INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKS

Exam-Focused Revision Notes

Based on the five supplied past papers. The emphasis is on topics that repeatedly appeared and carried substantial
marks.

1. COMPUTER NETWORK BASICS

Computer network: A collection of two or more interconnected computers/devices that communicate and share
resources and information.

Advantages: Resource sharing; file sharing; communication; centralized management; Internet sharing; collaboration.

Disadvantages: Setup/maintenance costs; security risks; equipment failures can affect many users; congestion can
reduce performance.

2. NETWORK SERVICES, PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS

Network service: A function provided through a network, such as file sharing, email, web browsing, printing,
authentication and Internet access.

Protocol: A set of rules governing communication between network devices. Examples: HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, SMTP,
TCP, UDP, IP, DNS and SSH.

Network standard: An agreed technical specification that allows networking equipment, software and technologies to
work together.

Standardization bodies: IEEE, ISO, IETF and ITU.

Benefits of standards: Interoperability, compatibility, reliability, reduced costs, easier development and improved
communication.

3. NETWORK TOPOLOGIES — HIGH PRIORITY

Physical topology: The actual physical arrangement of cables and devices.

Logical topology: How data actually flows through a network.

Bus: All devices share a common backbone. Advantage: relatively simple and inexpensive. Disadvantages: backbone
failure can affect the network; performance can decrease with traffic.

Star: Every device connects to a central switch/hub. Advantages: easy management, expansion and troubleshooting.
Disadvantage: central-device failure can affect the network.

Ring: Devices form a closed ring. Advantage: organized communication path. Disadvantages: failures can disrupt
communication; changes can be difficult.

Mesh: Devices have multiple interconnections. Advantages: high reliability and multiple paths. Disadvantages:
expensive and complex.

Tree: Hierarchical arrangement of connected network segments. Advantages: scalable and hierarchical management.
Disadvantage: higher-level failures can affect sections.

Hybrid: Combination of two or more topologies; flexible but more complex and potentially costly.

Exam focus: Be able to draw each topology and give definition, advantages and disadvantages.

4. NETWORK DEVICES — HIGH PRIORITY

NIC: Network Interface Card; connects a device to a network, enables transmission/reception and provides a
hardware/MAC address.

Introduction to Computer Networks — Exam Revision Notes | Page 1

Hub: Basic device that repeats/broadcasts incoming signals to connected ports; less efficient than a switch.

Switch: Connects devices and forwards frames toward the destination, commonly using MAC addresses; more
efficient than a hub.

Router: Connects different networks and forwards packets using logical/IP addressing. Primarily associated with OSI
Layer 3.

Bridge: Connects network segments and filters/forwards frames using MAC addresses; Data Link Layer.

Repeater: Regenerates/retransmits weakened signals to extend transmission distance; Physical Layer.

Memory line: Repeater → Hub → Bridge → Switch → Router = signal → shared network → segments → MAC
forwarding → IP routing.

5. PEER-TO-PEER AND CLIENT-SERVER

Peer-to-peer: Computers share resources directly without a dedicated central server. Simple and lower cost, but
centralized management/security is harder.

Client-server: Dedicated servers provide services/resources to clients. Centralized management, security and backup
are easier, but it costs more and depends on server infrastructure.

Core comparison: P2P = decentralized and suited to smaller networks. Client-server = centralized and suited to larger
organizations.

6. TRANSMISSION MEDIA — HIGH PRIORITY

Bounded/guided media: Signals travel through physical cable: twisted pair, coaxial and fibre optic.

Twisted pair: Pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together. UTP and STP are common types. Relatively
inexpensive and flexible, but more susceptible to interference and shorter-distance/lower-bandwidth than fibre.

Coaxial: Central conductor surrounded by insulation, shielding and outer protection. Better shielding than ordinary
twisted pair, but less flexible and inferior to fibre in bandwidth/distance.

Fibre optic: Uses light through an optical fibre. Core carries light; cladding surrounds the core; outer jacket protects it.
Advantages: very high bandwidth, speed, low attenuation, EMI resistance and long distance. Disadvantages: higher
installation cost, difficult splicing and specialist skills.

Unbounded/unguided media: Wireless transmission through space: radio, microwave, infrared, satellite, Wi-Fi and
Bluetooth.

Radio: Wireless transmission over different distances; flexible but subject to interference and security concerns.

Microwave: Often used for directional/high-speed links and commonly requires line-of-sight.

Infrared: Short-range wireless communication, generally requiring a clear path.

Satellite: Very wide geographical coverage; can have propagation delay and higher cost.

Wi-Fi: Wireless networking technology for connecting devices to a local network.

Bluetooth: Short-range wireless technology for nearby devices.

