop within the material. These internal forces per unit area are called stresses. The nature at stresses often below the yield strength.

• Available Equipment/Infrastructure: The process selected should match the manufacturing facilities of stress depends on the type of load applied. Note: For ductile materials (mild steel, aluminium alloys) the design is generally based on the
actually available to the firm. onset of yielding. For brittle materials (cast iron, concrete, ceramics) the design is based on the
1.1 Types of Loads and Corresponding Stresses ultimate tensile strength with a suitable factor of safety.
Common Manufacturing Processes
1. Axial (Tensile or Compressive) Load: A force acting along the longitudinal axis of a
• Casting: Sand casting, die casting — suited for complex shapes, brittle materials (e.g., cast iron), member produces uniform normal stress. 3. Principal Stresses
moderate to large production.
• Forging: Hot/cold forging — produces components with superior strength and toughness due to σ = P / A where P = axial load, A = cross-sectional area At any point in a stressed body there exist three mutually perpendicular planes on which the
favourable grain flow (e.g., crankshafts, connecting rods). shear stress is zero. The normal stresses acting on these planes are called the principal
2. Shear Load: A force acting parallel to the cross-section produces shear stress.
• Machining: Turning, milling, drilling, grinding — used for achieving close tolerances and good surface stresses (σ , σ , σ ). They represent the maximum and minimum normal stresses at that
1 2 3
finish. τ = F / A where F = shear force, A = area resisting shear point.
• Welding/Fabrication: Joining of standard rolled sections/plates — economical for large, low-quantity
3. Bending Load: Transverse loads produce bending moment M, resulting in normal stress
structural components. 3.1 Two-Dimensional (Plane) Stress State
that varies linearly across the section.
• Powder Metallurgy: Suitable for small, intricate components in large quantities with minimal material When one principal stress is zero (or the stress state is two-dimensional), the in-plane principal
wastage. σ = M y / I where y = distance from neutral axis, I = moment of inertia stresses are given by:
b
• Forming/Press-working: Sheet metal operations such as bending, drawing, punching — suited to
= (σ + σ )/2 ± √[ ((σ − σ )/2) + τ 2 ]
2
thin-walled, high-volume components.
4. Torsional Load: A twisting moment (torque) T produces shear stress that varies with radius. σ
1,2 x y x y xy
Key takeaway: Material selection and manufacturing process selection are interdependent decisions — the final τ = T r / J where r = radial distance, J = polar moment of inertia The maximum shear stress in the plane is:
choice must simultaneously satisfy strength/functional requirements, be economically producible in the required
= √[ ((σ − σ )/2) + τ 2 ] = (σ − σ )/2
2
quantity, and conform to relevant standards and codes.
5. Combined Loading: In real machine parts, axial, bending and torsional loads often act τ
max x y xy 1 2
simultaneously. The resulting stress state is multi-axial and must be analysed using principal
stresses. 3.2 Significance for Design
Because the principal stresses are the extreme values of normal stress, theories of failure are
formulated in terms of σ1, σ2 and σ3. All combined-stress design problems are first reduced to
the determination of the principal stresses, after which a suitable failure theory is applied.

Figure 1: Common types of loads and the stresses they produce

Notes on Theories of Failure Page 1 Notes on Theories of Failure Page 2

Machine Design / Strength of Materials UNIT II – Static Loading Machine Design / Strength of Materials UNIT II – Static Loading Machine Design / Strength of Materials UNIT II – Static Loading

4. Theories of Failure Solution: Maximum shear stress τ = (σ − σ )/2. Here the algebraically largest and smallest principal
max 1 3
According to Rankine, failure is governed by the maximum absolute principal stress. stresses are 120 MPa and −40 MPa.
A theory of failure (also called a yield criterion or strength theory) predicts the conditions under max(|120|, |−40|) = 120 MPa τ = (120 − (−40))/2 = 160/2 = 80 MPa
max
which a material will begin to yield or fracture under a complex (multi-axial) state of stress. The Factor of safety, n = σ / σ = 300 / 120 = 2.5 At yield in pure tension, τ = σ /2 = 150 MPa
y max y y
most widely used theories for ductile materials under static loading are Rankine’s, Guest’s and Thus the component has a factor of safety of 2.5 against yielding by Rankine’s criterion. Factor of safety, n = τ / τ = 150 / 80 = 1.875
y max
Von Mises’ theories. Alternatively: n = σ / (σ − σ ) = 300 / 160 = 1.875. Note that Guest’s theory gives a lower (more
y 1 3
4.2 Guest’s Theory – Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Tresca) conservative) factor of safety than Rankine for this stress state.
4.1 Rankine’s Theory – Maximum Principal Stress Theory
Guest’s theory (also known as Tresca’s criterion) states that failure occurs when the maximum
According to Rankine’s theory, failure occurs when the maximum principal stress reaches 4.3 Von Mises Theory – Distortion Energy (Shear Energy) Theory
shear stress in the material reaches the shear stress at yield in simple tension. In a simple
the yield strength (or ultimate strength) of the material obtained from a simple tension test, tension test, τy = σy / 2. The Von Mises theory (also called the Distortion Energy Theory or
irrespective of the other principal stresses. Maxwell–Huber–Hencky–Von Mises theory) postulates that yielding begins when the
Failure criterion:
Failure criterion: distortion energy per unit volume reaches the distortion energy at yield in simple tension.
τ = (σ −σ )/2 ≥ σ / 2 Hydrostatic stress does not cause yielding; only the deviatoric (distortional) part of the stress
max(|σ |, |σ |, |σ |) ≥ σ (for yielding) max max min y
1 2 3 y tensor does.
Equivalently: max(|σ1−σ2|, |σ2−σ3|, |σ3−σ1|) ≥ σy
For design with factor of safety (n): σ1 ≤ σy / n (σ1 being the algebraically largest principal Von Mises equivalent stress:
stress) For design: (σ1 − σ3) ≤ σy / n (σ1 > σ2 > σ3)
2 2 2
Graphical representation: In the σ1–σ2 plane the safe region is a hexagon (regular hexagon
σ = √[ (1/2) { (σ −σ ) + (σ −σ ) + (σ −σ ) } ]
Graphical representation: In the σ1–σ2 plane (plane stress), the safe region is a square with e 1 2 2 3 3 1
sides parallel to the axes and intercepts ±σy. when σ3 = 0). Failure (yielding) occurs when σe ≥ σy
For design: σe ≤ σy / n
In plane stress (σ3 = 0) the expression simplifies to:

σ = √(σ 2 − σ σ + σ 2)
e 1 1 2 2
Graphical representation: The yield locus is an ellipse (in plane stress) that is circumscribed
about the Tresca hexagon and touches it at the six vertices corresponding to uniaxial
tension/compression.

Figure 2: Yield locus according to Rankine’s (Maximum Principal Stress) Theory Figure 3: Yield locus according to Guest’s (Maximum Shear Stress / Tresca) Theory

Applicability: Rankine’s theory is conservative for brittle materials and is often used for cast Applicability: Guest’s theory is widely used for ductile materials. It is slightly conservative
iron and similar materials that fail by fracture. It is less accurate for ductile materials because it compared with experimental results for most metals, but its simplicity makes it popular in design
ignores the influence of intermediate stresses. codes.

