Bachelor of Science

Honours in Counselling

Counselling in Education

Module BSCC216
Authors: Sitemere Martha
[Link]. Gender and Community Development (GZU)
[Link]. Gender and Sociology (WUA)
C.E (UZ)

Honde Albert
Master of Business Administration (ZOU)
[Link]. Counselling (ZOU)
C.E (UZ)

Kanyerere Winnet
[Link]. Women’s Law (UZ)
[Link] (UZ)

Garakasha Taurai
[Link] (ZOU)
[Link] (UZ)
C.E (UZ)

Content Reviewer: Michael Masimba Ndoro

[Link]. Counselling (ZOU)
[Link]. Counselling (ZOU)
C.E (UZ)

Editor: Tabeth Ndoro-Chideya

[Link]. Policy Studies (UZ)
[Link]. Business Administration (USA International University)
Associate Degree in Arts and Humanities (New York State
University)
Diploma in Adult Education (UZ)
Certificate in Communication (ACC, Kenya)
Published by: The Zimbabwe Open University

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The Zimbabwe Open University is a distance teaching and open

learning institution.

Year: 2014

Cover design: T. Ndhlovu

Layout : S. Mushore

Printers : ZOU Press

I.S.B.N: 978-1-77938-933-6

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 To the student
The demand for skills and knowledge administrators of varied backgrounds,
and the requirement to adjust and training, skills, experiences and personal
change with changing technology, interests. The combination of all these
places on us a need to learn continually qualities inevitably facilitates the
throughout life. As all people need an production of learning materials that
education of one form or another, it has teach successfully any student, anywhere
been found that conventional education and far removed from the tutor in space
institutions cannot cope with the and time. We emphasize that our
demand for education of this magnitude. learning materials should enable you to
It has, however, been discovered that solve both work-related problems and
distance education and open learning, other life challenges.
now also exploiting e-learning
technology, itself an offshoot of e- To avoid stereotyping and professional
commerce, has become the most narrowness, our teams of learning
effective way of transmitting these materials producers come from different
appropriate skills and knowledge universities in and outside Zimbabwe,
required for national and international and from Commerce and Industry.
development. This openness enables ZOU to produce
materials that have a long shelf life and
Since attainment of independence in are sufficiently comprehensive to cater
1980, the Zimbabwe Government has for the needs of all of you, our learners
spearheaded the development of in different walks of life. You, the
distance education and open learning at learner, have a large number of optional
tertiary level, resulting in the courses to choose from so that the
establishment of the Zimbabwe Open
knowledge and skills developed suit the
University (ZOU) on 1 March, 1999.
career path that you choose. Thus, we
strive to tailor-make the learning
ZOU is the first, leading, and currently
materials so that they can suit your
the only university in Zimbabwe entirely
personal and professional needs. In
dedicated to teaching by distance
education and open learning. We are developing ZOU learning materials, we
determined to maintain our leading are guided by the desire to provide you,
position by both satisfying our clients the learner, with all the knowledge and
and maintaining high academic skill that will make you a better
standards. To achieve the leading performer all round, be this at certificate,
position, we have adopted the course diploma, undergraduate or postgraduate
team approach to producing the varied level. We aim for products that will
learning materials that will holistically settle comfortably in the global village
shape you, the learner to be an all-round and competing successfully with anyone.
performer in the field of your own Our target is, therefore, to satisfy your
choice. Our course teams comprise quest for knowledge and skills through
academics, technologists and distance education and open learning.
Any course or programme launched by ZOU you may never meet in life. It is our intention
is conceived from the cross-pollination of ideas to bring the computer, email, internet chat-
from consumers of the product, chief among rooms, whiteboards and other modern methods
whom are you, the students and your employers. of delivering learning to all the doorsteps of our
We consult you and listen to your critical learners, wherever they may be. For all these
analysis of the concepts and how they are developments and for the latest information on
presented. We also consult other academics what is taking place at ZOU, visit ZOU website
from universities the world over and other at [Link]
international bodies whose reputation in distance
education and open learning is of a very high Having worked as best we can to prepare your
calibre. We carry out pilot studies of the course learning path, hopefully like John the Baptist
outlines, the content and the programme prepared for the coming of Jesus Christ, it is
component. We are only too glad to subject my hope as your Vice Chancellor that all of you,
our learning materials to academic and will experience unimpeded success in your
professional criticism with the hope of educational endeavours. We, on our part, shall
improving them all the time. We are continually strive to improve the learning
determined to continue improving by changing materials through evaluation, transformation of
the learning materials to suit the idiosyncratic delivery methodologies, adjustments and
needs of our learners, their employers, research, sometimes complete overhauls of both the
economic circumstances, technological materials and organizational structures and
development, changing times and geographic culture that are central to providing you with
location, in order to maintain our leading the high quality education that you deserve. Note
position. We aim at giving you an education that your needs, the learner ‘s needs, occupy a
that will work for you at any time anywhere and central position within ZOU’s core activities.
in varying circumstances and that your
performance should be second to none. Best wishes and success in your studies.

As a progressive university that is forward

looking and determined to be a successful part
of the twenty-first century, ZOU has started to
introduce e-learning materials that will enable
you, our students, to access any source of
information, anywhere in the world through
internet and to communicate, converse, discuss _____________________
and collaborate synchronously and Prof. Primrose Kurasha
asynchronously, with peers and tutors whom Vice Chancellor
 The Six Hour Tutorial Session At
The Zimbabwe Open University
A s you embark on your studies with the
Zimbabwe Open University (ZOU) by open
and distance learning, we need to advise you so
This is where the six hour tutorial comes in. For
it to work, you need to know that:
· There is insufficient time for the tutor
that you can make the best use of the learning
to lecture you
materials, your time and the tutors who are based
· Any ideas that you discuss in the
at your regional office.
tutorial, originate from your experience
as you work on the materials. All the
The most important point that you need to note is
issues raised above are a good source
that in distance education and open learning, there
of topics (as they pertain to your
are no lectures like those found in conventional
learning) for discussion during the
universities. Instead, you have learning packages
tutorial
that may comprise written modules, tapes, CDs,
· The answers come from you while the
DVDs and other referral materials for extra reading.
tutor’s task is to confirm, spur further
All these including radio, television, telephone, fax
discussion, clarify, explain, give
and email can be used to deliver learning to you.
additional information, guide the
As such, at ZOU, we do not expect the tutor to
discussion and help you put together
lecture you when you meet him/her. We believe
full answers for each question that you
that that task is accomplished by the learning
bring
package that you receive at registration. What
· You must prepare for the tutorial by
then is the purpose of the six hour tutorial for each
bringing all the questions and answers
course on offer?
that you have found out on the topics
to the discussion
At ZOU, as at any other distance and open learning
· For the tutor to help you effectively, give
university, you the student are at the centre of
him/her the topics beforehand so that
learning. After you receive the learning package,
in cases where information has to be
you study the tutorial letter and other guiding
gathered, there is sufficient time to do
documents before using the learning materials.
so. If the questions can get to the tutor
During the study, it is obvious that you will come
at least two weeks before the tutorial,
across concepts/ideas that may not be that easy
that will create enough time for
to understand or that are not so clearly explained.
thorough preparation.
You may also come across issues that you do not
agree with, that actually conflict with the practice
In the tutorial, you are expected and required to
that you are familiar with. In your discussion
take part all the time through contributing in
groups, your friends can bring ideas that are totally
every way possible. You can give your views,
different from yours and arguments may begin. You
even if they are wrong, (many students may hold
may also find that an idea is not clearly explained
the same wrong views and the discussion will
and you remain with more questions than answers.
help correct the errors), they still help you learn
You need someone to help you in such matters.
the correct thing as much as the correct ideas.
 The Six Hour Tutorial Session At The Zimbabwe Open University

You also need to be open-minded, frank, inquisitive learning package together with the sources to
and should leave no stone unturned as you analyze which you are referred. Fully-fledged lectures
ideas and seek clarification on any issues. It has can, therefore, be misleading as the tutor may
been found that those who take part in tutorials dwell on matters irrelevant to the ZOU course.
actively, do better in assignments and examinations
because their ideas are streamlined. Taking part Distance education, by its nature, keeps the tutor
properly means that you prepare for the tutorial and student separate. By introducing the six hour
beforehand by putting together relevant questions tutorial, ZOU hopes to help you come in touch
and their possible answers and those areas that with the physical being, who marks your
cause you confusion. assignments, assesses them, guides you on
preparing for writing examinations and
Only in cases where the information being assignments and who runs your general academic
discussed is not found in the learning package can affairs. This helps you to settle down in your
the tutor provide extra learning materials, but this course having been advised on how to go about
should not be the dominant feature of the six hour your learning. Personal human contact is,
tutorial. As stated, it should be rare because the therefore, upheld by ZOU.
information needed for the course is found in the

The six hour tutorials should be so structured that the

tasks for each session are very clear. Work for each
session, as much as possible, follows the structure given
below.

