CHILD GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

COURSE OUTLINE

1. Definition of terms
2. Reproduction & stages of growth and development
3. Speech and language development
4. Intra & inter individual differences
5. Role of early training & experiences
6. Effects of family, peers, school & environment

1. DEFINITION OF TERMS

[Link]: changes that occur on height, weight and size. It varies with age e.g. fastest during prenatal stage,
first year of life and at puberty stage.
Factors affection physical growth
Nutrition- balanced diet, kwashiorkor
Heredity-height skin colour .. mother/mother
Disease-ill health .. stunted/slow growth
Size of infant’s body- very fat, motor control may delay, inactive
Home environment-stressful environment
Hormones- chemical secreted to blood stream and controls body growth
Economic circumstance- wealthy family well weight contrary to poor family
b. Development
This refers to any change in body or behavior within the individual across one’s life as a result of the
chronological age. It encompasses both quantitative and qualitative aspects of an individual. Qualitative aspects
are not measurable and examples are: social, personality and emotional development.
2. REPRODUCTION AND STAGES OF GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT
a. Germinal Stage 0-2 Weeks

begins at conception when the sperm and egg cell unite in one of the two fallopian tubes. The fertilized egg is called a
zygote. Just a few hours after conception, the single-celled zygote begins making a journey down the fallopian tube to
the uterus.

Cell division begins approximately 24 to 36 hours after conception. Through the process of mitosis, the zygote first
divides into two cells, then into four, eight, sixteen, and so on.

Once the eight-cell point has been reached, the cells begin to differentiate and take on certain characteristics that will
determine the type of cells they will eventually become. As the cells multiply, they will also separate into two distinctive
masses: the outer cells will eventually become the placenta, while the inner cells form the embryo.

Cell division continues at a rapid rate during the approximately week-long journey from fallopian tube to uterus wall.
The cells develop into what is known as a blastocyst. The blastocyst is made up of three layers, each of which develops
into different structures in the body.
Embryonic Stage- 3 – 8 wks

The beginning of the third week after conception marks the start of the embryonic period, a time when the mass of cells
becomes distinct as a human. The embryonic stage plays an important role in the development of the brain.

4 wks after conception, the neural tube forms. This will later develop into the central nervous system including the
spinal cord and brain.

Around the 4th wk, the head begins to form, quickly followed by the eyes, nose, ears, and mouth. The blood vessel that
will become the heart start to pulse. During the 5th wk, buds that will form the arms and legs appear.

By the 8 wks of development, the embryo has all of the basic organs and parts except those of the sex organs. At this
point, the embryo weighs just one gram and is about one inch in length.

By the end of the embryonic period, the basic structures of the brain and central nervous system have been established.
At this point, the basic structure of the peripheral nervous system is also defined.

c. Fetal Stage 9 wks-birth

Once cell differentiation is mostly complete, the embryo enters the next stage and becomes known as a fetus. The fetal
period of prenatal develop marks more important changes in the brain. This period of development begins during the
ninth week and lasts until birth. This stage is marked by amazing change and growth.

Between the 9th- 12th week of gestation (at the earliest), reflexes begin to emerge. The fetus begins to make reflexive
motions with its arms and legs.

During the 3rd month of gestation, the sex organs begin to differentiate. By the end of the month, all parts of the body
will be formed. At this point, the fetus weighs around 85 grams. The fetus continues to grow in both weight and length,
although the majority of the physical growth occurs in the later stages of pregnancy.

The end of the 3rd month also marks the end of the 1st trimester of pregnancy. During the 2nd trimester, or months
four through six, the heartbeat grows stronger and other body systems become further developed. Fingernails, hair,
eyelashes, and toenails form.5 Perhaps most noticeably, the fetus increases about six times in size.

The brain and central nervous system also become more responsive during the second trimester. Around 28 weeks, the
brain starts to mature faster, with an activity that greatly resembles that of a sleeping newborn.

During the period from 7 months until birth, the fetus continues to develop, put on weight, and prepare for life outside
the womb. The lungs begin to expand and contract, preparing the muscles for breathing.