Numerical Example 1 – Rankine’s Theory Numerical Example 2 – Guest’s Theory

A machine component is subjected to principal stresses σ = 120 MPa (tensile) and σ = −40 MPa Using the same stress state as Example 1 (σ = 120 MPa, σ = −40 MPa, σ = 0) and σ = 300
1 2 3 y
1 2
(compressive). The material has a yield strength σ = 300 MPa. Determine the factor of safety MPa, find the factor of safety by Guest’s theory.
y
according to Rankine’s theory. Solution: Figure 4: Yield locus according to Von Mises (Distortion Energy) Theory

Notes on Theories of Failure Page 3 Notes on Theories of Failure Page 4 Notes on Theories of Failure Page 5
 Machine Design / Strength of Materials UNIT II – Static Loading Machine Design / Strength of Materials UNIT II – Static Loading Machine Design / Strength of Materials UNIT II – Static Loading

Applicability: Von Mises theory shows excellent agreement with experimental data for ductile Material Type Recommended Reason / Remarks σ = (16/(π d³)) √(250² + 0.75×143.24²) = (16/(π d³)) √(62500 + 15390) ≈ (16/(π d³)) × 279.1
e
metals (steel, aluminium, copper, etc.). It is the preferred criterion in modern machine design Theory (16/(π d³)) × 279.1 ≤ 144 → d³ ≥ (16×279.1)/(π×144) ≈ 9.88 → d ≥ 2.14 cm = 21.5 mm
and is used in most finite-element analysis software.
Von Mises permits a smaller diameter because it is less conservative than Tresca for this loading.
Brittle materials Rankine Brittle materials fail by fracture; maximum
Numerical Example 3 – Von Mises Theory In practice a diameter of 25–28 mm would be selected after considering manufacturing and other
(cast iron, ceramics, (Maximum Principal tensile stress governs.
constraints.
Again using σ = 120 MPa, σ = −40 MPa, σ = 0 and σ = 300 MPa, calculate the factor of safety concrete) Stress)
1 2 3 y
by the Von Mises theory.
Pressure vessels, Von Mises Standard in modern design codes and FEA 6. Summary
Solution: shafts, connecting rods packages.
σ = √(σ 2 − σ σ + σ 2) (ductile)
e 1 1 2 2 • Static loads produce normal and shear stresses; combined loading requires principal-stress
2 2
= √[ 120 − (120)(−40) + (−40) ] = √[ 14400 + 4800 + 1600 ] = √20800 ≈ 144.22 MPa analysis.
Preliminary / Guest (Tresca) Easier hand calculation; safe side of
Factor of safety, n = σ / σ = 300 / 144.22 ≈ 2.08 conservative design experimental data. • Failure modes under static load are yielding (ductile), fracture (brittle), excessive
y e
Comparison of the three theories for the same stress state: deformation and buckling.
• Rankine: n = 2.50 • Guest (Tresca): n = 1.875 • Von Mises: n = 2.08 • Rankine’s theory uses the maximum principal stress and is suitable for brittle materials.
5.1 Practical Design Guidelines
Von Mises lies between Rankine and Tresca, which is typical for ductile materials. • Guest’s (Tresca) theory uses the maximum shear stress and is a simple, conservative
1. Compute the principal stresses at the critical point of the component from the applied criterion for ductile materials.
loads (axial, bending, torsion, etc.).
• Von Mises theory uses the distortion energy (equivalent stress) and gives the best
2. Select the appropriate theory based on material ductility (see table above). agreement with experiments for ductile metals; it is the preferred modern design criterion.
3. Apply the chosen criterion with a suitable factor of safety (typically 1.5–3 for static loads • Always reduce the actual stress state to principal stresses first, then apply the selected
on ductile materials, higher for brittle materials or uncertain loads). theory with an appropriate factor of safety.
4. Size the component so that the equivalent stress (or maximum principal stress /
maximum shear stress) remains below the allowable value.
Important: For pure shear (e.g., torsion of a round shaft) Rankine predicts yielding at τ = σ , — End of UNIT II Notes —
y
while Guest predicts τ = σ /2 and Von Mises predicts τ = σ /√3 ≈ 0.577 σ . Experimental
y y y
evidence strongly supports the Von Mises value for ductile metals.

Numerical Example 4 – Design of a Shaft (Combined Bending & Torsion)

A steel shaft (σ = 360 MPa) transmits 15 kW at 1000 rpm and is subjected to a bending moment
y
of 250 N·m. Using a factor of safety of 2.5, determine the required diameter according to (a)
Guest’s theory and (b) Von Mises theory.
Solution:
Power P = 15 000 W, N = 1000 rpm → Torque T = (P × 60)/(2πN) = (15000×60)/(2π×1000) ≈
143.24 N·m
Figure 5: Comparison of Rankine, Guest (Tresca) and Von Mises yield loci (plane stress) Bending moment M = 250 N·m. For a circular shaft the principal stresses are:
σ = (16/(π d³)) [ M ± √(M² + T²) ]
1,2
5. Selection of Failure Theories for Design of Simple Machine Parts √(M² + T²) = √(250² + 143.24²) ≈ 288.1 N·m
σ = (16/(π d³)) (250 + 288.1) = (16/(π d³)) × 538.1
The choice of a failure theory depends primarily on the ductility of the material and the nature of 1
the stress state. σ = (16/(π d³)) (250 − 288.1) = (16/(π d³)) × (−38.1) (and σ = 0)
2 3
(a) Guest’s theory: σ − σ ≤ σ /n
1 2 y
Material Type Recommended Reason / Remarks σ − σ = (16/(π d³)) × (538.1 − (−38.1)) = (16/(π d³)) × 576.2
Theory 1 2
(16/(π d³)) × 576.2 ≤ 360/2.5 = 144 → d³ ≥ (16×576.2)/(π×144) ≈ 20.38 → d ≥ 2.73 cm = 27.3 mm
Ductile metals Von Mises Excellent correlation with experiments. (b) Von Mises theory: σ = √(σ ² − σ σ + σ ²) ≤ σ /n
e 1 1 2 2 y
(mild steel, Al alloys, (preferred) Tresca is simpler and slightly conservative.
It can be shown that for a shaft under M and T: σ = (16/(π d³)) √(M² + (3/4)T²) or equivalently
Cu, etc.) or Guest (Tresca) e
√(σ ² + 3 τ²)
b

Notes on Theories of Failure Page 6 Notes on Theories of Failure Page 7 Notes on Theories of Failure Page 8

Kt = σmax / σnom
UNIT III 9. Endurance Limit and Endurance Strength
Kf = 1 + q(Kt − 1) Endurance limit (Se): The stress amplitude below which a suitable material can withstand a very
Dynamic Loading, Stress Concentration and Fatigue Design large number of cycles without fatigue failure, when an endurance limit exists.
5. Notch Sensitivity
Endurance strength: The allowable fatigue stress for a specified finite number of cycles when the
Exam-oriented notes with arranged concepts, formulas, diagrams and numerical examples
Notch sensitivity indicates how strongly a material responds to a geometric notch under fatigue material does not have a clear endurance limit.
Learning objectives: Understand stress concentration, notch sensitivity, variable loading, fatigue loading. It depends on material properties, notch radius, notch severity, grain structure and loading
For design, the laboratory endurance limit is modified to account for actual component conditions.
failure, S–N diagrams, Goodman/Soderberg criteria, modifying factors, finite/infinite-life design conditions.
and cumulative fatigue damage.
Interpretation: A ductile material may be less sensitive to a notch than a brittle material. A small 10. S–N Diagram
notch radius generally produces a more severe stress concentration.
1. Dynamic Loading An S–N diagram plots stress amplitude S against the number of cycles to failure N, usually with N on
Design rule: Do not automatically use Kt as the fatigue concentration factor. Use Kf when fatigue a logarithmic scale. It shows the reduction in fatigue strength as the number of cycles increases.
Dynamic loading is a load whose magnitude, direction, or point of application changes with time. behavior is being evaluated.
Unlike a purely static load, it can produce fluctuating stresses and may cause fatigue failure even Use: The S–N curve is used to determine fatigue strength for a required life and to distinguish
when the maximum stress is below the static strength of the material. finite-life and, where applicable, infinite-life design.
6. Variable / Cyclic Loads
Common examples: rotating shafts, gears, crankshafts, connecting rods, springs, aircraft structures
A variable load changes in magnitude or direction with time. Typical idealized stress cycles are:
and machine frames subjected to vibration. Stress
• Repeated / pulsating stress: stress varies between zero and a maximum value.
Important design idea: In dynamic loading, both the mean stress and the alternating stress must be
• Completely reversed stress: equal tensile and compressive stresses occur alternately.
considered. Local geometric discontinuities can further increase the actual stress.
• Fluctuating stress: stress varies between unequal tensile and compressive or tensile values.
• Random loading: amplitude and frequency vary irregularly.
2. Stress Concentration and Its Importance in Design
For maximum stress σmax and minimum stress σmin:
Endurance limit
Stress concentration is the localized increase in stress around a discontinuity such as a hole,
keyway, groove, shoulder, thread, crack, sharp corner or sudden change in cross-section. σm = (σmax + σmin)/2

For a nominal stress σnom, the theoretical stress concentration factor is: σa = (σmax − σmin)/2

Kt = σmax / σnom R = σmin/σmax

σmax = Kt σnom
7. Numerical Example: Mean and Alternating Stress Number of cycles N