Session I (Two Hours)

Session I should be held at the beginning of the semester. The
main aim of this session is to guide you, the student, on how
you are going to approach the course. During the session, you
will be given the overview of the course, how to tackle the
assignments, how to organize the logistics of the course and
formation of study groups that you will belong to. It is also during
this session that you will be advised on how to use your learning
materials effectively.
 The Six Hour Tutorial Session At The Zimbabwe Open University

Session II (Two Hours)

This session comes in the middle of the semester to respond
to the challenges, queries, experiences, uncertainties, and
ideas that you are facing as you go through the course. In this
session, difficult areas in the module are explained through the
combined effort of the students and the tutor. It should also give
direction and feedback where you have not done well in the
first assignment as well as reinforce those areas where
performance in the first assignment is good.

Session III (Two Hours)

The final session, Session III, comes towards the end of the
semester. In this session, you polish up any areas that you still
need clarification on. Your tutor gives you feedback on the
assignments so that you can use the experience for preparation
for the end of semester examination.

Note that in all the three sessions, you identify the areas
that your tutor should give help. You also take a very
important part in finding answers to the problems posed.
You are the most important part of the solutions to your
learning challenges.

Conclusion urge you not only to attend the six hour tutorials
for this course, but also to prepare yourself to
contribute in the best way possible so that you
In conclusion, we should be very clear that six can maximally benefit from it. We also urge
hours is too little for lectures and it is not you to avoid forcing the tutor to lecture you.
necessary, in view of the provision of fully self-
contained learning materials in the package, to BEST WISHES IN YOUR STUDIES.
turn the little time into lectures. We, therefore,
ZOU
Contents

__________ Overview ________________________________________________________ 1

Unit One: Introduction to Counselling in Education

1.0 ________ Introduction ______________________________________________________ 3

1.1 ________ Objectives _______________________________________________________ 4
1.2 ________ Definition of Terms _______________________________________________ 4
__________ 1.2.1 Counselling _________________________________________________ 4
__________ 1.2.2 School counselling ____________________________________________ 4
__________ 1.2.3 The school counsellor _________________________________________ 5
1.3 ________ The Goals of Counselling ___________________________________________ 5
1.4 ________ Purpose of School Counselling ______________________________________ 6
__________ Activity 1.1 ______________________________________________________ 6
1.5 ________ Benefits of Counselling to a Client ____________________________________ 6
1.6 ________ Types of Counselling ______________________________________________ 7
__________ 1.6.1 Educational counselling ________________________________________ 7
__________ 1.6.2 Personal or social counselling __________________________________ 7
__________ 1.6.3 Vocation counselling __________________________________________ 8
__________ Activity 1.2 ______________________________________________________ 8
1.7 ________ Roles of a School Counsellor ________________________________________ 8
__________ Activity 1.3 ______________________________________________________ 9
1.8 ________ Qualities of an Effective School Counsellor _____________________________ 9
__________ 1.8.1 Objectivity (Empathy) _________________________________________ 10
__________ 1.8.2 Competence ________________________________________________ 10
__________ Activity 1.4 _____________________________________________________ 10
1.9 ________ Continuum of Services Provided by a School Counsellor _________________ 10
__________ 1.9.1 Counselling ________________________________________________ 11
__________ 1.9.2 Consultation, planning and coordination __________________________ 11
__________ 1.9.3 Prevention _________________________________________________ 11
1.10 ______ Education ______________________________________________________ 12
__________ Activity 1.5 _____________________________________________________ 13
1.11 _______ Counselling Skills _______________________________________________ 13
__________ 1.11.1 Attitudinal skills ___________________________________________ 13
__________ 1.11.2 Listening skill _____________________________________________ 15
__________ 1.11.3 Verbal communication _______________________________________ 15
__________ Activity 1.6 _____________________________________________________ 15
1.12 ______ Summary _______________________________________________________ 16
__________ References _____________________________________________________ 17
Unit Two: Child Development

2.0 ________ Introduction _____________________________________________________ 19

2.1 ________ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 20
2.2 ________ Child Development Periods _________________________________________ 20
2.3 ________ Theories of Cognitive Development __________________________________ 20
__________ 2.3.1 Jean Piaget _________________________________________________ 20
__________ [Link] Sensory motor (birth to about 2) ______________________________ 21
__________ [Link] Preoperational stage Toddlerhood (begins about the time the __________
__________ child starts to talk to about 7) _______________________________________ 21
__________ [Link] Concrete Operational Stage (about first grade to early _______________
__________ adolescence ages 7-12) ____________________________________________ 22
__________ Activity 2.1 _____________________________________________________ 23
2.4 ________ Len Vigotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development _______________________ 23
__________ Activity 2.2 _____________________________________________________ 24
2.5 ________ The Intelligence Quotient (IQ) ______________________________________ 25
2.6 ________ Puberty ________________________________________________________ 25
__________ 2.6.1 Early and precotious puberty ___________________________________ 26
__________ 2.6.2 Delayed puberty _____________________________________________ 26
__________ Activity 2.3 _____________________________________________________ 27
2.7 ________ Adolescence and Personality Development _____________________________ 27
__________ 2.7.1 Infancy ____________________________________________________ 30
__________ 2.7.2 Toddlerhood ________________________________________________ 30
__________ 2.7.3 Preschool __________________________________________________ 30
__________ 2.7.4 School age _________________________________________________ 30
__________ 2.7.5 Adolescence ________________________________________________ 31
2.8 ________ Common Problems _______________________________________________ 32
__________ Activity 2.4 _____________________________________________________ 33
2.9 ________ Summary _______________________________________________________ 33
__________ References _____________________________________________________ 34

Unit Three: Theoretical Approaches to Counselling in Education

3.0 ________ Introduction _____________________________________________________ 35

3.1 ________ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 36
3.2 ________ An Overview of Counselling Approaches ______________________________ 36
3.3 ________ Schools of Thought _______________________________________________ 36
__________ 3.3.1 The Psychodynamic School ____________________________________ 36
__________ Activity 3.1 _____________________________________________________ 38
3.4 ________ The Humanistic School ____________________________________________ 38
__________ Activity 3.2 _____________________________________________________ 39
3.5 ________ The Cognitive Behaviour School ____________________________________ 39
__________ Activity 3.3 _____________________________________________________ 41
3.6 ________ The Postmodern School ___________________________________________ 41
3.7 ________ The Alderian Therapy _____________________________________________ 43
__________ Activity 3.4 _____________________________________________________ 44
3.8 ________ Human Development ______________________________________________ 44
__________ 3.8.1 Child development ___________________________________________ 44
__________ 3.8.2 Social development ___________________________________________ 45
__________ 3.8.3 Moral development ___________________________________________ 45
__________ 3.8.4 Sexual development __________________________________________ 46
 __________ Activity 3.5 _____________________________________________________ 47
3.9 ________ Self-concept _____________________________________________________ 47
__________ Activity 3.6 _____________________________________________________ 49
3.10 ______ Summary _______________________________________________________ 49
__________ References _____________________________________________________ 50

Unit Four: Contemporary Issues in Education

4.0 ________ Introduction _____________________________________________________ 51