Stages of prenatal stage in pictorial form

Problems that may arise during prenatal stage
While development usually follows this normal pattern, there are times when problems with prenatal development
occur. Disease, malnutrition, and other prenatal influences can have a powerful impact on how the brain develops
during this critical period.

Genetic

These are factors that are transmitted from parents to the young ones for example Albinism. Children with this
condition lack pigmentation and are likely to have eye problems. Others who develop Down syndrome are likely to have
problems with speech, motor skills, vision, and cognitive development.

Environment

These are factors which are gotten from the environment of the child. These are:
Maternal diseases -diseases such as Rubella or German measles, sexually transmitted diseases when contracted during
the first 3 months of pregnancy are likely to cause visual, hearing and cognitive problems.

HIV can also cause still birth and low birth weight. Like all the preventable STIs, syphilis has been linked to preterm
labour, low birth weight and death. Congenital syphilis can cause deafness, microcephaly, intellectual disability and
visual impairment

b. Maternal diet-poor diet may result to premature birth and low weight infants

c. X-rays -this may damage the central nervous system of the fetus. The infant may also exhibit poor physical
growth and underdeveloped brain.

d. Age of the mother- the recommended child bearing age of the mother is between 28-38 years. This is because
the older the mother the high chance of giving birth to children with special needs.

Perinatal period of development

This refers to the time when a mother is in labour up to the actual birth of the baby. Sometimes complications occur
and a mother fails to follow the normal delivery pattern.

Factors that may cause harm the child during the labour process

i. Premature birth-babies born before fulltime (38wks) are likely to be of low birth weight. They are likely to
experience problems with breathing, sucking and maintaining body temperature.

Prolonged labour- leads to a greater risk of experiencing damage that causes cerebral [Link] can also cause lack of
oxygen to the brain causing brain damage. Babies who suffered from mild deprivation are found to be more likely to
suffer from learning difficulties and other problems as they grew older.

At 5yrs, these children suffered from a number of conditions, including delayed speech, attention deficit disorder,
autism and dyspraxia.

iii. Hygienic conditions- the baby may contract tetanus if the tools for handling the mother are not clean. Tetanus is
a risky condition as it may cause damage to the central nervous system. Tetanus is a severe illness of the central nervous
system caused by bacteria. It can cause death.

iv. Forceps/vacuum delivery- in an unusual delivery, a doctor may use certain equipment like the forceps. The
equipment risk causing damage to the child’s brain as a result of extra force.

Postnatal period
The postnatal period begins immediately after childbirth as the mother's body, including hormone levels and uterus size,
returns to a non-pregnant state. during this period, there are factors that may cause harm to the child.

Factors that may cause harm to the child during the postnatal period

i. Postnatal anoxia- this can occur if a child is exposed to any situation that prevents oxygen from flowing through
the brain.

Malnutrition- can cause kwashiorkor, stunted growth and learning difficulties

[Link]

iii. Contact with chemicals- chemicals such as drugs we use at home like piriton and pesticides can cause harmful
effects to the baby.

iv. Head injuries- this may occur as a result of accidents or blows to the head of the baby. This can cause brain
damage and physical injury.

Infant reflexes
A reflex is a muscle reaction that happens automatically in response to stimulation.

Considerations:
The presence and strength of a reflex is an important sign of nervous system development and function.
Many infant reflexes disappear as the child grows older, although some remain through adulthood.
A reflex that is still present after the age when it would normally disappear can be a sign of brain or nervous
system damage.
Take note of:

a) [Link] name
b) Reflex response
c) Reflex disappears
Reflexes:
1. Grasp- palmer and plantar
2. Moro
3. Rooting
4. Sucking
5. Babinski
6. Crawling
7. Step
8. Tonic
Examples of reflexes that last into adulthood are:
 Blinking reflex: blinking the eyes when they are touched or when a sudden bright light appears
 • Cough reflex: coughing when the airway is stimulated
 • Gag reflex: gagging when the throat or back of the mouth is stimulated
 • Sneeze reflex: sneezing when the nasal passages are irritated
 • Yawn reflex: yawning when the body needs more oxygen
[Link]
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3. SPEECH AND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