3. Methods to Reduce Stress Concentration A shaft is subjected to a cyclic bending stress varying from 40 MPa to 160 MPa. Find the mean
stress, alternating stress and stress ratio.
1. Avoid sudden changes in cross-section; use gradual transitions. 11. Goodman Criterion
2. Provide generous fillet radii at shoulders. Solution:
The Goodman relation is commonly used to account for the effect of mean stress on fatigue strength.
3. Use relief grooves where appropriate. σm = (160 + 40)/2 = 100 MPa
For a component subjected to alternating stress σa and mean stress σm:
4. Avoid sharp internal corners. σa = (160 − 40)/2 = 60 MPa
5. Improve surface finish at highly stressed locations. R = 40/160 = 0.25. where Se is the corrected endurance strength and Sut is ultimate tensile strength.
6. Use suitable geometry around holes, slots and keyways. Design interpretation: Increasing tensile mean stress reduces the permissible alternating stress. A
7. Introduce compressive residual stresses by suitable surface treatments where applicable. 8. Fatigue Failure compressive mean stress generally improves fatigue resistance within practical limits.
Fatigue failure is the progressive and localized failure of a component subjected to repeated or σa/Se + σm/Sut ≤ 1
4. Stress Concentration Factors fluctuating stresses. It can occur after a large number of cycles even when the maximum stress is
Theoretical stress concentration factor (Kt): It is based on elastic stress analysis and represents below the yield strength.
the ratio of maximum local elastic stress to nominal stress. Typical stages: (1) crack initiation, (2) stable crack growth, and (3) final fracture. Fatigue cracks
Actual / fatigue stress concentration factor (Kf): In fatigue design, the actual reduction in fatigue often start at surfaces, notches, holes, threads, keyways or other stress raisers.
strength due to a notch is represented by Kf. Usually Kf is less than or equal to Kt. Factors affecting fatigue life: stress amplitude, mean stress, surface finish, size, temperature,
Relation with notch sensitivity: material, residual stress, stress concentration and reliability.

UNIT III – Dynamic Loading & Fatigue Design Page 1 UNIT III – Dynamic Loading & Fatigue Design Page 2 UNIT III – Dynamic Loading & Fatigue Design Page 3
 Goodman: 100/180 + 120/600 = 0.756 < 1 → Safe by Goodman. Illustrative equivalent-stress form for combined normal and shear stress:

σa Soderberg: 100/180 + 120/400 = 0.856 < 1 → Safe by Soderberg. For fluctuating loading, calculate the alternating and mean components separately before applying
the chosen fatigue criterion. The exact combination method should follow the design standard or
14. Modifying Factors for Endurance Strength syllabus convention.
Sut
The laboratory endurance limit is corrected for actual service conditions. A commonly used design σeq = √(σ² + 3τ²)
form is:

1. Surface effect (ka): Rough surfaces usually have lower fatigue strength because surface
18. Numerical Example: Combined Loading
irregularities act as microscopic stress raisers. At a critical section, the alternating normal stress is 60 MPa and the alternating shear stress is 40
2. Size effect (kb): Larger components generally have lower endurance strength. MPa. Estimate the equivalent alternating stress using the distortion-energy form.
3. Load effect (kc): Endurance behavior differs for bending, axial and torsional loading.
Goodman line σa,eq = √(60² + 3×40²) = √8400 ≈ 91.65 MPa.
Se 4. Temperature effect (kd): Fatigue strength can change with operating temperature.
5. Reliability factor (ke): Higher required reliability generally reduces allowable fatigue stress. This equivalent stress can then be compared with the appropriate corrected fatigue strength, with
σm 6. Stress concentration / miscellaneous effects: Notches, residual stresses and other service mean stress treated separately when required.
effects can reduce fatigue strength.
19. Cumulative Damage in Fatigue
12. Soderberg Criterion Se = ka kb kc kd ke kf S′e
When a component experiences several stress levels, fatigue damage can accumulate. A widely
The Soderberg criterion is more conservative than Goodman because it uses yield strength for the 15. Numerical Example: Corrected Endurance Limit used linear damage rule is Miner’s rule:
mean-stress intercept:
Suppose a polished laboratory endurance limit is S′e = 300 MPa. For a real component, take surface where ni is the number of cycles actually applied at stress level i and Ni is the number of cycles to
where Sy is yield strength. failure at that stress level from the relevant S–N relation. Failure is conventionally predicted when D
factor ka = 0.85, size factor kb = 0.90, load factor kc = 0.85, temperature factor kd = 1.0 and reliability
Comparison: Goodman uses Sut and is less conservative; Soderberg uses Sy and gives a more factor ke = 0.897. Find the corrected endurance limit, neglecting other factors. ≈ 1.
conservative design against yielding.
Se = 0.85 × 0.90 × 0.85 × 1.0 × 0.897 × 300 ≈ 175.6 MPa. Important limitation: Miner’s rule is a simplified linear damage model and does not capture all
σa/Se + σm/Sy ≤ 1 sequence effects, mean-stress changes, crack-growth behavior or interactions between loads.
Note: These numerical factors are illustrative. In an actual design, obtain factors from the applicable
material data, design code or prescribed textbook table. D = Σ(ni/Ni)

σa
16. Design of Members for Finite and Infinite Life 20. Numerical Example: Miner’s Rule
Infinite-life design: Used when the required number of cycles is sufficiently high and the A component experiences 20,000 cycles at a stress level for which the S–N curve gives N1 =
material/component has an applicable endurance limit. 100,000 cycles to failure, and 30,000 cycles at another stress level for which N2 = 150,000 cycles.
Sy Find cumulative damage.
Finite-life design: Used when the required life is a specified number of cycles. The fatigue strength
corresponding to that life is obtained from the S–N curve. D = 20,000/100,000 + 30,000/150,000 = 0.20 + 0.20 = 0.40.

General design procedure: Since D = 0.40 < 1, the simple Miner model predicts that the accumulated damage has not yet
1. Determine maximum and minimum stresses. reached the failure criterion. The remaining linear damage capacity is 0.60.
2. Calculate σm and σa.
Soderberg line
Se 3. Determine nominal stresses for the member geometry. 21. Quick Formula Sheet
4. Apply Kf to the alternating component when appropriate.
Kt = σmax/σnom
σm 5. Obtain corrected endurance strength or finite-life fatigue strength.
q = (Kf−1)/(Kt−1)
6. Apply Goodman/Soderberg or the specified fatigue criterion.
σm = (σmax+σmin)/2
7. Calculate factor of safety and revise dimensions if required.
13. Numerical Example: Goodman and Soderberg Check σa = (σmax−σmin)/2
R = σmin/σmax
A steel member has Se = 180 MPa, Sut = 600 MPa and Sy = 400 MPa. The applied stresses are 17. Combined Loading Goodman: σa/Se + σm/Sut ≤ 1
σmax = 220 MPa and σmin = 20 MPa. Check the design using Goodman and Soderberg. Machine members such as shafts may experience bending and torsion simultaneously. A common Soderberg: σa/Se + σm/Sy ≤ 1
Step 1: σm = (220+20)/2 = 120 MPa; σa = (220−20)/2 = 100 MPa. approach is to calculate equivalent alternating and mean stresses using a suitable failure theory and Se = product of applicable modifying factors × S′e
then apply the selected fatigue criterion. Miner: D = Σ(ni/Ni)

UNIT III – Dynamic Loading & Fatigue Design Page 4 UNIT III – Dynamic Loading & Fatigue Design Page 5 UNIT III – Dynamic Loading & Fatigue Design Page 6

Design of Bolted Joints Machine Design Design of Bolted Joints Machine Design

22. Important Exam Points Contents

• Define stress concentration and explain Kt.
• Differentiate Kt and Kf. 1. Introduction to Bolted Joints
• Explain notch sensitivity and derive q relation. Role of bolted joints; fastening screws vs power screws
• Define mean stress, alternating stress and stress ratio.
• Explain fatigue failure and S–N diagram.
DESIGN OF BOLTED JOINTS 2. Forms of Screw Threads
V-threads, Square, Acme, Buttress, Knuckle; comparison
• Derive/use Goodman and Soderberg criteria.
• Explain surface, size, load, temperature, reliability and stress-concentration effects. 3. Nomenclature of Screw Threads
• Solve finite-life and infinite-life design problems. Major/minor/pitch diameter, pitch, lead, helix angle, crest, root
Forms of Screw Threads • Nomenclature • Thread Series
• Explain combined loading and cumulative fatigue damage using Miner’s rule.
Power Screws • Stresses in Screwed Threads 4. Thread Series and its Designation
Design of Bolts • Eccentric Loading • Turnbuckle ISO Metric, Unified (UNC/UNF), preferred sizes and stress areas
Conclusion: Safe dynamic-load design requires control of local stress concentration, accurate
Design of Power Screws with Solved Problems 5. Power Screws
separation of mean and alternating stresses, appropriate fatigue strength correction, and
selection of a suitable fatigue criterion. Geometry, surface condition, size, reliability and loading Torque to raise/lower, efficiency, self-locking, collar friction
history must all be considered before finalizing a machine member. 6. Stresses in Screwed Threads
A Comprehensive Technical Reference for Machine Design
Tensile, torsional shear, thread shear, bearing, combined stresses