4.1 ________ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 52
4.2 ________ Contemporary Issues _____________________________________________ 52
4.3 ________ Identified Contemporary Issues _____________________________________ 52
__________ 4.3.1 Indulgence in early sex _______________________________________ 52
__________ 4.3.2 Consequences of early indulgence in sex by youth _________________ 52
__________ 4.3.3 Adolescent pregnancy ________________________________________ 53
__________ 4.3.4 Possible causes of engaging in sexual intercourse _________________ 53
__________ 4.3.5 Economic deprivation ________________________________________ 53
__________ 4.3.6 Poor school performance ______________________________________ 54
__________ 4.3.7 Experimentation _____________________________________________ 54
__________ 4.3.8 Low self- esteem _____________________________________________ 54
__________ 4.3.9 Young age _________________________________________________ 54
4.4 ________ Peer Pressure __________________________________________________ 54
__________ 4.4.1 Lack of alternative recreational activities ________________________ 54
__________ 4.4.2 Sense of hopelessness _______________________________________ 55
__________ Activity 4. 1 _____________________________________________________ 55
__________ 4.4.3 Sexually transmitted disease in youth ___________________________ 55
__________ 4.4.4 Transmission of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) ______________ 55
__________ 4.4.5 Reasons for having unprotected sex _____________________________ 56
__________ 4.4.6 Sexually transmitted disease common among youth ________________ 56
__________ 4.4.7 HIV and AIDS ______________________________________________ 56
__________ 4.4.8 Prevention measures ________________________________________ 58
__________ 4.4.9 Social rejection _____________________________________________ 58
4.5 ________ Loss of Career Potential ___________________________________________ 59
__________ 4.5.1 Drug abuse and related consequences: Definition of drug _____________
__________ abuse __________________________________________________________ 59
__________ 4.5.2 Drugs being abused __________________________________________ 59
__________ 4.5.3 Reasons for taking drugs _____________________________________ 59
__________ 4.5.4 To forget or to solve problems __________________________________ 60
__________ 4.5.5 Peer pressure ______________________________________________ 60
__________ 4.5.6 Enjoyment, excitement and fun _________________________________ 60
__________ 4.5.7 Self- imaging _______________________________________________ 61
__________ 4.5.8 Risk taking ________________________________________________ 61
__________ 4.5.9 Curiosity and experimentation _________________________________ 61
__________ Activity 4.2 _____________________________________________________ 62
4.6 ________ Effects of Drug Abuse on Adolescents ________________________________ 62
__________ 4.6.1 Drug-abuse prevention programmes for adolescents ________________ 63
__________ 4.6.2 The Shock – horror approach __________________________________ 63
__________ 4.6.3 Information- based programmes ________________________________ 64
__________ 4.6.4 The Life Skills Approach _____________________________________ 64
__________ 4.6.5 Understand youth perception ___________________________________ 64
__________ 4.6.6 Involving young people in the programme design and _________________
__________ implementation __________________________________________________ 65
__________ 4.6.7 Message accurate and evidence based ___________________________ 65
 __________ 4.6.8 Starting early ______________________________________________ 65
__________ 4.6.9 Programme duration _________________________________________ 65
4.7 ________ Effectiveness of Prevention Programmes _____________________________ 66
__________ 4.7.1 Involvement of parents and guardians ____________________________ 66
__________ 4.7.2 Building life skills among the youth _____________________________ 66
__________ 4.7.3 Effects of pornography on adolescents ___________________________ 67
__________ 4.7.4 Abuse of the Internet by adolescents _____________________________ 67
__________ 4.7.5 Adolescents and gangsterism __________________________________ 68
__________ 4.7.6 Structure __________________________________________________ 68
__________ 4.7.7 Activities of gangsters _______________________________________ 68
__________ Activity 4.3 _____________________________________________________ 69
4.8 ________ Summary _______________________________________________________ 69
__________ References _____________________________________________________ 70

Unit Five: Child Abuse

5.0 ________ Introduction _____________________________________________________ 73

5.1 ________ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 74
5.2 ________ Why Single Out Child Abuse? ______________________________________ 74
__________ Activity 5.1 _____________________________________________________ 75
5.3 ________ Forms of Child Abuse _____________________________________________ 75
__________ 5.3.1 Physical abuse ______________________________________________ 76
__________ 5.3.2 Sexual abuse ________________________________________________ 76
__________ 5.3.3 Neglect ____________________________________________________ 76
__________ 5.3.4 Emotional / Psychological abuse ________________________________ 77
__________ Activity 5.2 _____________________________________________________ 77
5.4 ________ Signs of Child Abuse ______________________________________________ 77
__________ 5.4.1 Among others, possible warnings of emotional abuse in ________________
__________ children ________________________________________________________ 78
__________ 5.4.2 Possible warning signs of physical abuse in children _______________ 78
__________ 5.4.3 Possible warning signs of neglect in children _____________________ 79
__________ 5.4.4 Possible warning signs of sexual abuse in children ________________ 79
5.5 ________ Differences between Discipline and Abuse _____________________________ 80
5.6 ________ Elements Present in Physical Abuse _________________________________ 80
__________ 5.6.1 Unpredictability _____________________________________________ 80
__________ 5.6.2 Lashing out in anger _________________________________________ 80
__________ 5.6.3 Using fear to control behaviour _________________________________ 81
__________ 5.6.4 Risky situations _____________________________________________ 81
5.7 ________ Effects of Child Sexual Abuse _______________________________________ 81
__________ Activity 5.3 _____________________________________________________ 81
5.8 ________ Helping/Counselling (An Abused or Neglected Child) a Survivor ___________ 82
5.9 ________ Summary _______________________________________________________ 83
__________ References _____________________________________________________ 84

Unit Six: Children Living With Disabilities

6.0 ________ Introduction _____________________________________________________ 85

6.1 ________ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 86
6.2 ________ Definition of Terms ______________________________________________ 86
 __________ 6.2.1 Disability __________________________________________________ 86
6.3 ________ Classification of Disabilities _______________________________________ 88
__________ Activity 6.1 _____________________________________________________ 89
6.4 ________ Perspectives on Disabilities ________________________________________ 89
__________ 6.4.1 The Deficit Perspective _______________________________________ 90
__________ 6.4.2 Cultural Perspectives ________________________________________ 90
__________ 6.4.3 Social perspective ___________________________________________ 91
__________ Activity 6.2 _____________________________________________________ 92
6.5 ________ Identification of Learning Disabilities _______________________________ 92
6.6 ________ Referral for Children Living With Learning Disabilities ________________ 93
6.7 ________ Summary _______________________________________________________ 94
__________ References _____________________________________________________ 96

Unit Seven: Gender Issues in Educational Counselling

7.0 ________ Introduction _____________________________________________________ 97

7.1 ________ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 98
7.2 ________ Gender Discourses in Education ____________________________________ 98
__________ Activity 7.1 _____________________________________________________ 99
7.3 ________ Identifying the Gender at Risk Students _______________________________ 99
7.4 ________ Factors Negatively Affecting Girls’ Education _________________________ 100
__________ Activity 7.2 ____________________________________________________ 102
7.5 ________ Gender Equity and Equality ________________________________________ 102
__________ Activity 7.3 ____________________________________________________ 103
7.6 ________ Empowerment Strategies __________________________________________ 103
__________ Activity 7.4 ____________________________________________________ 104
7.7 ________ Summary ______________________________________________________ 104
__________ References ____________________________________________________ 105

Unit Eight: Students’ Needs, Concerns and Challenges

8.0 ________ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 107

8.1 ________ Objectives _____________________________________________________ 108
8.2 ________ School-based Counselling _________________________________________ 108
8.3 ________ Why Do Students Need Counselling? ________________________________ 108
8.4 ________ How Does Counselling Work? _____________________________________ 109
__________ Activity 8.1 ____________________________________________________ 109
8.5 ________ Depression ____________________________________________________ 110
__________ 8.5.1 Symptoms of depression ______________________________________ 110
__________ 8.5.2 Dealing with depression ______________________________________ 110
__________ 8.5.3 How can a counsellor help a client? ____________________________ 110
__________ Activity 8.2 ____________________________________________________ 111
8.6 ________ School- Based Family Counselling __________________________________ 111
8.7 ________ School Counsellor’s Role in Sexuality Education ______________________ 112
__________ Activity 8.3 ____________________________________________________ 113
8.8 ________ Suicidal Risk __________________________________________________ 113
__________ 8.8.1 Risk indicators _____________________________________________ 114
__________ 8.8.2 Suggestions on helping the student contemplating ___________________
__________ suicide Howton (1990); ___________________________________________ 114
 __________ Activity 8.4 ____________________________________________________ 115
8.9 ________ Summary ______________________________________________________ 115
__________ References ____________________________________________________ 116

Unit Nine: Guidance and Counselling in Education

9.0 ________ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 117

9.1 ________ Objectives _____________________________________________________ 118
9.2 ________ Origin of Guidance Services ______________________________________ 118
9.3 ________ The Principles of Guidance _______________________________________ 119
__________ Activity 9.1 ____________________________________________________ 121
9.4 ________ Types of Guidance _______________________________________________ 121
9.5 ________ The Importance of Guidance (Agrawal, 1956) _________________________ 122
__________ 9.5.1 Guidance is useful in ________________________________________ 122
__________ 9.5.2 Characteristics of guidance ___________________________________ 122
__________ Activity 9.2 ____________________________________________________ 123
__________ 9.5.3 Objectives of guidance _______________________________________ 123
__________ 9.5.4 Elements of guidance ________________________________________ 123
__________ 9.5.5 Advantages of guidance ______________________________________ 123
__________ 9.5.6 Limitations of guidance ______________________________________ 123
__________ Activity 9.3 ____________________________________________________ 124
9.6 ________ Purposes of Counselling __________________________________________ 124
__________ Activity 9.4 ____________________________________________________ 124
__________ 9.6.1 Characteristics of counselling ________________________________ 124
__________ Activity 9.5 ____________________________________________________ 125
__________ 9.6.2 Steps of counselling (Perez 1965) ______________________________ 125
__________ 9.6.3 Counselling process ________________________________________ 125
__________ Activity 9.6 ____________________________________________________ 126
9.7 ________ Difference between Guidance and Counselling according to ________________
__________ Cornier and Hackney (1987) ______________________________________ 126
__________ Activity 9.7 ____________________________________________________ 127
9.8 ________ Purposes of Guidance and Counselling ______________________________ 127
9.9 ________ Principles of Guidance and Counselling _____________________________ 128
__________ Activity 9.8 ____________________________________________________ 128
9.10 ______ Summary ______________________________________________________ 128
__________ References ____________________________________________________ 129