7. OSI REFERENCE MODEL — VERY HIGH PRIORITY

Purpose: A seven-layer reference model for describing network communication.

Layer 7 — Application: Provides network services to applications. Examples include services associated with HTTP,
FTP, SMTP, DNS and SSH.

Layer 6 — Presentation: Data representation/translation, encryption/decryption and compression/decompression.

Layer 5 — Session: Establishes, manages and terminates communication sessions.

Layer 4 — Transport: Process-to-process delivery; segmentation/reassembly; flow control and reliability functions
depending on protocol. TCP and UDP.

Introduction to Computer Networks — Exam Revision Notes | Page 2

Layer 3 — Network: Logical addressing, routing and packet forwarding. IP; routers.

Layer 2 — Data Link: Framing, MAC addressing, error detection and media access control.

Layer 1 — Physical: Transmission of raw bits through physical media/signals.

Mnemonic: All People Seem To Need Data Processing = Application, Presentation, Session, Transport, Network,
Data Link, Physical.

Exam focus: Memorize all seven layers, their functions, examples and the layer order.

8. TCP/IP MODEL
Layers: Common four-layer presentation: Application, Transport, Internet, Network Access.

Application: Application-level network services; examples include HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS and SSH.

Transport: Process-to-process communication; TCP and UDP.

Internet: Logical addressing and routing; IP.

Network Access: Access to the physical network and transmission over the network medium.

OSI vs TCP/IP: OSI has seven layers and separates Session/Presentation; TCP/IP is commonly presented with four
layers and groups those functions into Application. TCP/IP is closely associated with practical Internet protocols.

9. ENCAPSULATION
Encapsulation: As data moves down network layers, control information such as headers is added.

Concept: Application data → Transport header + data → Network header + transport data → Data Link header + data
+ trailer → bits.

Header: Information added before the main data.

Trailer: Information added after the data; used by protocols such as Data Link framing for control/error checking.

10. IMPORTANT PROTOCOLS

TCP: Transmission Control Protocol; connection-oriented and designed for reliable delivery using mechanisms such as
sequencing, acknowledgements and retransmission.

UDP: User Datagram Protocol; connectionless and lower-overhead, useful where speed/low overhead is important.

HTTP: Transfers web resources.

HTTPS: HTTP protected with security/encryption mechanisms.

FTP: File Transfer Protocol; transfers files.

SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol; primarily sends email.

DNS: Domain Name System; resolves domain names to IP addresses and supports name resolution.

SSH: Secure Shell; secure remote access/communication.

POP3/IMAP: Email retrieval/access protocols.

11. TCP THREE-WAY HANDSHAKE

Step 1: Client sends SYN.

Step 2: Server replies SYN + ACK.

Step 3: Client sends ACK.

Result: The TCP connection is established.

Introduction to Computer Networks — Exam Revision Notes | Page 3

12. DATA LINK LAYER, LLC AND MAC
Data Link functions: Framing, MAC addressing, error detection, media access control and flow-control/reliability
functions where supported.

LLC: Logical Link Control; provides logical link-control functions and interfaces with the Network Layer.

MAC: Media Access Control; controls access to the transmission medium and is associated with MAC addressing.

Memory: LLC = logical control; MAC = medium access + MAC addressing.

13. FLOW CONTROL, ERROR CONTROL AND ARQ

Flow control: Controls transmission rate so the receiver is not overwhelmed.

Error control: Detects and/or recovers from lost or corrupted data.

ARQ: Automatic Repeat reQuest; error-control technique using acknowledgements and retransmission.

Go-Back-N: Sliding-window method where multiple frames can be sent before acknowledgements; if a frame is
lost/damaged, the affected frame and subsequent relevant frames are retransmitted.

14. CSMA/CD
Meaning: Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection.

Process: Listen to the medium → transmit if free → detect collision if it occurs → stop → back off → retransmit.

Frame-size principle: The frame must remain on the medium long enough for a transmitting station to detect a
collision occurring at the far end of the network.

15. ROUTING
Routing: Selecting paths through a network for packets.

Static routing: Routes are manually configured. Predictable and simple, but difficult to maintain in large/changing
networks.

Dynamic routing: Routes are learned/updated using routing protocols. Adapts to changes, but is more complex and
creates protocol overhead.

16. NETWORK SECURITY

Definition: Protection of network infrastructure, devices, information and users from unauthorized access, misuse,
damage and theft.

Confidentiality: Only authorized people should access information.

Integrity: Information should not be improperly altered.

Availability: Authorized users should be able to access resources when needed.

Authentication: Verifying identity. Examples: username/password, PIN, biometrics, security token and multi-factor
authentication.