7. Design of Bolts based on Uniform Strength

Reduced shank and drilled-shank bolts; design equation
Topics Covered
8. Empirical Relation for Initial Tightening
This document presents the design of bolted joints and power screws used in mechanical engineering. It
explains the common forms of screw threads (V, Square, Acme, Buttress), standard nomenclature and Preload formulae for fluid-tight and ordinary joints; tightening torque
thread series designation (ISO Metric and Unified), stresses induced in screwed fasteners, design of bolts 9. Eccentrically Bolted Joints in Shear
for uniform strength, empirical relations for initial tightening, analysis of eccentrically loaded bolted joints
Direct and secondary shear; design procedure for eccentric loads
in shear, construction and design of turnbuckles, and the complete design procedure for power screws
with fully worked numerical problems. 10. Turnbuckle
Construction, opposite-hand threads, design considerations

11. Design of Power Screws – Theory & Problems

Mechanical Engineering | Machine Design Module
Design procedure and four fully worked numerical examples

12. Summary of Key Formulae

Quick-reference table of essential design equations

UNIT III – Dynamic Loading & Fatigue Design Page 7 Page 1 Page 2
Design of Bolted Joints Machine Design Design of Bolted Joints Machine Design Design of Bolted Joints Machine Design

1. Introduction to Bolted Joints 2.5 Other Forms Root

• Knuckle thread: Rounded profile, used in rough service (railway couplings) where dirt may be The bottom surface joining the flanks of adjacent threads.
A bolted joint is a non-permanent fastening method that uses a bolt and nut (or a screw into a tapped present. Flank
hole) to clamp two or more components together. Bolted joints are widely used because they can be • Modified square: Small included angle (5°–15°) for easier manufacture while retaining most of
The straight side of the thread between crest and root.
assembled and disassembled without damaging the joined members, transmit large forces, and the efficiency of a true square thread.
allow for precise clamping force control through torque. Depth of Thread
Comparison of Common Thread Forms
Threaded fasteners fall into two broad functional categories: Radial distance between crest and root of a thread.
Feature V-Thread Square Acme Buttress Number of Starts
• Fastening screws / bolts — primarily used to hold parts together (V-threads, Unified, Metric).
• Power screws — used to convert rotary motion into linear motion and transmit power (Square, Included angle 60° (Metric/UN) 0° 29° ~7° / 45° Number of independent helical threads running side by side. Single-start is most common; multiple
Acme, Buttress threads). starts increase lead (and efficiency) for the same pitch.
Primary use Fastening Power Power Unidirectional power
Design of bolted joints requires consideration of initial preload, external loads (tensile, shear, Hand of Thread
Efficiency Low Highest High High (one way)
eccentric), fatigue, and the interaction between bolt stiffness and member stiffness. Right-hand thread advances when turned clockwise (standard). Left-hand thread advances when
Radial force High None Moderate Low (load side) turned counter-clockwise.
2. Forms of Screw Threads
Manufacture Easy Difficult Moderate Moderate
4. Thread Series and its Designation
Screw threads are helical ridges of uniform section formed on the external or internal surface of a
cylinder (or cone). The cross-sectional profile of the thread determines its strength, efficiency, 3. Nomenclature of Screw Threads 4.1 Metric Thread Series (ISO)
manufacturability and suitability for fastening or power transmission.
ISO metric threads are designated by the letter M followed by the nominal major diameter in
2.1 V-Threads (Triangular / Fastening Threads) Precise terminology is essential for specifying, manufacturing and analysing screw threads. The millimetres. For coarse series the pitch is omitted; for fine series the pitch is stated after an × sign.
principal terms are defined below.
V-threads have a triangular profile and are the standard form for bolts, nuts and screws used for Examples:
fastening. The inclined flanks increase the effective coefficient of friction, which is advantageous for Major (Nominal / Outside) Diameter, d or D • M12 — coarse pitch 1.75 mm, major diameter 12 mm
locking but reduces efficiency for power transmission. Largest diameter of the screw thread. For external threads it is measured over the crests; for internal • M12 × 1.25 — fine pitch 1.25 mm
threads over the roots. The bolt is specified by this diameter. • M20 × 2 — fine pitch 2 mm (coarse would be M20 with p = 2.5 mm)
• ISO Metric thread: Included angle 60°. Crests and roots are truncated or rounded. Designated
by letter M followed by major diameter (e.g., M12, M16×1.5). Minor (Root / Core) Diameter, dc or dr Tolerance classes are added when required (e.g., M12–6g for external, M12–6H for internal).
Common grades: 6g/6H (medium), 4h/5H (close), 8g/7H (free).
• Unified National thread (UNC / UNF): Included angle 60°. Used in the USA, Canada and UK. Smallest diameter of the screw thread (measured at the root of an external thread or crest of an
Similar proportions to metric but inch-based. internal thread). Core area is based on this diameter. 4.2 Unified Thread Series (Inch)
• British Standard Whitworth (BSW): Included angle 55° with rounded crests and roots. Older Pitch Diameter (Effective Diameter), d or d Unified threads are designated by major diameter (or number size), threads per inch, and series
p m
British standard, still found on some equipment. letter:
Diameter of an imaginary cylinder that intersects the thread flanks at points where the width of the
2.2 Square Threads thread equals the width of the space between threads. Also called the mean diameter for • UNC — Unified National Coarse
power-screw calculations (often approximated as d = (d + d )/2). • UNF — Unified National Fine
The square thread has flanks perpendicular to the axis (0° thread angle). It offers the highest m c
efficiency and produces no radial (bursting) force on the nut. It is difficult to manufacture and wear Pitch, p • UNEF — Unified National Extra Fine
cannot be compensated by a split nut. Used in screw jacks, vises and some machine-tool lead • Constant-pitch series: 4UN, 6UN, 8UN, 12UN, 16UN, etc.
Axial distance between corresponding points on adjacent threads. For single-start threads, pitch
screws. equals lead. Example: ½-13 UNC-2A means 0.5 inch major diameter, 13 threads per inch, coarse series, class 2A
(external, medium fit).
Proportions (approximate): Depth of thread ≈ 0.5 × pitch; width of thread ≈ 0.5 × pitch. Lead, l (or L)
Class of fit: 1A/1B (loose), 2A/2B (medium – general use), 3A/3B (close).
2.3 Acme (Trapezoidal) Threads Axial distance the nut advances in one complete revolution of the screw. Lead = number of starts ×
pitch. 4.3 Preferred Metric Coarse Series (Selected Sizes)
Acme threads have a 29° included angle (metric trapezoidal threads use 30°). They are a practical
compromise between square and V-threads: easier to machine, stronger at the root, and compatible Lead (Helix) Angle, α or λ Size Pitch p (mm) Minor dia. d (mm) Pitch dia. d (mm) Stress area A (mm²)
c p t
with split nuts for wear adjustment. They are the most common form for power screws and Angle between the helix of the thread at the mean diameter and a plane perpendicular to the screw
M6 1.00 4.92 5.35 20.1
machine-tool lead screws. axis. tan α = l / (π d ).
m
M8 1.25 6.65 7.19 36.6
2.4 Buttress Threads Thread Angle (Included Angle)

Buttress threads are asymmetrical: the load flank is nearly perpendicular (≈7°) to the axis while the Angle between the flanks of the thread measured in an axial plane (60° for metric/UN, 29° for Acme, M10 1.50 8.38 9.03 58.0

clearance flank is steep (≈45°). They combine the high efficiency of square threads in one direction 0° for square). M12 1.75 10.11 10.86 84.3
with the strength of V-threads. Used where axial load acts predominantly in one direction (e.g., Crest
M16 2.00 13.84 14.70 157
presses, gun breech mechanisms). The top surface joining the two flanks of a thread (outermost on external, innermost on internal).