Unit Ten: Professional, Legal and Ethical Issues in Education

10.0 ______ Introduction ___________________________________________________ 131

10.1 ______ Objectives _____________________________________________________ 132
10.2 ______ Background ___________________________________________________ 132
10.3 ______ Introduction to the Legal Regime of Education in Zimbabwe _____________ 134
__________ 10.3.1 Education Laws operational in Zimbabwe _______________________ 134
__________ Activity 10.1 ___________________________________________________ 135
10.4 ______ The Legislative System of the Republic of Zimbabwe ___________________ 135
__________ 10.4.1 The Education Act _________________________________________ 136
__________ 10.4.2 Laws related to Education ___________________________________ 136
__________ Activity 10.2 ___________________________________________________ 137
10.5 ______ Ethical Conduct ________________________________________________ 137
__________ 10.5.1 Law ____________________________________________________ 137
__________ 10.5.2 Law and morality or Ethics __________________________________ 138
__________ 10.5.3 Morality _________________________________________________ 138
10.6 ______ Professional Ethics and Legal Issues _______________________________ 138
__________ 10.6.1 Ethical codes _____________________________________________ 138
__________ 10.6.2 Ethical standards for School counsellors _______________________ 139
__________ 10.6.3 Responsibility to students ___________________________________ 139
__________ 10.6.4 Confidentiality ____________________________________________ 139
__________ 10.6.5 Releasing confidential information to an outside agency __________ 139
__________ 10.6.6 Privileged communication __________________________________ 139
__________ 10.6.7 Clear and imminent danger _________________________________ 140
__________ 10.6.8 Responsibility to parents ___________________________________ 140
__________ 10.6.9 Responsibility to the school and community _____________________ 140
__________ 10.6.10 Responsibility to self ______________________________________ 140
__________ 10.6.11 Responsibility to the profession _____________________________ 140
__________ 10.6.12 Maintenance of standards __________________________________ 141
__________ 10.6.13 The law and schools ______________________________________ 141
10.7 ______ Legal Issues for Counsellors ______________________________________ 141
__________ 10.7.1 Student’s rights ___________________________________________ 141
__________ 10.7.2 Parent’s rights ___________________________________________ 141
__________ 10.7.3 Counsellor liability ________________________________________ 141
__________ 10.7.4 Rationale _________________________________________________ 14
__________ 10.7.5 Unethical behaviour (Canadian Counselling Association _____________
__________ 2001) _________________________________________________________ 142
__________ 10.7.6 Ethical codes _____________________________________________ 143
10.8 ______ Professional Competence _________________________________________ 144
10.9 ______ Professional Relationships _______________________________________ 144
10.10 _____ Professional Practice — General Principles _________________________ 144
10.11 ______ Professional Practice Settings — Private Practice ____________________ 145
__________ Activity 10.3 ___________________________________________________ 146
10.12 _____ Summary _____________________________________________________ 147
__________ References ____________________________________________________ 148
Module Overview

I n this module we give the rationale for counselling in education with an

insight into adversity encountered by children at home, school and tertiary
institutions. Being a professional counsellor you are obliged to execute expertise
in assessing, analysing, assisting and taking appropriate measures under any
given circumstances. Counselling in education looks at the individual holistically.
With reference to innumerable theorists who have reiterated the fundamental
significance of family, school and environment to special populations in a bid
to address their needs, concerns and challenges, you will design positive
intervention strategies that benefit such. It is our furthermost expectation that
after going through this module and attempting all the pre-planned activities
herein, you will be in a sound position to empower the disempowered, develop
confidence in the distressed and espouse ethical principles in counselling in
education in a professional manner.
In Unit One, we outline definitions of counselling, discuss role of the counselor
and justify the need for counselling in education systems, notwithstanding the
benefits to learners in any learning institution and at any level of education. In
Unit Two we focus on child development. Orientation to theories of cognitive,
social and physical development is specified. The relevance of a sound
background to human personality development is outlined. There is an insight
into the ‘nature’ ‘nurture’ debate. In Unit Three, you will gain an insight into
theoretical approaches to counseling in education: how to submit an application
of the principles, strategies and techniques of such in the postmodern school.
Counselling in Education Module BSCC216

In Unit Four you will study the contemporary issues in education. These
include adolescence, technology related behaviours and juvenile delinquency
not excluding drug and substance abuse. In Unit Five we look at child abuse
be it at home or at school. Sadly we live in a world where the children are
exploited, abused, neglected and abandoned, all because the families, state
and others do not do enough to protect them. Due to the core relationship of
these heinous and unjust practices perpetrated on children they impact on the
children’s development. In Unit Six we will focus on constructs in gender
stereotypes; bias, inequality and inequity and how these negatively influence
on the learning and achievements of both girls and boys, resulting in an
intergenerational cycle of disadvantaged disabilities face the double dilemma,
that of being a child and also of living with a disability.

Our culture views disability as inability resulting in losing hope for both the
children and their families. This unit examines how children living with disabilities
and their families suffer isolation, discrimination, labeling and exclusion due to
inadequacies in various systems (of education). Intervention strategies for
care, support and counselling in education are provided so as to enable full
participation and equality. Classrooms have a vital role to play towards creating
an equal playfield to ensure equal access, participation and success for both
regardless of sex with fairness and justice accorded.

In Unit Seven we will centre attention on the children living with disabilities
who envisage a double dilemma. In the unit we examine how children living
with disabilities and their families endure isolation, discrimination, labeling and
exclusion due to inadequacies in various systems (of education). The focal
point is the intervention strategies for care, support and counselling in education
to be provided so that they are mainstreamed into social existence. In Unit
Eight we will look at student’s needs, concerns and problems. School based
counselling, symptoms of depression, and school counsellor’s role in sexuality
education are some of the issued discussed in this unit. In Unit Nine, we
focus on guidance and counselling in education at large. A historical perspective
of guidance and its principles are explored. In Unit Ten we explore the
professional, legal and ethical issues in education.

2 Zimbabwe Open University

 Unit One

Introduction to Counselling in
Education

1.0 Introduction

I n this unit, we introduce you to counselling in education. Goals of counselling

will also be introduced in this unit and its benefits to the students. The
counselling process will be discussed in the context of education. It is our
hope that you will find this unit interesting in your study.
Counselling in Education Module BSCC216

1.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define counselling, school counselling

 explain the counselling process
 describe the purpose of counselling in education sector
 analyse the role of counselling in improving the well-
being of students
 evaluate the goals of counselling

1.2 Definition of Terms

1.2.1 Counselling
Counselling means different things to different people. Some people take it as
advice, while to others its tea and sympathy. Counselling is a long-term process
and the difference between counselling and psychotherapy is a hot debate
amongst professionals. Counselling is the service offered to the individual facing
a problem and needs professional help to overcome it. Therefore counselling
is a more specialised service which requires training in personality development
and handling special groups of individual. Good (1995) defined counselling
as “individualised and personalised assistance with personal, educational
problems in which all the pertinent facts are studied and analysed and a solution
is sort often with the assistance of specialists, school and community resources
and personal interviews in which the client is taught to make decisions. Rodgers
(1942) defines counselling as an interview that brings about constructive
changes of attitudes on the past of clients.

1.2.2 School counselling

School counselling is a profession that majors on the relations and interactions
between students and their school environment with the expressed purpose
of minimising the impact of environmental and institutional barriers that disturbs
student academic progress. School counselling provides conditions that create
educational equity, access and academic progress for all students. School
counselling is a profession that focuses on the relations and interactions
between students and their school environment with the expressed purpose
of reducing the effect of environmental and institutional barriers that impede
student academic success. The profession fosters conditions that ensure
educational equity, access and academic success for all students. To accomplish

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this function, the trained school counsellor must be an assertive advocate

creating opportunities for all students to nurture dreams of high aspirations.
The counsellor assists students in their academic, social, emotional and personal
development and helps them define the best pathways to successfully achieve
their dreams. The school counsellor serves as a leader as well as an effective
team member working with teachers, administrators and other school personnel
to make sure that each student succeeds. The school counsellor as consultant
empowers families to act on behalf of their children by helping parents;
guardians identify student needs and shared interests, as well as access
available resources.