Involves:

✓ A reactive environment that responds to the child’s vocalization and makes efforts to interpret the
child’s early attempts in communicating and speaking
✓ An active interaction with others
✓ Vocalizing and experimenting with vocal sounds
✓ Thinking, remembering and understanding what is said and heard
✓ Being able to respond and express own needs.
Stages of language development

Prelinguistic vocalization
Babbling
One work
Two words
Acquisition of grammar
a. Prelinguistic vocalization (0-3 months)

Crying sounds indicating anger, pain discomfort

b. babbling (3-6 months)

Combination of consonants and vowels bababa, mamama, gagagaga

c. One- word stage (12-18 months)

 ✓ Single words: mama, baba. Daddy, bye
✓ One word sentence e.g. water > I need water
d. Two word stage 18-24 months

Daddy go, me milk

e. Acquisition of grammar 2-6 yrs)

Use four or more words in a sentence

Indicators of language problems

• Not reacting to sounds

• Not reacting to initiatives from the surrounding
• Not taking initiatives
• Inability to speak clearly
• Inability to understand what is said
• Failure to take part in discussion/ conversations
• Mis pronunciation
Causes of language problems

• Slow mental development

• Physical defects in the structures involved in speech production
• Paralysis of speech muscles
• Hearing impairment
• Environmental deprivation

[Link]

4. INTRA & INTER- INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Individual difference

We, in spite of belonging to a common species known as human beings, have our own individuality which contributes
towards the variation and differences found in us. It is these differences that are entitled as „individual differences”

The differences among individuals, that distinguish or separate them from one another and make one as an unique
individual in oneself, may be termed as individual differences. Individual differences stand for the variations or
deviations among individuals in regard to a single or a number of characteristics Individual differences stand for “those
differences which in their totality, distinguish one individual from another.