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Design of Bolted Joints Machine Design Design of Bolted Joints Machine Design Design of Bolted Joints Machine Design

Size Pitch p (mm) Minor dia. d (mm) Pitch dia. d (mm) Stress area A (mm²) Twisting moment while tightening (or while transmitting torque in a power screw) produces shear P = 1420 d (N)
c p t i
stress: An alternative empirical expression sometimes quoted is Pi = 284 d (kN) with d in mm (numerically equivalent
M20 2.50 17.29 18.38 245
τ = (16 T) / (π dc³) to 2840 d N).
M24 3.00 20.75 22.05 353 Tightening torque may be estimated from:
6.3 Shear Stress across Threads
M30 3.50 26.21 27.73 561 T=K·P ·d
The threads may shear at the root. For a length of engagement L and thread thickness at root i
e where K ≈ 0.20 (dry, unlubricated), K ≈ 0.15 (lubricated commercial), K ≈ 0.10 (well-lubricated, smooth).
Stress area At is the tensile stress area used for strength calculations of fasteners (approximate formula for approximately 0.5 p (square) or adjusted for V-threads:
metric: At ≈ 0.7854 (d − 0.9382 p)²). The initial tensile stress is then checked against the allowable stress of the bolt material. Because
τ = W / (π d · n · t) where n = number of threads in engagement, t ≈ 0.5 p
thread c initial stress varies inversely with the square of diameter, larger bolts require proportionally less
5. Power Screws 6.4 Bearing (Crushing) Stress on Threads relative preload to achieve the same stress level.

A power screw (lead screw) converts rotary motion into linear motion (or vice versa) and is used to σ = W / (π d · n · (p/2)) (projected bearing area per thread ≈ π d · (p/2))
b m m 9. Eccentrically Bolted Joints in Shear
transmit power. Typical applications include screw jacks, machine-tool lead screws, vises, clamps, 6.5 Combined Stresses
presses and linear actuators. Many practical joints (wall brackets, pillar-crane bases, bracket supports) are loaded by forces that
Under simultaneous tension and torsion the principal (maximum) normal stress and maximum shear
stress are obtained from Mohr’s circle: do not pass through the centroid of the bolt group. The eccentricity produces both a direct shear
5.1 Torque to Raise and Lower a Load
force and a secondary (torsional) shear force on each bolt. Accurate evaluation of the most heavily
Considering a square-thread power screw with mean diameter d , lead l, helix angle α (tan α = l/(π σ = (σ /2) + √[(σ /2)² + τ²]
m max t t loaded bolt is essential for safe design.
d )) and coefficient of friction µ = tan φ (where φ is the friction angle): τ = √[(σ /2)² + τ²]
m max t
Torque to raise the load W: These values are compared with the allowable stresses of the material (often reduced by a factor of
9.1 Load Parallel to the Axis of Bolts (Bracket with Vertical Load)
T = (W · d / 2) · tan(φ + α) = (W · d / 2) · [(µ π d + l) / (π d − µ l)] safety of 2–5 depending on application). When the external load P acts parallel to the bolt axes (e.g., a vertical load on a horizontally mounted
R m m m m
bracket), the bolts experience two shear components that must be combined vectorially:
Torque to lower the load:
TL = (W · dm / 2) · tan(φ − α) = (W · dm / 2) · [(µ π dm − l) / (π dm + µ l)]
7. Design of Bolts based on Uniform Strength • Primary (direct) shear force F′ = P / n (shared equally among n bolts)
• Secondary shear force due to the moment M = P · e (e = eccentricity of the load line from the
If a collar (thrust bearing) is present with mean collar diameter d and collar friction coefficient µ , an A conventional bolt has a threaded portion of reduced cross-section (core diameter) and an
c c centroid of the bolt group).
additional torque T = µ W (d /2) must be added to both raising and lowering torques. unthreaded shank of full nominal diameter. Under tensile load the stress is higher in the threaded
collar c c
The secondary shear force on a bolt at radial distance r from the centroid is proportional to that
region, making it the weakest section. In addition, the sudden change of section causes stress i
5.2 Efficiency distance, because the moment is resisted by a couple formed by the shear forces in the bolts:
concentration.
Efficiency η is the ratio of work output to work input in one revolution: F″i = (M · ri) / Σ rj²
A bolt of uniform strength is designed so that the stress is approximately the same in the shank and
η = (W · l) / (2 π TR) = tan α / tan(φ + α) (square thread, no collar) The direction of F″ is perpendicular to the radius vector from the centroid to the bolt. The resultant
in the threaded portion. This is achieved by one of the following methods:
For Acme (or trapezoidal) threads the normal force is increased by the thread angle 2β (β ≈ 14.5° for force on the most heavily loaded bolt is the vector sum of F′ and F″. The bolt diameter is then sized
1. Reducing the shank diameter to the core diameter of the thread (turned-down shank). The
Acme). The effective friction coefficient becomes µ′ = µ / cos β, and the torque formulae are modified shank then has the same area as the core, producing uniform tensile stress. The reduced shank
from the maximum resultant shear force (or from the equivalent tensile stress if the bolts also carry
accordingly by replacing µ with µ′. also improves fatigue resistance by lowering the stress concentration factor at the thread run-out.
tension from prying or flange bending).

5.3 Self-Locking Condition 2. Drilling an axial hole in the unthreaded shank so that the net cross-sectional area equals the 9.2 Load Perpendicular to the Axis of Bolts
A power screw is self-locking if the load cannot lower itself when the applied torque is removed. This core area of the threaded portion. When the load lies in the plane of the joint (pure shear), the analysis is analogous. Direct shear is
requires that the lowering torque be positive (or zero): Uniform-strength bolts are preferred for dynamically loaded joints (connecting rods, cylinder-head distributed equally (or according to the relative shear stiffness of the bolts) and the moment about the
bolts, etc.) because they distribute strain energy more evenly and raise the endurance limit of the centroid of the bolt group produces additional shear forces proportional to radial distance. Again the
φ ≥ α or equivalently µ ≥ tan α = l / (π dm)
joint. maximum loaded bolt is identified by vector addition of the primary and secondary components and
For self-locking screws the efficiency is always less than 50%. Screws with η > 50% will overhaul (back-drive)
Design equation (uniform strength): (π/4) dc² · σt = W → dc = √(4W / (π σt)) is designed for that resultant force.
under load.
9.3 Design Procedure (Summary)
6. Stresses in Screwed Threads 8. Empirical Relation for Initial Tightening
1. Locate the centroid of the bolt group (geometry of the pattern).
When a bolt is tightened, an initial tensile force (preload) is induced. This preload is essential for 2. Compute direct shear force per bolt F′ = P / n.
A bolt or power screw experiences several stress components. Because many of them are difficult to
preventing separation under external load, for sealing (fluid-tight joints) and for resisting shear by 3. Compute moment M = P · e about the centroid.
evaluate precisely, design is often based on the dominant tensile (or compressive) stress with an
friction. Because the actual stresses caused by tightening (tension + torsion + local bearing) are 4. Determine secondary shear forces F″ = M r / Σ r² for every bolt.
appropriate factor of safety. i i
complex, empirical relations are widely used. 5. Find the resultant force on each bolt by vector addition; identify the maximum value F .
max
6.1 Direct Tensile / Compressive Stress 6. Size the bolt from τ = F / A (or from a suitable combined-stress theory) using an appropriate
Initial tension (fluid-tight joints): max s
factor of safety (typically 2–4 for static shear).
σt = W / Ac where Ac = (π/4) dc² (core area) for power screws, or the tensile stress area At for fasteners. Pi = 2840 d (N) where d = nominal bolt diameter in mm
If the bolts are also preloaded, friction between the clamped members may carry part of the shear; in that case
6.2 Torsional Shear Stress For ordinary (non-leak-proof) joints the initial tension may be taken as half of the above value: the bolts are designed primarily for the tensile preload and any additional tension, while shear is checked as a

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Design of Bolted Joints Machine Design Design of Bolted Joints Machine Design Design of Bolted Joints Machine Design

secondary criterion. and (d) whether the screw is self-locking.