1.2.3 The school counsellor

Today’s school counsellors are vital members of the education team. They
help all students in the areas of academic achievement, career and personal/
social development ensuring that today’s students become the productive,
well adjusted, and successful adults of tomorrow. The changing needs of
students, families and schools require professional school counsellors who
are skilled in current counselling techniques focusing on students’ academic,
career and personal/ social needs. School counsellors must also possess skills
in the development, implementation and valuation of professional school
counselling programs, as well as an ability to work in collaboration and
consultation with others in the school and community. A school counsellor is a
counsellor and an educator who works in elementary, middle and high schools.
He/she provides academic, career, college access and personal competencies
to students. Some of the interventions used are group and individual counselling.

1.3 The Goals of Counselling

There is great need of introducing and strengthening the counselling service in
schools and colleges of our country so as to meet the numerous needs of the
students. Below are some of the goals of counselling in education as asserted
to by Narayana (1997):
 To help the total development of the student. Intellectual development
coupled with proper motivation and clarification of goals and ideas to
pupils in line with their basic potentialities and social tendencies are
essential total development of the student nauseates that individual
differences among them are expected, accepted, understood and
planned for types of experiences in a school are to be organised in a
way that contribute to the total development of the student.

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 To help in the proper choices of courses

 To help in the students in vocational development
 To develop readiness for choices and changes to face new challenges
 To motivate youth for self-employment
 To help students in their times of turmoil and confusion
 To identify and help students in need of special assistance
 To make up for the deficiencies of home
 To reduce the incidence of indiscipline
 To ensure the proper utilisation of time outside the classrooms. The
way students spend their non-class hours affects their success in attaining
both academic competence and social development of all types. A
meaningful direction can be provided to students by influencing how
they can use non-class hours.

1.4 Purpose of School Counselling

 School counseling provides support and resources to students, their
families and educators.
 School counseling enhances and promote effective student learning.
 The major functions of the school counsellor are counselling, consultation,
planning and co-ordination, prevention and education.
The basic aim of school counselling is to enhance and promote effective student
learning. School counselling programmes are designed to render support and
resources to students at all grade levels, to their parents and educators. These
services are meant to facilitate the educational, personal, social emotional and
career development of students in schools and in the community (MD 2003-
03 School Counsellors).

Activity 1.1
? 1. Analyse the need of introducing and strengthening
counselling in our schools in Zimbabwe.
2. What are the goals of counselling?
3. Define the term counselling.
4. Describe any three purposes of counselling.

1.5 Benefits of Counselling to a Client

Cavanaugh (1992) advances that when counselling has been successful; clients

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often experience the following;

a. They start to own their problems and issues. Thus they begin to accept
responsibility for themselves, their problems and solutions and for their
lives.
b. Clients develop a more useful understanding of problems and issues.
There is acceptance of some responsibility for problems and develop
some insight into the problem for instance, feeling and somatic reactions
(affect), problem related behaviour and interpersonal or systematic
effects.
c. Clients also acquire new responses to old issues. This entails acquiring
more effective ways of responding, verbally or otherwise to the situation,
coping skills.
d. Clients learn how to develop effective relationships. As change is often
created and supported by a network of social support (support systems)
it is important for clients to begin to develop more adequate relationships
with other people.

1.6 Types of Counselling

1.6.1 Educational counselling
According to Kelley in 1914 (Makinde, 1988), educational counselling is a
process of giving services to pupils who need assistance in making decisions
about important aspects of their education, for instance choice of courses and
studies, decisions about interests and ability and choices of high school or
college. Educational counselling aims to increase a student’s knowledge of
educational opportunities.

1.6.2 Personal or social counselling

Social counselling deals with aspects such as emotional distress and behaviour
difficulties. These emotional stresses are a result of individuals struggling to
deal with some developmental stages and tasks. Issues concerning development
can be an adjustment problem which everyone encounters at some point. For
instance:
 Anxiety over a career decision
 Depressive feeling when bored
 A lack of assertion and confidence
 Grief over the loss of a loved one

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1.6.3 Vocation counselling

Vocational counselling can be defined as individual contacts with those
counselled in order to facilitate career development UNESCO. The definition
includes counseling issues such as:
 Assisting students become aware of many occupations to consider
 Helping school leavers decide what to do after school
 Helping students apply to a college

Activity 1.2
? 1. Explain the purpose of educational and personal/
social counselling.
2. Describe the counselling services offered by a school.
3. What are the benefits of counselling students in the
three learning levels?
4. Examine the possible sources of indiscipline in
secondary school students.

1.7 Roles of a School Counsellor

A professional school counsellor is ideally there to implement a school
counselling programme that promotes and enhances student achievement
(Harch and Bowers, 2003; 2005; ASCA, 2012). School counsellors should
be employed in elementary, middle and high schools. Their work includes a
focus on developmental stages of student growth, including the needs, tasks,
and student interests related to those stages (Schmidt, 2003). School
counsellors meet the needs of students in three basic domains: academic
development, career development and personal/ social development (Dahir
and Campbell, 1997; Hatch and Bowers, 2003, 2005) with an increased
emphasis on college access. Knowledge and understanding of these domains
are developed through classroom institution, appraisal, consultation,
coordination and collaboration. For instance, in appraisals, a school counsellor
may use a variety of personality and career assessment methods to help
explore career and college needs and interests.

The school counsellor intervention includes individual and group counselling.

For instance if a student’s behaviour is disturbing his/her achievement, the
school counsellor may observe that student in class, render consultation to
teachers and other interested parties to develop a plan to address the
behavioural issue(s), and then collaborate to implement and evaluate the plan.

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Unit 1 Introduction to Counselling in Education

School counsellors also provide consultation services to family members such

as college access, career development, parenting skills, study skills, child and
adolescent development, and help with school-home transition. School
counsellor interventions for all students among others include academic/ career
access planning and leading classroom developmental lessons on academic,
career/college, and personal/social topics. The topics of character education,
diversity and multiculturalism (Portman, 2009) and school safety are important
areas to concentrate on for school counsellors. Quite often, school counsellors
will engage outside groups that are willing to help with student needs such as
academics, or have a programme that teaches about child abuse or drugs,
through on stage drama (Schmidt 2003).

School counsellors are also there to develop, implement and evaluate school
counselling programmes that should deliver academic, career, college access
and social competencies to all students in the school. For example, the ASCA
(Hatch and Bowers, 2003; 2005, ASCA 2012) includes areas shown below;
 Foundation
A school counselling programme mission statement, vision statement,
Code of Ethics and SMART goals.
 Delivery system
This entails how school counselling lessons, planning for every pupil,
and individual and group counselling are delivered in direct to indirect
services to students.

Activity 1.3
? 1.
2.
Critically evaluate the role of a school counsellor.
Discuss the role of a school counsellor according to
Portman (2009).

1.8 Qualities of an Effective School Counsellor

A school counsellor must be an assertive advocate, creating opportunities for
all students to pursue dreams of high aspirations. Thus the counsellor must
assist students in their academic, career, social and personal development.
The school counsellor serves as a leader as well as an effective team member
working with administrators and other school personnel to help each student
succeed. As a consultant, the school empowers families to act on behalf of
their children by helping parents and guardians identify student needs and
interests, and access available resources. (Bergin and Lambert 1978; Jerne,

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1981) came up with a number of qualities which a counsellor should exhibit.

Some of these qualities are as listed below;
 Self-awareness and understanding. This calls for self-introspection and
exploration.
 Good phychological health. This entails that the counsellor should not
be distractive by over whelming problems.
 Sensitivity to both self and the client.
 Open mindedness, i.e. freedom from fixed preconceived ideas which
when allowed expression could affect clients.

1.8.1 Objectivity (Empathy)

This refers to the ability to be involved with the client and at the same time
stand back and see accurately what is happening with the client and in the
relationship. This is essential as it helps the counsellor to avoid getting caught
up in certain client behaviour or dysfunctional communication patterns (Howe
2011).

1.8.2 Competence
This is the ability to conduct sessions with the necessary information, knowledge
and skills to be of help throughout the counseling process.

Activity 1.4
? 1. Critically analyse the qualities of an effective counsellor
according to Bergin and Lambert (1978).
2. Examinee the term empathy in counselling.