Types of individual differences

Physical differences: individual differ in height, weight, colour of skin, colour of eyes and hair, size of hands
and heads, arms, feet, mouth and nose, length of waistline, structure and functioning of internal organs, facial
expression, mannerisms of speech and walk, and other such native or acquired physical characteristics.
Mental differences • People differ in intellectual abilities and capacities like reasoning and thinking, power of
imagination, creative expression, concentration etc. • On the basis of these differences they are usually classified
as idiot, imbecile, moron, border line, normal, very superior and genius
[Link] in motor ability • There exist wide differences in motor abilities such as reacting time, speed of
action, steadiness, rate of muscular moment, manual dexterity and resistance to fatigue etc.
4. Emotional differences • In some individuals, positive emotions like love, affection and amusement and the
like are prominent whereas, in some negative emotions are more powerful. • Individuals also differ in the manner
they express their emotions. Some are emotionally stable and mature, while others are emotionally unstable and
immature.
5. Differences in self-concept • Self-concept reflects the images, considerations or judgement about one’s
abilities and limitations usually held by an individual not only projecting himself before others but also for
estimating his self in his own eyes. •
6. Learning differences • Some learn more easily and are able to make use of their learning more comfortably
than others. • For some, one method of learning or memorization is more suitable, while for others, a different
method suit.
[Link] in social and moral development • Some are found to be adjusted properly in the social situations
and lead a happy social life while others are socially handicapped, unsocial or antisocial. • Similarly, people are
found to differ in respect of ethical and moral sense.
Nature of individual differences
1. Inter-personal differences
Inter-individual differences are differences that are observed between people. Good examples of inter-individual
differences are gender, age, ethnic background, anxiety levels or attachment style
2. Intra-personal differences
intra-individual differences are differences that are observed within the same person when they are assessed at
different times or in different situations.
This is that intra-individual differences occur within the same person. Attention or effort are good examples of
intra-individual differences.
Factors Effecting Individual Differences
1. Heredity (What occurs naturally as a function of the genes)
2. Environment (What is learned and communicated in different cultures or other social groups) includes Family,
Socio-economic status, Culture, Previous knowledge, experience and gender differences.
Educational implications of individual differences
In any group there are individuals who deviate from the norms of the group. Along with the average, the presence
of very superior and extremely dull is equally possible in a class.
Every teacher should try to have the desired knowledge of the abilities, interests, attitudes, and other personality
traits of his pupils and render individual guidance to children for the maximum utilization of their potentialities.
• It is wrong to expect uniformity in gaining proficiency or success in a particular field from a group of students.
On account of their subnormal intelligence, previous background, lack of proper interest, attitude etc. some
students lag behind in one or the other area of achievement.
• All students cannot be benefited by a particular method of instruction and a uniform and rigid curriculum.
It is the function of the school within its budgetary personnel and curricular limitations to provide adequate
schooling for every learner no matter how much he differs from every other learner.”
The first step in making provision for the individual differences is to know about the abilities, capacities, interests
of individual pupils.
Ability grouping - In the light of the results derived from various tests for knowing individual differences in
terms of individual potentialities in various dimensions, the students in a class or area of activity can be divided
into groups. Such division can prove beneficial in adjusting instruction to varying individual differences.
Adjusting the curriculum - The curriculum should be as flexible and differentiated as possible. It should have
the provision for a number of diversified courses and co-curricular experiences. •It should provide adjustment
suiting the local requirements and potentialities of the students in different groups.
Adjusting the method of teaching- to formulate a plan and strategy and adopt instructional procedure which
suits to the particular types of pupils.
Adopting special programmes -for enabling the students to learn their own individual pace.
Other measures of individualizing instructions -The size of the class or section should be as small as possible
and the teacher should try to pay individual attention the group under instruction.
5. ROLE OF EARLY STIMULATION AND EXPERIENCES
a) Importance of early experience
b) Critical and sensitive periods
a) Importance of early experience
Babies begin to learn about the world around them from a very early age. This includes prenatal, perinatal
(immediately before and after birth) and postnatal period. Children's early experiences – the bonds they form
with their parents. Their first learning experiences – deeply affect their future physical, cognitive, emotional and
social development. Optimizing the early years of children's lives is the best investment we can make as a society
in ensuring their future success
Aim : to offer children different situations that allow them to explore and this awaken their skills and naturally
develop abilities.
b. Critical and sensitive periods
The techniques for early stimulation experiences are most effective when there are more neural connections. This
happens, precisely, from 0 to 6 years. This is why it is important to start infant stimulation as soon as possible.
The exercises and activities must be adapted to the child’s age. Each activity must be adjusted to the child’s level
of development.
Up to 12 months
Sense of smell -different smells through the nose;
hearing, a whisper at bedtime,
talk to the baby while he or she eats or let the baby pick up the sounds.
Sight-The luminous and mobile objects
tactile skills -give toys of different textures.
12-18 months
❖ Music and stories -the baby will repeat and with this, will improve the speech
❖ Games- that involve moving around or taking his or her arms and making them walk.
❖ Language-, talk to your baby, getting his attention to your mouth.
❖ Ask questions so that they begin to express themselves
2-6 years
Aim: Achieve correct socialization.
• Encourage games in groups.
• Take your child to the park to interact with other children.
• Strengthen family ties: organize family reunions where your child participates and expresses his/her
opinion…,
• N/B Not be forced to do stimulating exercises. –problems of self-esteem
6. EFFECTS OF FAMILY, PEERS, SCHOOL & ENVIRONMENT
Family: First environment to the child. A child is born into a family and belongs there first before belonging to
the society or community. So family therefore is very important to the child.
Values - what is right and what is wrong. Discuss with them the importance of healthy and unhealthy values. E.g.
by giving them some responsibilities; such as cleaning the table or helping to cheer up a friend or sibling when
they’re sick, will begin to teach them the importance of these values. Explaining the importance of values will
help your child understand consequences.
Skills - Once your child is born, they start learning motor skills, language skills, cognitive skills, and emotional
skills.
Language skills- If you do not speak to your child and teach them your language, they will never learn.
Emotional skills- sympathy and compassion, how to deal with the highs and lows that come with life. If they
lack emotional skills, it could lead to destructive choices when they are older. Can be done by teaching them to
smile and wave when they are babies is a good place to start. When a bit older, teaching them to share is very
important.