φ = tan■¹(0.14) ≈ 7.97° > α → self-locking.
10. Turnbuckle Solution
TR = (100 000 · 0.044 / 2) · [(0.14 · π · 44 + 8)/(π · 44 − 0.14 · 8)]
Given: W = 50 000 N, d = 40 mm, p = 8 mm, single start → l = 8 mm, µ = 0.12.
A turnbuckle is a coupling device consisting of a central sleeve (or body) with internal threads of = 2200 · [(19.35 + 8)/(138.23 − 1.12)] = 2200 · (27.35/137.11) ≈ 438.8 N·m.
Mean diameter d = d − p/2 = 40 − 4 = 36 mm = 0.036 m. Direct compressive stress σ = 100 000 / (π/4 · 40²) = 79.6 MPa (within 90 MPa).
opposite hand at each end, into which two externally threaded rods (eye-bolts, clevis ends or hooks) m
c
are screwed. Rotating the sleeve lengthens or shortens the overall assembly without rotating the tan α = l / (π d ) = 8 / (π · 36) = 0.0707 → α ≈ 4.05°. Torsional shear τ = 16 T / (π d ³) = 16 · 438.8 · 10³ / (π · 40³) ≈ 34.9 MPa (within 50 MPa).
m c
rods themselves, thereby adjusting the tension in a tie-rod, stay or cable. φ = tan■¹(0.12) ≈ 6.84°. Max. principal stress σ = σ /2 + √[(σ /2)² + τ²] ≈ 39.8 + √(1584 + 1218) ≈ 39.8 + 52.9 ≈ 92.7 MPa
max c c
(slightly above 90 MPa – increase diameter or reduce allowable).
Typical applications include bracing of steel structures, tensioning of stay rods on roofs or (a) Torque to raise:
transmission towers, length adjustment in control linkages, and pre-tensioning of wire ropes or Recommendation: adopt dc = 42 mm (or higher grade material) and re-check. Length of nut engagement
TR = (W dm/2) · [(µ π dm + l)/(π dm − µ l)]
should be verified from bearing pressure (typically 8–12 MPa for steel on bronze).
cables. Because the device is adjustable in situ, it is especially useful where final length or preload = (50 000 · 0.036 / 2) · [(0.12 · π · 36 + 8)/(π · 36 − 0.12 · 8)]
cannot be predicted exactly at the design stage. = 900 · [(13.57 + 8)/(113.10 − 0.96)] = 900 · (21.57/112.14) ≈ 173.1 N·m. Problem 4 – Bolt of Uniform Strength
Design considerations: (b) Torque to lower: A bolted joint carries an external tensile load of 25 kN. The allowable tensile stress for the bolt
TL = (W dm/2) · [(µ π dm − l)/(π dm + µ l)] material is 80 MPa. Design a bolt of uniform strength and determine the core diameter and the
• Threaded rods are designed primarily for tensile load: W = (π/4) d ² σ , where d is the core
c t c = 900 · [(13.57 − 8)/(113.10 + 0.96)] = 900 · (5.57/114.06) ≈ 43.9 N·m. diameter of the reduced shank.
diameter and σ the allowable tensile stress of the rod material.
t
• Sleeve (body) is designed for the same tensile load. Its outer diameter and wall thickness are (c) Efficiency η = (W · l) / (2 π T ) = (50 000 · 0.008) / (2 π · 173.1) ≈ 0.367 (36.7 %). Solution: For uniform strength the shank diameter equals the core diameter of the thread.
R
chosen so that tensile stress in the body and shear/bearing stresses in the internal threads remain (d) Since φ (6.84°) > α (4.05°), the screw is self-locking. Also T > 0 confirms self-locking. d = √(4 W / (π σ )) = √(4 · 25 000 / (π · 80)) ≈ √(397.9) ≈ 19.95 mm. Adopt d = 20 mm
L c t c
within allowable limits. (corresponding to a standard M24 coarse bolt whose core diameter is approximately 20.3 mm). The
Problem 2 – Acme Thread with Collar Friction
• Opposite-hand threads (one right-hand, one left-hand) ensure that rotation of the sleeve unthreaded shank is turned down to 20 mm.
simultaneously draws both rods inward or pushes them outward, doubling the rate of length A power screw with double-start Acme threads (included angle 29°) has major diameter 50 mm and
change compared with a single-threaded adjuster. pitch 6 mm. It lifts a load of 20 kN. Thread friction coefficient µ = 0.15, collar friction coefficient µ = 12. Summary of Key Formulae
c
• Length of engagement of each rod in the sleeve must be sufficient to develop the full strength 0.10, mean collar diameter 60 mm. Find the torque required to raise the load and the overall
of the rod (typically ≥ 1.0–1.5 times the major diameter, or as required by thread shear and bearing efficiency.
Quantity Formula
checks).
Solution Helix angle tan α = l / (π d )
• Locking: a lock-nut, wire, or other locking device is usually provided to prevent the sleeve from m
rotating under vibration or fluctuating load, which would otherwise alter the tension. d = 50 mm, p = 6 mm, double start → l = 2 × 6 = 12 mm.
Torque to raise (square) T = (W d /2) (µπd +l)/(πd −µl)
d ≈ 50 − 0.5 p = 47 mm (approx. for Acme; more precisely use standard proportions). R m m m
Materials are commonly mild steel or higher-tensile steel for the rods and sleeve; corrosion-resistant coatings m
or stainless grades are used outdoors. The ends of the rods may be forged eyes, clevises or hooks according Effective friction µ′ = µ / cos(14.5°) ≈ 0.15 / 0.968 ≈ 0.155. Torque to lower (square) T = (W d /2) (µπd −l)/(πd +µl)
L m m m
to the connection detail. Thread torque Tthread = (W dm/2) · [(µ′ π dm + l)/(π dm − µ′ l)] Efficiency (square) η = tan α / tan(φ+α)
≈ (20 000 · 0.047 / 2) · [(0.155 · π · 47 + 12)/(π · 47 − 0.155 · 12)]
11. Design of Power Screws – Theory & Problems ≈ 470 · [(22.90 + 12)/(147.65 − 1.86)] ≈ 470 · (34.90/145.79) ≈ 112.5 N·m. Self-locking φ ≥ α or µ ≥ l/(π d )
m

Collar torque Tc = µc W (dc/2) = 0.10 · 20 000 · (0.060/2) = 60 N·m. Core tensile stress σ = W / (π/4 d ²)
11.1 General Design Procedure for a Power Screw t c
Total torque T = 112.5 + 60 = 172.5 N·m. Torsional shear τ = 16 T / (π d ³)
1. Select thread form (square or Acme) and material (screw usually steel, nut bronze or cast iron R c
Efficiency η = (W · l) / (2 π TR) = (20 000 · 0.012) / (2 π · 172.5) ≈ 0.221 (22.1 %).
for wear compatibility). Initial tension (fluid-tight) P = 2840 d (N, d in mm)
i
2. Assume a mean diameter or core diameter based on compressive / tensile stress: d = √(4W / Problem 3 – Design of a Power Screw for a Press
c
(π σ )). Tightening torque T = K P d (K ≈ 0.15–0.20)
all Design a square-threaded power screw for a press that exerts a force of 100 kN. The screw is to be i
3. Choose pitch (and number of starts) from standard tables; compute lead l and helix angle α. made of steel with allowable compressive stress 90 MPa and allowable shear stress 50 MPa. Secondary shear (eccentric) F″ = (M r ) / Σ r ²
i i j
4. Check self-locking condition (µ ≥ tan α) if required. Coefficient of friction = 0.14. Assume single-start thread. Determine core diameter, pitch, torque
5. Calculate raising and lowering torques (including collar friction if present). Max. principal stress σ = σ/2 + √[(σ/2)² + τ²]
required to overcome friction, and check combined stress. max
6. Check efficiency.
7. Verify stresses: direct compressive/tensile, torsional shear, combined (principal stress), thread Solution
bearing and thread shear. End of Document — Design of Bolted Joints
From compressive stress: (π/4) d ² · 90 = 100 000
c
8. Design the nut height (length of engagement) from bearing or shear of threads. d ² = 100 000 · 4 / (π · 90) ≈ 1414.7 → d ≈ 37.6 mm. Adopt d = 40 mm.
c c c This reference is intended for educational purposes in machine design. Always verify dimensions, material
9. Design related components (handle, thrust collar, body of jack, etc.). properties and safety factors against current standards (ISO, ASME, IS) and project-specific requirements.
Select major diameter d = 48 mm, pitch p = 8 mm (standard proportion depth ≈ 0.5 p → d − d = 8
c
Problem 1 – Screw Jack (Square Thread) mm).
A screw jack is to lift a load of 50 kN. The screw has a square thread of major diameter 40 mm and
d = (48 + 40)/2 = 44 mm, l = 8 mm.
pitch 8 mm (single start). Coefficient of friction at the threads is 0.12; collar friction may be neglected. m
tan α = 8/(π · 44) = 0.0579 → α ≈ 3.31°.
Determine: (a) torque required to raise the load, (b) torque required to lower the load, (c) efficiency,