1.9 Continuum of Services Provided by a School

Counsellor
A school counsellor provides a continuum of preventative, developmental,
remedial intervention services and facilitates referral to community resources.
The roles of a school counsellor consist of counselling, school based
consultation, planning and co-ordination, education and helping in the
development of effective behavioural change. Given below is an outline of the
core services that a school counsellor is well qualified to provide in a school
set up. The descriptions given are intended to be used as guidelines for

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counsellors and school staff in deciding the role a counsellor will perform in a
certain school. N.B. All educational services depend on a team approach.

1.9.1 Counselling
The functions of school counselling include individual, group and class work
so as to provide both an intervention and prevention service. The purpose of
counselling is to:
 Respond to emotional, social, intellectual, academic and career needs.
This is done in a developmental way.
 Expose the learner to an environment which is conducive to self-
exploration so as to develop an awareness of personal uniqueness which
is an important issue in the counselling process.
 Assist students through their families grow in spheres such as self-esteem
and individual responsibility and in life skills like decision making and
social relationships.
 Enhance personal and social development ideal to developmental stages.
 Support student’s academic progress. This can be achieved through
numerous interventions such as individual assessments, goal setting, study
habits and organisational skills.

1.9.2 Consultation, planning and coordination

School counsellors consult and plan in conjunction with students, other
educators, parents, and other agencies in the community. This is essential in
promoting the emotional, social, intellectual, academic and career development
of the students. Consultation may major on student’s individual needs or on
school. A school counselor is an active participant in the planning process.

1.9.3 Prevention
A school counsellor spends much of his/her time developing and implementing
plans. These can be classified as preventative services. The prevention services
are as outlined below;
a) Primary Prevention Level
This focuses on preventing a problem from happening. The thrust is on
ensuring a positive school environment, for instance, a programme to
facilitate a friendly school environment.
b) Secondary Prevention Level
The thrust of this prevention level is to pay attention to early indicators
of problems, the aim being to shorten the impact of the problem.

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c) Tertiary Level
This level focuses on minimising the immediate resultant effects of an
existing severe problem. The thrust is on regaining control over a situation
so the remediation and prevention strategies can be developed,
implemented and assessed. The issue of prevention and preventative
planning is quite complex. It calls for specialised skill sets which are
outlined below:
 Effective communication skill
 Conflict resolution
 Data collection
 Collaboration
 Mediation
 Assisting others to solve their own problems and make informed
decisions
 Specialised knowledge and skills for consultation process.

1.10 Education
A school counsellor may render direct instruction to students in areas such as
peer helping, conflict resolution, social skills, and life skills. The school
counsellor also helps in promoting positive school climates and enhancing the
social well being of students. To reflect an impact on student outcomes, school
counselors need to be involved in public relations to educate school staff and
the community on the service he/she provides and promote the benefits of the
counselling services. The educational role of a school counsellor may include
the following;
 Disseminating information to parents and other professionals
 Acting as resources for professional and curriculum development
 Speaking publicly at school or to community groups
The aims of school counselling services are to provide students with;
 Opportunities to develop knowledge and an appreciation of themselves
and others.
 Opportunities to develop relationships and skills, ethical standards and
a sense of responsibility.
 Opportunities to acquire skills and attitudes necessary to develop
educational goals, which are suited to their needs, interests and abilities.
 Information that would help them make decisions about life and career
opportunities.
In our schools, pupils face a number of challenges and problems which may
be exhibited in the following ways: withdrawal, unhappiness, anger, failure,

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anxiety and so on. Coupled with these is the pandemic of HIV and AIDS
which calls for a great deal of psychological support for boys and girls especially
those infected, affected or orphaned because of this disease. The young boys
and girls constitute a large fraction of the population. Hence it makes great
strategic sense to focus on them through guidance and counselling. At this
stage counselling is important as it is when the young boys and girls develop
positive sexual attitudes and practices. It is a stage when they start to feel who
they are. They start to exhibit attitudes of respect toward members of the
opposite sex, and see how each can meaningfully contribute to development.
The personal and social counselling should be rendered to assist students
realise the potentials in educational and vocational opportunities. Through
personal counselling students are empowered and taught to develop a more
positive attitude about themselves and get to appreciate their areas of expertise.

Activity 1.5
? 1.
2.
Explain the aim of counselling in schools.
Analyse the roles of a school counsellor.
3. Outline some challenges faced by school pupils which
need counselling.
4. What issues are involved in high school counselling?

1.11 Counselling Skills

(Schmidt, 2003) outlined several skills needed in counselling. These skills
include;
 Attitudinal skills
 Listening skills
 Verbal communication skills

1.11.1 Attitudinal skills

The counsellor’s attitude has a greater influence on the outcome of counselling.
Attitudes can be positive or reactive. Good attitudes can be learned or practiced.
These attitudes include;
i) Respect
ii) Congruence
iii) Empathy
iv) Self- disclosure

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v) Confrontation
a) Respect
It is one of the essential human attitudes which is required. It starts with
respecting one’s self so as to enable others to respect you. It
encompasses having good intentions and warm regards for students.
The counsellor should avoid judgment; instead he/she should respect
students and avoid imposition of one’s values. Respect also embraces
praising individuality of each student and supporting each one’s search
for whom he/she is. Hence counselling should be in such a way as to
meet the needs, capacities and resources of individual student.
b) Congruence
This is sometimes referred to as genuineness. It is about consistency
between what the counsellor says and what he/she is. Congruence
reflects honesty, transparency and trust. The condition is fundamental
to counselling because when it prevails then opens, communication and
respect for the counselee develops gradually.
c) Warmth/ Unconditional positive regard
Negative attitudes in counselling do not promote good counselling
relationships. Unconditional positive regard results in the student
developing a feeling of welcome and valued as individuals. For instance
a counsellor can show warmth by saying; “Hello, Rudo. Can I be of
assistance?”
d) Empathy
This refers to the counsellor’s ability to understand what students
experience and communicate this kind of feeling. Carl Rodgers (1980),
defined empathy as perceiving the internal frame of reference of another
person. General Egan (1990) defines empathy as entering the private
perceptual world of the client, and being sensitive to his/her feelings,
whether good or bad. A counsellor needs to be empathetic and be
responsive to both content and feelings being expressed by the student.
This helps the counsellor assess the student’s issues and have a better
insight of them.
e) Self- disclosure
Self- disclosure enables the student to communicate easily. It enhances
the student to disclose something about him/ her. It encourages the
building of mutual trust and disarms the student so much that he/she
feels free to talk without any inhibitions. Self-disclosure creates a
relationship through enhanced communication and better understanding
of the student. It helps the student to understand him/herself much better
and the burden of guilt is eliminated.

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f) Confrontation

Confrontation is when the counsellor uses the student’s behavior to pin point
inconsistencies between what is said and what is done. Challenging attitudes
is regarded as healthy in counselling. For instance, a student may say he hates
a certain subject and in another situation he/ she may say that he/she likes it.
There is an element of inconsistence. The counsellor can draw to the attention
of the student such irregularity by saying, “You said you hate the subject.
What exactly do you mean?” By doing this, the counselor initiates action in
the student.

1.11.2 Listening skill

Effective listening is an important component of counselling. This entails the
counsellor’s own level of self awareness as well as awareness of the spoken
and unspoken cues of the other person. The counselor also needs to respond
to the student in such a manner that he/ she feels understood. A good listener
should receive and send appropriate messages so as to meet the needs of the
student.

1.11.3 Verbal communication

Verbal communication takes place in the literal or content phase. When
inappropriate words are used rapport is affected negatively. This results in
miscommunication. In addition to this, there is also the emotional phase. This
relates to attributes such as volume, emotional edge and other non verbal
cues for example, gestures, counsellors should be aware of both literal and
emotional phases of verbal communication to be effective in their service
delivery.

Activity 1.6
? 1. In which way does counsellors’ attitude influence the
outcome of counselling?
2. Effective listening is vital in counselling. Discuss.
3. Outline counselling skills as advanced by Schmdt
(2003).

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1.12 Summary
In this unit we have looked at what counselling is and the role of the school
counsellor. Some counselling goals have been identified and benefits to be
derived from the school counselling programme highlighted. The client, in this
case the student stands to benefit more if the programme is well coordinated.
In the unit we ended by looking at some counselling skills which a counsellor
would use to render a more meaningful and satisfactory service.