Socialization-What your child learns through the interactions between you and them is what they will carry for
the rest of their life in regards to how to treat others. Through this socialization with family, your child will learn
how to trust, seek friendships from others, and find comfort with others as well.
Security- Your child gets their primary sense of security from their family. They rely on you to make sure their
basic needs, such as shelter, food, and clothing, are met. The child needs consistency and structure helps them to
develop feelings of security. This can be achieved through schedules. Your child will know that everyday around
a certain time, they will eat, bathe, sleep, etc. With a schedule, the child will feel comfort knowing their needs
will be met. When your child feels secure, they are able to develop many more skills.
From the above observation, the family has a crucial role to play. Some children can be raised from families
which negatively affect their development. For example;
❖ A family that lacks harmony may have a high chance of developing emotional immaturity and antisocial
behaviors.
❖ Children abused by their parent either psychologically or physically may grow with low self-esteem and
develop physical injuries.
❖ Neglected children feel unwanted and rejected. They may also lag behind in physical growth. Children
raised by parents who are too permissive may end up as immature and dependent individuals who lack
self-control and may develop emotional and behavioral problems.
❖ Parents who enforce rules rigidly and exercise too much control over their children’s actions and behaviors
may make children lag behind in moral reasoning and may also develop antisocial behaviors.
However, parents should do the following to ensure safe growing of their children:
• Listen to children and encourage dialogue
 • Use reward rather than punishment to regulate children’s behavior
• Set limits on a child’s behavior by providing explanation to help their children understand the reasons
for such requests
• Meet the child’s needs and action with love and understanding
• Maintain harmony at home.