Page 9 Page 10 Page 11

UNIT V 4. Stresses in Helical Coil Springs

Helical Compression Spring
Nomenclature 4.1 Circular Cross-Section – Static Loading
DESIGN OF SPRINGS An axial load P on a helical compression (or tension) spring produces both direct shear and torsional shear in the
wire. Because the wire is curved, the stress distribution is non-uniform; the maximum shear stress occurs at the
Types • Materials • Terminology • Helical Coil Springs • Belleville Springs • Leaf Springs D Mean coil diameter = (OD + ID)/2 inner fibre.
Stress Analysis • Energy Storage • Numerical Examples with Diagrams
d Wire diameter
τ = Kw · (8 P D) / (π d³) = Kw · (8 P C) / (π d²)
C = D/d Spring index (prefer 4–12)
d (wire dia.) where the Wahl correction factor that accounts for both direct shear and curvature is
1. Types of Springs Na Number of active coils
Nt Total number of coils Kw = (4C − 1)/(4C − 4) + 0.615/C
A spring is an elastic member that stores mechanical energy when deflected by a load and releases it when the L
Lf Free length (unloaded) An alternative Bergsträsser factor KB = (4C + 2)/(4C − 3) is also used; the two factors differ by less than 1 % for C ≥ 4.
load is removed. Springs are classified according to the nature of the load they carry and the geometry of the f
elastic element. Ls Solid length (fully compressed)
p Pitch = Lf / (Nt - 1) approx. 4.2 Non-Circular Cross-Sections
1.1 Classification by Loading δ Deflection under load P
p (pitch)
• Compression springs – resist compressive axial force (open-coiled helical, Belleville, volute). k = P/δ Spring stiffness / rate Wire Cross-Sections for Helical Springs
• Extension (tension) springs – resist tensile axial force; usually close-coiled with hooks or loops. Non-circular sections give higher energy storage for same outer envelope
• Torsion springs – resist twisting moment / torque (helical torsion, spiral, torsion bar).
• Bending springs – leaf springs, cantilever springs, clock springs (spiral).
D (mean coil dia.)
1.2 Classification by Geometry
• Helical springs – wire formed into a helix (circular, square or rectangular cross-section). Symbol Meaning Typical relation / remark
a d
• Leaf (laminated) springs – flat plates stacked to form a semi-elliptic or cantilever beam. D Mean coil diameter D = (OD + ID)/2 = OD − d
b t
• Belleville (coned-disk) springs – frusto-conical washers that give high load in small axial space. d Wire diameter Chosen from preferred sizes (R20 series)
• Volute springs – conical spiral of flat strip; used where lateral stability is needed. C = D/d Spring index Preferred range 4 – 12; low C → high stress concentration Square (a × a) Circular (d)
• Spiral (clock) springs – flat strip wound in a plane spiral; used in instruments and clocks. Na Active coils Coils that contribute to deflection Rectangular (b × t)
• Ring springs – concentric rings that expand/contract under axial load (heavy machinery). Nt Total coils Nt = Na + 2 (squared & ground ends)
Lf Free length Length under zero load
2. Spring Materials Ls Solid length Ls ≈ Nt · d (all coils touching) For square wire of side a the torsional stress is approximately
p Pitch Axial distance between adjacent coils
Spring materials must possess high elastic limit, high resilience, good fatigue strength and resistance to stress τ ≈ K · (2.4 P D) / a³ (K ≈ 1 + 1.2/C for moderate indices)
relaxation. Common materials and typical property ranges are summarised below. δ Deflection Change in length under load P
k = P/δ Spring rate / stiffness Force per unit deflection Rectangular wire (width b, thickness t, b > t) stores more energy for a given outer diameter but is more expensive
Material Typical Sut (MPa) G (GPa) E (GPa) Applications to form. Stress and deflection formulae involve the polar moment and a shape factor; design charts or FEA are
Music wire (ASTM A228) 1600–2300 79–81 207 High-stress compression & torsion often preferred.

Hard-drawn carbon steel 1200–1800 79 207 Low-cost static springs

4.3 Compression-Spring Surge
Oil-tempered carbon 1400–1800 77–80 207 General purpose
When a compression spring is subjected to a suddenly applied load or operates at high speed, a stress wave
Chrome-vanadium 1500–1900 77–80 207 High fatigue, elevated temp. (surge) travels along the spring. The fundamental natural frequency of the spring (both ends constrained) is
Chrome-silicon 1600–2000 77–80 207 High stress & temperature
fn = (d / (2 π Na D²)) · √(G / (2 ρ)) ≈ (d / (9 Na D²)) · √(G/ρ) (Hz, SI units)
Stainless 302/304 1100–1600 69–71 193 Corrosion resistance
To avoid resonance the operating frequency should be kept well below f /15 (or above 15 f for high-speed
n n
Phosphor bronze 700–1000 41–43 103 Electrical conductivity applications). Surge can also be mitigated by using progressive-pitch springs or by damping.
Beryllium copper 1000–1400 48 128 Non-magnetic, high strength
Note: Ultimate tensile strength Sut of cold-drawn wire decreases with increasing wire diameter: Sut = A / dm (A and m are 4.4 Eccentric Loading
material constants). If the load is not concentric with the spring axis, an additional bending moment appears. The maximum stress is
then higher than the concentric-load value. A conservative estimate multiplies the concentric stress by (1 + 2 e / D)
3. Terminology of Helical Springs where e is the eccentricity of the load line. Proper end seating and guide rods reduce eccentricity.

4.5 Fluctuating / Fatigue Loads

Under repeated loading the spring must be designed against fatigue. The mean and alternating shear stresses are
calculated from the maximum and minimum working loads:

UNIT V – Design of Springs | Page 1 UNIT V – Design of Springs | Page 2 UNIT V – Design of Springs | Page 3
 τm = (τmax + τmin)/2 , τa = (τmax − τmin)/2 7. Belleville (Coned-Disk) Springs A semi-elliptic leaf spring of span 2L carrying a central load 2P (or a cantilever of length L carrying P) is analysed
as a beam of constant strength when the leaves are graduated.
A modified Goodman or Gerber criterion is then applied using the torsional endurance limit S (≈ 310 MPa for
se
unpeened steel springs, ≈ 465 MPa for shot-peened springs) and the ultimate shear strength S ≈ 0.67 S . Maximum bending stress (graduated leaves only):
su ut Belleville (Coned-Disk) Spring
σ = (6 P L) / (n b t²)
High load, small deflection – often stacked
5. Energy Stored in Springs Deflection:
The elastic strain energy U stored in a spring is the area under the load–deflection curve. For a linear spring δ = (6 P L³) / (E n b t³)
Di (ID) Do Outside diameter
U = (1/2) P δ = P² / (2 k) = (1/2) k δ² Di Inside diameter When extra full-length leaves (n ) are present together with graduated leaves (n ), the stresses become unequal:
f g
For a helical torsion spring the energy is (1/2) M θ. High resilience (energy per unit volume) is obtained by t Thickness of disk σf = (18 P L) / [b t² (3 ng + 2 nf)] , σg = (12 P L) / [b t² (3 ng + 2 nf)]
materials with high σ²/E (or τ²/G). h h Free cone height (h = H − t)
t 8.2 Nipping (Pre-stressing)
H Overall free height

6. Helical Torsion Springs δ Deflection (axial) Nipping consists of giving the graduated leaves a slightly shorter radius of curvature than the master leaf so that,
Do (OD) when assembled and clamped, the graduated leaves are forced against the master leaf. This introduces a
P Axial load
σ Max stress (usually at ID) beneficial pre-stress that reduces the stress in the master leaf under load and equalises the stresses among all
Helical Torsion Spring leaves.
Loaded by torque / moment M = F × lever arm
F 8.3 Equalised Stresses
By proper nipping the maximum stress in the full-length and graduated leaves can be made approximately equal,
improving fatigue life and material utilisation. The amount of initial gap (nip) is calculated from the difference in free
M Applied moment / torque Belleville springs provide a very high load for a small axial deflection and can be stacked in series (more deflection)
radii of curvature of the leaves.
σ Bending stress (primary) or parallel (more load). The load–deflection characteristic can be made nearly constant by suitable choice of the
ratio h/t.
Ki Stress concentration factor

θ Angular deflection Approximate maximum compressive stress (at the inner edge, convex side) is given by design charts or the
d
Almen–Laszlo equations involving factors that depend on the diameter ratio Do/Di.
Na Active coils

C = D/d Spring index

They are widely used for preloading bearings, clutch packs, and where space is severely limited.