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References

Hatch and Bowers, (2005). The ABLA National Model: A framework for
School Counselling Programs. Alexandra.
Howe, D. (2011). Attachment Across the Lifecourse: A Brief Introduction.
Palgrave, Macmillian.
McLeod, J. (2009). An Introduction to Counselling. McGraw-Hill
International.
Nayarana, S.R. (1997). Counselling and Guidance, Second Edition.
NewDehli: Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited.
Nelson- Lones, R. (2008). Basic Counselling Skills: A Helper’s Manual.
SAGE Publications.
Schmidt, J.J. (1999). Counselling in the Schools: Essential Services and
Comprehensive Programs (3rded.) Toronto: Allyn and Bacon.
Schmidt, J.J. (2003). Counselling in Schools: Essential Services and
Comprehensive Programs; 4thEdition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
The ACA Encyclopedia of Counselling (2009). Framework for School
Counselling. Alexandria.

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18 Zimbabwe Open University

 Unit Two

Child Development

2.0 Introduction

I n this unit we explore on child development. The biological and emotional

changes that occur in human beings between birth and the end of
adolescence as the individual progresses from dependency to increasing
autonomy mark child development. Related terms include development
psychology referring to development throughout lifespan and paediatrics, the
branch of medicine relating to the care of children. Because these
developmental changes may be strongly influenced by genetical factors and
events during prenatal life, genetics and prenatal development are included as
part of this unit of child development.
Counselling in Education Module BSCC216

2.1 Objectives
By the end of the unit, you should be able to:

 define child development

 analyse the psychology of child development to
counselling in education
 discuss relevance of a sound background to growth and
development of a child, resulting in personality
development
 explain the stages in child development
 critique theories of cognitive development

2.2 Child Development Periods

Developmental change occurs as a result of genetically controlled processes
known as maturation or as a result of environmental factors and learning.
However, this involves interaction between the two. Human nature and our
ability to learn from our environment may also be influential. Each period in a
child’s development is a continuum with individual differences regarding start
and ending, hence have various definitions. Age related development periods
and examples of intervals according to Berk, Laura E. (1991) are;
 Newly born ( Ages 0-4 weeks)
 Infant (Ages 4 weeks – 1 year)
 Toddler (ages 1- 3 years)
 Preschooler (Ages 4-6 years)
 School aged child (Ages 6-13 years)
 Adolescence (Ages 13-20 years)
Society however places paramount importance to the optimal development
of children so it is important to understand the social, cognitive, emotional and
educational development of children through to adulthood.

2.3 Theories of Cognitive Development

2.3.1 Jean Piaget
According to Jean Piaget in Fogelman (1970), there are four important stages
of cognitive development:

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 Sensory motor stage (birth to about age 2)

 Preoperational stage Toddlerhood (age 2-7)
 Concrete- operations stage ( ages 7- 11)
 Formal- operational stage (ages 11-16)

[Link] Sensory motor (birth to about 2)

According to Piaget’s tests in Fogelman, K, R. (1970) when an infant reaches
about 7-9 months of age, they begin to develop what is called object
permanence, this means the child is now able to understand that objects keep
existing even when they cannot be seen, for example, if you hide a child’s toy
under a blanket, although the child cannot physically see it they still know
where to look under the blanket. Because they do not know how things react,
they are constantly experimenting with activities such as shaking or throwing
things, putting things in their mouths and learning about the world through trial
and error. The later stages include goal oriented behaviour which brings about
a desired result. At about 7 months infants begin to realise object permanence
as a sign that memory is developing. After infants start crawling, standing and
walking, their increased physical mobility leads to increased cognitive
development. Near the end of sensory motor stage, infants reach another
important milestone, early language development, a sign that they are developing
some symbolic abilities.

[Link] Preoperational stage Toddlerhood (begins about the

time the child starts to talk to about 7)
During this stage of development young children begin to analyse their
environment using mental symbols. These symbols often include words and
images and the child will begin to apply these various symbols in their everyday
lives as they come across different objects, events and situations. Piaget’s
main focus on this stage and the reason why he named it ‘preoperational’ is
because children at this point are not able to apply specific cognitive operations,
such as mental mathematics. In addition to symbolism, children now begin
pretending to be people they are not (teachers, mothers, superheroes), and
they may use different props to make this pretend play more real. Children at
this stage often display ‘egocentricism’. They are not able to see someone
else’s point of view. There is preoccupation with one’s own internal world,
own interests, own opinions. During play children would talk to them; that is
egocentric speech had no special function. It was used as a way of
accompanying and reinforcing the child’s current activity. Piaget theorised
that as the child matures cognitively and socially the amount of egocentric
speech used would be reduced.

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[Link] Concrete Operational Stage (about first grade to early

adolescence) ages 7-12
The beginning of school reminds parents that their child is growing up. Children
grow and mature at very different rates. It is hard to say what ‘normal’ is.
There can be differences in height, weight and build among healthy children.
Diet, exercise and genes are all factors. Some children begin puberty or are
close to it before they are teenagers. During this stage children begin developing
cognitive operations and begin applying this new thinking to different events
they may encounter. The children can now rearrange mental images and
symbols to form logic thought. An example of this is the reversibility in which
the child now has the ability to reverse an action just by doing the opposite
unlike the operational stage (Shaffer, 1999).

At this stage preadolescent children demonstrate logical concrete reasoning.

They are increasingly aware of external events. They begin to realise that
one’s own thoughts and feelings are unique and may not be shared by others
or may not be part of reality. Children also develop operational thinking ability
to perform reversible mental reactions. However during this stage most children
cannot tackle a problem with several variables in a systematic way, for example,
mathematics involving the four operations of division, multiplication, addition
and subtraction.

Formal Operational Stage

Children start to become more independent from their parents. They can
rebel. They also look outward to their friends who are usually of the same
sex. Peer approval becomes very important. The child may try new behaviours
to be part of ‘the group’. This can also be the time that parents and teachers
recognise learning disabilities or behavioural problems in children. These
problems however can get worse as time goes on so it is important to ‘nip the
bud in the eye.’ Get help early. Piaget says that adolescents who reach this
fourth stage of intellectual development are able to logically use symbols related
to abstract concepts such as science and mathematics.

Adolescence (from Latin: adolescere meaning ‘to grow up’) is a transitional

stage of psychological human development generally occurring during the
period from puberty to legal adulthood (age of majority). The period of
adolescence is mostly closely associated with the teenage years, though its
physical, psychological and cultural expressions may begin earlier and end
later. For example, although puberty has been historically associated with the
onset of adolescent development, it now typically begins prior to teenage

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years and there has been a normative shift of it occurring in preadolescence

particularly in females.

Activity 2.1
? 1. Egocentricism has an effect on child development.
Discuss.
2. Analyse the influence of instruction at all of Piaget’s stages
of development.
3. Critique Piaget’s belief that all children’s cognitive process
follows a very similar pattern of stages.

2.4 Len Vigotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Len Vigotsky believed children’s thinking is affected by their knowledge of
the social community (which is learnt from either technical or psychological
cultural tools). He suggested that language is the most important tool for gaining
this social knowledge; the child can be taught this from other people via
language. He also defined language as ‘the capacity to learn from instruction’,
which emphasises that there is a requirement for a more knowledgeable other
person, for example, parents, teachers, coaches, experts/ professionals- but
things you might not first expect, such as children, friends and computers
(Kail, 2011). Vigotsky in (Junefelt, 2007) felt that egocentric speech has more
meaning, as it allows the child’s growth in social speech and high mental
development. He believed that when communicating with others, the child
believes that others know everything about the topic of discussion and becomes
frustrated when asked to give further detail, for example, “Mommy, you know
that Betty’s car goes very fast. Please, buy me a toy like Timmy’s”.

The child is only concerned with final outcome of an event rather than others’
intentions. For example, if someone breaks the child’s toy, the child would
not forgive the other child due to the child’s inability to understand that the
person who broke the toy did not intend to break it. At about seven thought
processes of children are no longer egocentric but are more intuitive, meaning
they now think about the way something looks instead of rational thinking.
There are two levels of attainment for what is known as the zone of proximal
development (ZPD), which is the key feature of his theory:
 Level 1 – the ‘present level of development’. This describes what the
child is capable of doing without any help from others.
 Level 2- the ‘potential level of development’. This means what the

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child could potentially be capable of with help from other people or

teachers.
The gap between these two levels of the present and the potential development
is what is described by Vigotsky as this zone of proximal development. Through
the help from other people the child can potentially gain knowledge already
held by them. However this knowledge must be appropriate for the level of
the child’s comprehension. So anything too complicated for the child to learn
that is not in their ZPD cannot be learnt at all until there is a shift in the ZPD.
When a child does attain their potential, this shift occurs and the child can
continue learning more complex, higher level material.