Peers, school and social environment

A child’s relationship environment begins in the family, but then extends to adults and peers outside of the family
who have important roles in their life. Educators and other education and care staff are a significant part of many
children’s relationship environment. Communities that foster positive interactions and relationships between
children, peers and adults strengthen children’s outcomes.
The peers: A peer is a companion of approximately the same age and developmental level. Between the ages of
12-18 years more time is spent with peers than any other social agent.
Role of Peers
• They give opportunity to interact with equals
• Promote the spirit of competition and cooperation
• Teach self-evaluation of physical, social and intellectual skills realistically
• Learn to appreciate another’s point of view
• Reinforce gender role behavior
• Teach leadership roles.
Note: In school, children form cliques to which they belong. These cliques help the children to develop own sets
of values and goals, establish social structure of leaders and followers and later form standards for behavior.
‘Influence of the School: Children spend a major part of their life at school with teachers and peers. At school,
thy are exposed to a different set of rules that regulate their behavior. They gain new information through the set
curriculum of academic and non-academic activities.
Role of Teachers
• Impart new knowledge to the child
• Being a role model of good behavior to the child
• Motivate the child to perform academic and non-academic activities
• Encourage healthy competition among the children
• Train children to observe school rules and regulations
• They are figures of authority
Teachers should therefore ensure that they set clearly their expectations of learners, maintain proper classroom
management (ensure to use learner centered approach to enhance proper learning), set a conducive learning
environment and finally make sure to adhere to the seating arrangement to make sure learners get optimum
learning from each other.
Social environment
Influence of the Media
Television: Television has the potential to generate both positive and negative effects, and many studies have
looked at the impact of television on society, particularly on children and adolescents. An individual child’s
developmental level is a critical factor in determining whether the medium will have positive or negative effects.
Not all television programs are bad, but data showing the negative effects of exposure to violence, inappropriate
sexuality and offensive language are convincing. Still, physicians need to advocate continued research into the
negative and positive effects of media on children and adolescents.
The average child watches nearly 14 h of television each week. By his/her high school graduation, the average
teen will have spent more time watching television than in the classroom. Studies show how time spent watching
television varies between different age groups and cultures. This is especially relevant when studying the effects
of excessive television exposure on disadvantaged populations.
Television viewing frequently limits children’s time for vital activities such as playing, reading, learning to talk,
spending time with peers and family, storytelling, participating in regular exercise, and developing other
necessary physical, mental and social skills. In addition to the amount of time spent in front of the television,
other factors that influence the medium’s effect on children include the child’s developmental level, individual
susceptibility and whether children watch television alone or with their parents.
Learning: Television can be a powerful teacher. Watching Sesame Street is an example of how toddlers can learn
valuable lessons about racial harmony, cooperation, kindness, simple arithmetic and the alphabet through an
educational television format. Some public television programs stimulate visits to the zoo, libraries, bookstores,
museums and other active recreational settings, and educational videos can certainly serve as powerful prosocial
teaching devices. The educational value of Sesame Street, has been shown to improve the reading and learning
skills of its viewers in some disadvantaged settings, healthy television habits may actually be a beneficial teaching
tool.
Still, watching television takes time away from reading and schoolwork. More recent and well-controlled studies
show that even 1 h to 2 h of daily unsupervised television viewing by school-aged children has a significant
deleterious effect on academic performance, especially reading.
Violence: The amount of violence on television is on the rise. The average child sees 12,000 violent acts on
television annually, including many depictions of murder and rape. More than 1000 studies confirm that exposure
to heavy doses of television violence increases aggressive behavior, particularly in boys. Other studies link
television or newspaper publicity of suicides to an increased suicide risk.
The following groups of children may be more vulnerable to violence on television:
❖ children from minority and immigrant groups;
❖ emotionally disturbed children;
❖ children with learning disabilities;
❖ children who are abused by their parents; and
❖ children in families in distress.
Physicians who see a child with a history of aggressive behavior should inquire about the child’s exposure to
violence portrayed on television.
Nutrition: Because television takes time away from play and exercise activities, children who watch a lot of
television are less physically fit and more likely to eat high fat and high energy snack foods. Television viewing
makes a substantial contribution to obesity because prime time commercials promote unhealthy dietary practices
(television should be discouraged because it may lead to less meaningful communication and, arguably, poorer
eating habits.
Sexuality: Today, television has become a leading sex educator in the world. Between 1976 and 1996, there has
been a 270% increase in sexual interactions during the family hour of 2000 hours to 2100 hours. Television
exposes children to adult sexual behaviors in ways that portray these actions as normal and risk-free, sending the
message that because these behaviors are frequent, ‘everybody does it’. Some people believe that the media can
influence sexual responsibility by promoting birth control, such as condom use.
Alcohol and smoking: Television is not the only way that children learn about tobacco and alcohol use; the
concern is that the consequences of these behaviors are not accurately depicted on television.
Advertising: Advertising can have positive effects on children’s behavior. For example, some alcohol
manufacturers spend 10% of their budget on advertisements warning about the dangers of drinking and driving.
In addition, although some health care professionals disagree about the health benefits of appropriate milk use,
milk consumption has increased as a result of print and broadcast advertisements.
Parents role on television viewing
❖ limit tv viewing by providing clear rules that limit what the children watch
❖ encourage children watch age appropriate programs that promote prosocial behaviors
❖ link television content to meaningful experiences. For example, a program on ‘growing of vegetables may
motivate a child to start a garden at home
❖ be role models by ensuring that children do not spend too much time watching TV.
Community and Cultural Influence
Each community has guidelines for various behaviors. The guidelines are related to morality, religious practices,
rituals or ceremonies and roles for both sexes. All these factors when combined give rise to a pattern of life
commonly known as culture
How did the African Traditional Society influence the developing child? (child rearing practices)
✓ Story telling sessions
✓ Use of proverbs
✓ Direct teaching
✓ Peer modelling
✓ Responsibility training
✓ Rituals and ceremonies
Modernization however has changed the way children are reared. This is because of the following factors:
Christianity-many parents prefer calling their children by Christian names
Urbanization-many people are now residing in urban Centre and are therefore not practicing cultural
practices like circumcision where it used to be a ceremony
Formal education- the community insists on parents learning to ensure children are assisted at home
(CBC)
• Sex roles and culture- both boys and girls are taken to school and are expected to compete with others
equally.