Authorization: Determining what an authenticated user is allowed to do.

Security policy: Rules/procedures covering passwords, access control, authentication, acceptable use, backups,
incident response, updates, physical security and data protection.

Public networks: Use secure/encrypted connections, strong passwords, MFA, firewall/security software, updates,
appropriate VPN use, restricted file access and careful handling of sensitive data.

17. INTERNET BASICS

Introduction to Computer Networks — Exam Revision Notes | Page 4

Internet: Global interconnection of networks communicating using Internet protocols.

Website: Collection of related web pages/resources available through the Web.

Hypertext: Text containing links to other information/resources.

Cookie: Small information stored by a website in a browser, commonly for sessions or preferences.

Chat: Real-time electronic communication.

ISP: Internet Service Provider. Consider reliability, speed, coverage, support, data limits and service quality—not just
price.

CC vs BCC: CC = visible copy; BCC = hidden copy.

E-commerce challenges: Security, privacy, fraud, connectivity, delivery/logistics and customer trust.

18. NETWORK CONGESTION

Meaning: Occurs when traffic attempting to use network resources exceeds available capacity.

Causes: Excessive traffic, insufficient bandwidth, too many simultaneous users, poor design or equipment limitations.

Solutions: Increase bandwidth, upgrade equipment, segment the network, manage/prioritize traffic, reduce
unnecessary traffic and improve design.

19. NETWORK SERVERS

File server: Centralized file storage/access.

Print server: Manages access to printers.

Web server: Provides web resources/pages.

Mail server: Handles email services.

DNS server: Provides domain-name resolution.

Database server: Provides database access/services.

20. ATM NETWORKS

ATM: Asynchronous Transfer Mode; networking technology using fixed-size cells to transmit information. It was
designed to support different types of traffic with predictable transmission characteristics.

21. EXAM-CRITICAL COMPARISONS

Router vs Switch: Router: different networks, IP addresses, Network Layer. Switch: devices within a LAN/network,
MAC addresses, Data Link Layer in traditional OSI classification.

Hub vs Switch: Hub repeats/broadcasts signals; switch forwards frames toward destinations using MAC addresses.

Bridge vs Router: Bridge connects network segments using MAC addresses; router connects different networks using
IP addresses.

TCP vs UDP: TCP is connection-oriented/reliable with higher overhead; UDP is connectionless/lower-overhead.

Static vs Dynamic routing: Static is manually configured; dynamic is learned/updated automatically.

Flow vs Error control: Flow control = transmission rate; error control = detecting/recovering from transmission
problems.

P2P vs Client-server: P2P = decentralized; client-server = centralized.

Bounded vs Unbounded: Bounded = physical cable; unbounded = wireless transmission through space.

22. DIAGRAMS TO PRACTICE

Introduction to Computer Networks — Exam Revision Notes | Page 5

OSI: Application → Presentation → Session → Transport → Network → Data Link → Physical.

TCP/IP: Application → Transport → Internet → Network Access.

Star: Multiple PCs connected to a central switch/hub.

Bus: Multiple devices connected to a common backbone.

Ring: Devices connected in a closed loop.

Client-server: One server connected to multiple clients.

Fibre optic: Outer jacket → cladding → core; light travels through the core.

TCP handshake: SYN → SYN+ACK → ACK.

23. FINAL MUST-MASTER CHECKLIST

Highest priority: OSI/TCP-IP models; network devices; topologies; transmission media; protocols.

Next priority: Standards; P2P vs client-server; network security; Data Link/LLC/MAC; flow/error control; ARQ;
Go-Back-N; CSMA/CD; routing.

Also revise: Servers; ISP; congestion; Internet terminology; email CC/BCC; e-commerce; ATM; network components.

Introduction to Computer Networks — Exam Revision Notes | Page 6

QUICK ACRONYM SHEET
Acronym Meaning

LAN Local Area Network

MAN Metropolitan Area Network

WAN Wide Area Network

NIC Network Interface Card

OSI Open Systems Interconnection

TCP Transmission Control Protocol

UDP User Datagram Protocol

IP Internet Protocol

FTP File Transfer Protocol

SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

HTTP Hypertext Transfer Protocol

HTTPS Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure

DNS Domain Name System

SSH Secure Shell

ARQ Automatic Repeat reQuest

ATM Asynchronous Transfer Mode

ISP Internet Service Provider

IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

ISO International Organization for Standardization

IETF Internet Engineering Task Force

MAC Media Access Control

LLC Logical Link Control

CSMA/CD Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection

P2P Peer-to-Peer

VPN Virtual Private Network

BCC Blind Carbon Copy

CC Carbon Copy

Introduction to Computer Networks — Exam Revision Notes | Page 7