E Young's modulus

F kθ = M/θ Torsional stiffness 8. Leaf Springs

D (mean) Leaf Spring (Semi-elliptic)

Graduated leaves + full-length (master) leaf

A helical torsion spring is loaded by a moment M that tends to wind (or unwind) the coil. The dominant stress is
P (load)
bending, not torsion. n Total number of leaves

σ = Ki · (32 M) / (π d³) ng Number of graduated leaves

nf Number of full-length leaves
where the inner-fibre stress-concentration factor is
t Thickness of each leaf
Ki = (4C² − C − 1) / [4C (C − 1)] b Width of each leaf
b (width)
Angular deflection (radians) for round wire: L Half span length
σ Bending stress
θ = (64 M D Na) / (E d■) ≈ (10.2 M D Na) / (E d■) (when θ is in revolutions)
δ Deflection at centre
Nipping Pre-stress by shorter leaves

2L (span)

8.1 Stresses in Leaf Springs

UNIT V – Design of Springs | Page 4 UNIT V – Design of Springs | Page 5 UNIT V – Design of Springs | Page 6

9. Numerical Examples Solution: 10. Summary of Key Design Equations

From stress equation: σ = 6 P L / (n b t²) ⇒ t² = 6 P L / (n b σ)
Example 1 – Helical Compression Spring (Circular Wire) t² = 6 × 2000 × 500 / (8 × 50 × 600) = 6 000 000 / 240 000 = 25 ⇒ t = 5 mm Spring Type Primary Stress Deflection / Rate
Given: A helical compression spring is to carry a static load of 800 N. Mean coil diameter D = 50 mm, wire diameter d = 8 Deflection δ = 6 P L³ / (E n b t³) = 6 × 2000 × (500)³ / (207000 × 8 × 50 × 125) Helical compression / tension (round) τ = Kw (8PD)/(πd³) δ = 8PD³Na/(Gd■)
mm, number of active coils Na = 10. Material: oil-tempered carbon steel, G = 79 GPa, allowable shear stress τall = 400 = 6 × 2000 × 1.25×10■ / (207000 × 8 × 50 × 125) = 1.5×10¹² / 1.035×10¹■ ≈ 145 mm
MPa. Ends are squared and ground. Helical torsion (round) σ = Ki (32M)/(πd³) θ = 64MDNa/(Ed■)
If two extra full-length leaves are added (n = 2, n = 8), the stresses become unequal and nipping is recommended to
Required: (a) Wahl factor and maximum shear stress; (b) deflection under the load; (c) spring rate; (d) solid length and f g
equalise them and improve fatigue performance. Leaf spring (graduated) σ = 6PL/(nbt²) δ = 6PL³/(Enbt³)
free length if the clash allowance is 15 % of deflection.
Example 6 – Energy Stored Belleville σ from Almen–Laszlo / charts Non-linear; design charts
Solution:
Spring index C = D/d = 50/8 = 6.25 For the spring of Example 1: P = 800 N, δ = 24.72 mm. Energy stored U = ½ P δ = ½ × 800 × 24.72 = 9.89 J. Energy (linear spring) — U = ½Pδ = P²/(2k)
Kw = (4×6.25 − 1)/(4×6.25 − 4) + 0.615/6.25 = (25−1)/(25−4) + 0.0984 = 24/21 + 0.0984 = 1.143 + 0.0984 = 1.241 This energy is recoverable (neglecting hysteresis) when the load is removed, illustrating the primary function of a spring
τ = Kw · (8 P D)/(π d³) = 1.241 · (8×800×50)/(π × 8³) = 1.241 · 320000 / (π × 512) = 1.241 · 198.9 = 246.9 MPa as an energy-storage device.
Design practice always includes a safety factor on stress, verification of buckling (for long compression springs),
Since 246.9 MPa < 400 MPa the design is safe under static load. consideration of end conditions, and, for dynamic service, a fatigue analysis with possible shot-peening to raise the
Deflection δ = (8 P D³ Na)/(G d■) = (8×800×50³×10)/(79×10³ × 8■) = (8×800×125000×10)/(79000 × 4096) = 8×10■ / endurance limit.
3.236×10■ ≈ 24.72 mm
Spring rate k = P/δ = 800 / 24.72 ≈ 32.4 N/mm
— End of UNIT V —
Total coils Nt = Na + 2 = 12. Solid length Ls = Nt · d = 12 × 8 = 96 mm. Clash allowance = 0.15 × 24.72 ≈ 3.7 mm. Free
length Lf = Ls + δ + clash = 96 + 24.72 + 3.7 ≈ 124.4 mm.

Example 2 – Helical Spring of Square Wire

Given: Square wire of side a = 6 mm, mean diameter D = 40 mm, Na = 8, load P = 500 N, G = 80 GPa.
Required: Approximate maximum shear stress and deflection.
C = D/a = 40/6 ≈ 6.67. Approximate stress concentration factor K ≈ 1 + 1.2/C ≈ 1.18.
τ ≈ K · (2.4 P D)/a³ = 1.18 · (2.4×500×40)/216 = 1.18 · 48000/216 ≈ 1.18 · 222.2 ≈ 262 MPa
Deflection for square-wire helical springs is approximately δ = (5.57 P D³ Na)/(G a■) ≈ (5.57×500×64000×8)/(80000 ×
1296) ≈ 13.7 mm.

Example 3 – Helical Torsion Spring

Given: Round wire d = 4 mm, mean diameter D = 30 mm, Na = 6, applied moment M = 2.5 N·m = 2500 N·mm. E = 210
GPa. Material allowable bending stress σall = 900 MPa.
Required: Maximum bending stress and angular deflection in degrees.
C = D/d = 30/4 = 7.5
Ki = (4C² − C − 1)/(4C(C−1)) = (4×56.25 − 7.5 − 1)/(4×7.5×6.5) = (225 − 7.5 − 1)/195 = 216.5/195 ≈ 1.110
σ = K · (32 M)/(π d³) = 1.110 · (32×2500)/(π × 64) = 1.110 · 80000 / 201.06 ≈ 1.110 · 397.9 ≈ 441.7 MPa < 900 MPa
i
(safe).
θ (rad) = (64 M D Na)/(E d■) = (64×2500×30×6)/(210000 × 256) = 28.8×10■ / 53.76×10■ ≈ 0.536 rad
θ (degrees) = 0.536 × (180/π) ≈ 30.7°

Example 4 – Belleville Spring (Conceptual Check)

Given: A Belleville spring must produce a nearly constant force of approximately 200 N over a small deflection range.
Outside diameter Do = 60 mm, inside diameter Di = 30 mm, thickness t = 2 mm, free height h = 1.5 mm. Material σuts =
1700 MPa.
Diameter ratio δr = Do/Di = 2. Using standard Almen–Laszlo constants for this ratio, the load at a deflection equal to h/2 is
of the order of 180–220 N (exact value obtained from design charts or the full equation set). The maximum compressive
stress is typically 600–900 MPa, well below the material capability. Stacking three washers in parallel multiplies the load
capacity while keeping the same deflection characteristic.
Note: Precise calculation requires the five geometric constants K1…K5; commercial software or manufacturer catalogues are
normally used for final sizing.

Example 5 – Semi-Elliptic Leaf Spring

Given: A semi-elliptic leaf spring has a span 2L = 1.0 m (so L = 0.5 m), carries a central load of 4000 N (i.e. 2P = 4000 N
⇒ P = 2000 N). There are 8 graduated leaves, each of width b = 50 mm. Material E = 207 GPa, allowable bending stress
σall = 600 MPa. Determine the required leaf thickness and the resulting deflection.

UNIT V – Design of Springs | Page 7 UNIT V – Design of Springs | Page 8 UNIT V – Design of Springs | Page 9