Note: parents and guardians do encourage sex differences among boys and girls by doing the following
Cuddling girls more than boys
Discourage boys from crying
Encourage certain play activities among sexes
Encourage girls to plait hair
Buy certain toys for specific sexes
Provide role models for acceptable behavior.
The adolescent
Adolescence is the period of transition between childhood and adulthood. It includes some big changes to the
body and the way young people relate to the world. Puberty is the developmental milestone attained when a young
person gains ability to reproduce. It involves changes in the reproductive organs of both sexes.
There are 3 stages of adolescence namely:
Early adolescence(ages10-13)
Middle adolescence (ages 14-17)
Late adolescence(ages18-21)
Let us discuss each one
1. Early Adolescence (10-13 years)
During this stage, children often start to grow more quickly

girls grow breasts and periods stars later at around 12-13 years
boys grow and enlarge their testicles
girls start a year or two earlier than boys
Early adolescents have concrete, black and white thinking i.e. things are either right or wrong, great or
terrible. They have egocentrism (they are conscious about their appearance and feel that they are being
judged by their peers.)
Pre-teens feel an increased need for privacy. They fight a lot with parents as they seek freedom and
independence.
2. Middle Adolescence (14-17 years)
o Boys have some voice cracking as their voices lower
o They develop acne. Girls have regular periods
o Many teens become interested in romantic and sexual relationships. Masturbation(self-
stimulation) emerge during this period.
o They have more arguments with parents as they struggle for more independence.
o They may spend more time with friends and are concerned more with their appearance. Peer
pressure may pick during this period.
o Brain continue to grow and mature more at this age. This is because frontal lobes are the last areas
to mature until when one is at 20 years.
• Frontal lobes play a big role in coordinating complex decision-making impulse control and being able to
consider multiple options and sequences. For example; an adolescent can say; ‘I am doing well in math
and I really want to watch this movie’ ‘do I really have to wear a condom during sex and my girlfriend
takes a pill…...’ ‘marijuana is legal now so it doesn’t have to be that bad’
3. Late Adolescence (18-21 years)
o They have completed physical development and grown to full adult height. They have more
impulse control and may think now that as much as marijuana is legal but it is still harmful to their
health.
o They have a stronger sense of their own individuality now and can identify their own values.
o Friendships and romantic relationships become more stable. They become more emotionally and
physically separated from their family
However, many reestablish an’ adult’ relationship with their parents considering them more an equal from
whom to ask advice and discuss mature topics with rather than an authority figure.
Peer Pressure
This is the idea of doing things so as to please members of a peer group. Belonging to a certain group for
adolescence is a very important aspect of an adolescent. This is where they identify themselves with their friends
in terms of dressing, language and even manner of dressing. It is a result of the need to belong that adolescents
find themselves agreeing to follow group decisions blindly.
Drug use and Abuse
This taking drugs for no-medicinal reasons. Drugs can be taken for pleasure and some have the effect of altering
one’s mood. Some of the drugs that are occasionally abused are like:
Alcohol
Cigarettes
Bhang (cannabis sativa)
Miraa
Reasons for drug taking among adolescents include:
❖ A desire to escape from reality
❖ Spirit of adventure
❖ Identification with peers
❖ Lack of useful leisure activities
❖ Rebelling against parental and school authorities
❖ Coping with frustrations from academic, family or social life.
❖ Poor role models.
The Role of Parents and Teachers in Preventing use of Drugs and Abuse
✓ Train and encourage adolescents to be assertive so as to avoid peer influence
✓ Treat each adolescent as a person with unique needs
✓ Provide relevant information on dangers of drug and drug abuse
✓ Be good role models
✓ Provide opportunities for spending leisure time constructively
Parents can also help adolescents to grow to be mature by assigning them developmental tasks like:
▪ Learning to control one’s emotions
▪ All childhood behavior must be dropped
▪ Mastery of skills that involve learning and communication
▪ Acquiring a sense of identity.