When an adult provides support for a child, they will adjust the amount of
help they give depending on their progress. For example a child learning to
walk might at first have both hands held and pulled upwards. As they learn to
support their own weight, the mother might hold both their hands loosely.
Then later she might just hold one hand and eventually let go this progression
of different levels of help is scaffolding and it draws parallels from the real
scaffolding for buildings; it is used as a support for construction of new material
(the skill/ information that has been learnt) (Woods & Middleton, 1975).

Vigotsky looked at the role of egocentric/ private speech. This is when a child
sits on its own and speaks its thoughts out loud as it plays. He suggested that
the child is regulating her behaviour at this point: ‘Where is the car? I can’t
find it. Oh, well I will use this block.’ He called these ‘Monologues’. By seven
years, these monologues become internalised and the child becomes a ‘verbal
thinker’, which is what most adults can do with no problem. When faced with
a problem alone, an adult thinks through the problem- quietly, but a child
does it loudly. The verbal thinking forms a basis for higher level, more abstract
thinking (planning, reasoning, memorising, evaluating). Vigotsky’s emphasis
of cultural knowledge was something unseen in Piaget’s theory.

Activity 2.2
? 1. Compare and contrast Jean Piaget and Len Vigotsky’s
cognitive development theories.
2. Evaluate both of the cognitive theories discussed in this
unit.
3. With the aid of examples, critique Vigotsky’s ‘present
and potential’ development.

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2.5 The Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

You already know that genetics along with good nutrition, protection from
toxins and availing plenty of playtime and exercise all work together to nurture
a child’s intelligence. Use of flashiest new toys or computer programs helps
the child reach intellectual potential. From birth to 4 years an infant’s brain
grows explosively. The brain has reached 90% of its adult size before
kindergarten. The period of great growth provides an ideal window of
opportunity for learning. The brain does not stop growing but continues to
organise and restructure throughout childhood and on into early adult life,
becoming more complex (Allen, 2002). Children learn best at their natural
rate so there is no need for accelerated learning. Critical to basic skills learning
is the child’s close relationships usually created through early attachment to
parents and caregivers. This emotional and social development helps build a
child’s intelligence. Being attuned also provides a ‘safety net’ for the child’s
brain (Shaffer, 1999). Close affectionate relationships throughout childhood
are important, but especially when a child is little (Berger 1999). Ways to
connect with a child vary from listening closely to making eye contact.

2.6 Puberty
Puberty is the process of physical changes by which a child’s body matures
into an adult capable of sexual reproduction to enable fertilisation. It is initiated
by hormonal signals from the brain to the gonads; the ovaries in a girl, the
testes in a boy (Goleman, 1998). In response to the signals, the gonads produce
hormones that stimulate libido and the growth function, and transformation of
the brain bones, muscle, blood, skin, hair, breasts and sexual organs. On
average girls’ pubic hair develops between 10 and 11. Menarche (first
menstrual bleeding) begins at 12 or 13 and the girls complete puberty by ages
15-17. In boys hairs develop between 11 and 12 and gonardache (testicular
enlargement) also begins then. The first ejaculation occurs at age 13. The
boys usually complete puberty by ages 16-17 (Buck, 2008). Physical growth-
height and weight- accelerates in the first half of puberty and is completed
when the child has developed an adult body. Until maturation of their
reproductive capabilities, the pre-pubertal physical differences between boys
and girls are the genitalia, the penis and the vagina.

During puberty the male’s scrotum will become larger and begin to dangle or
hang below the body as opposed to up tight. This is to accommodate the
testicles to hang lower whereby the testicles need a certain temperature to be
fertile and produce sperm. Colloquially this is called ‘balls dropping’. It is

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during this period that boys experience frequent night or morning erections,
referred to as ‘morning wood’ due to puberty. These are usually random and
unwanted as they may cause embarrassments (Campbell, 2003).

2.6.1 Early and precotious puberty

Precotious puberty is a term used to describe puberty occurring at an unusually
early age. In most of these children, the process is normal in every respect
except the unusually early age, and simply represents a variation of normal
development. In a minority of children, the early development is triggered by
a disease such as a tumor or injury of the brain. In some instances unusually
early puberty can have adverse effects on social behavior and psychological
development (Buck et al, 2008). It can reduce adult height potential, and may
shift some lifelong health risks. In simplest broadest sense, precotious puberty
can be referred to as early puberty, meaning any physical sex hormone effect,
due to any cause, occurring earlier than the usual age, especially when it is
being considered as a problem (Allen, 2002).

Precotious puberty can make a child able to conceive when very young; the
youngest ever mother on record in medical history is Lina Medina, who gave
birth to a son at the age of 5 years, 7 months and 21 days on 14 May 1939 in
Peru (Youngest Mother, retrieved 2009-01-16). A grade 3 pupil, Hilda Trujillo
aged 9 years, 7 months, 28 days gave birth to a daughter at a Lima Maternity
hospital following a rape (TIME, May 29, 1939). Such children need expert
counsellors to help them go through the lost phases of normal development.

2.6.2 Delayed puberty

Puberty is described as delayed puberty with exceptions when an organism
has passed the usual age of onset of puberty with no physical or hormonal
signs that it is beginning. Puberty may be delayed for several years and still
occur normally, and in which cases it is considered constitutional delay, a
variation of healthy physical development. The delay of puberty may be caused
by malnutrition, systemic diseases or defects of the reproductive system or
body’s responsiveness to sex hormones. Developmental changes during
puberty in girls occur over a period of 3-5 years, usually between 10 and 15
years of age. These include the secondary characteristics beginning with breast
development, the adolescent growth spurt, the onset of menarche which does
not correspond to the end of puberty- and the acquisition of fertility as well as
profound psychological modifications. The normal variation in the age at which
adolescent changes occur is so wide that puberty cannot be considered to be

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pathologically delayed until the menarche has failed to occur by the age 18 or
testicular development by the age of 20 (Buck et al, 2008).

Activity 2.3
? 1. List down the physical development features on both boys
and girls and describe their contribution to their moral
development.
2. Faced with Lina Medina’s case, how best can you as a
counsellor handle such? Give reference to counselling
theories and ethics,
3. How can a counsellor intervene where there is delayed
puberty?

2.7 Adolescence and Personality Development

The adolescence stage of growth and development, which represent the industry
Vs role confusion stage of the psychosocial theory of development, occurs
from 12 to 20 years of age (Hart et al, 2003). Adolescence is a transitional
stage between childhood and adult life and is characterised by rapid physical
growth and psychological, mental and social maturity. It can also be viewed
as the period of ‘storm and stress’. This stage of development officially begins
at puberty and ends with a person achieving a level of maturity enough to deal
with and manage realities of life and be able to bear responsibility of themselves
and their actions (Goleman, 1998). Personality development is the development
of the organised pattern of behaviours and attitudes that makes a person
distinctive. Personality development occurs by the ongoing interaction of
temperament, character and environment. The third component of personality
is character—the set of emotional, cognitive, and behavioural patterns learned
from experience that determines how a person thinks, feels, and behaves. A
person’s character continues to evolve throughout life, although much depends
on inborn traits and early experiences. Character is also dependent on a
person’s moral development (Roberts and Robins, 2004).

Personality is what makes a person unique and it is recognisable soon after

birth. A child’s personality has several components: temperament, environment
and character. Temperament is the set of genetically determined traits that
determine the child’s approach to the world and how the child learns about
the world. There are no genes that specify personality traits, but some genes
do control the development of the nervous system, which in turn controls

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behaviour (David, 1998). However, some parents worry as to whether their

infant, child, or teenager has a personality disorder. Parents are usually the
first to recognise that their child has a problem with emotions or behaviours
that may point to a personality disorder. The developmental tasks faced by
the child at this stage of adolescence are accepting changes in the body and
appearance, developing appropriate relationships with males and females of
the same age, accepting the male and female role appropriate for one’s age,
becoming independent from parents and adults, developing morals, attitudes,
and values needed for functioning in society. Adolescence is thought to be the
period of emotional up head and rebellion, sudden changes of mood, shifting
ideologies and clashes with authority.

During adolescence, although emancipation from parents in order to achieve

independence and learning to accept responsibility for one’s self takes place,
an adolescent still fluctuates between child-like dependency and stubborn
independence. During this critical stage an adolescent is ambivalent since he
or she does not like adults’ control but still seek their guidance. In addition,
sudden fluctuations in mood are common to which erratic behaviour can be
related. Peer groups play a critical role in the process of socialisation and
social interaction and self concept is gradually acquired as a result of reactions
of his peers towards him (Shaffer, ibid). As mentioned previously, an adolescent
undergoes active mental maturity since an adolescent becomes capable of
more than abstract mode of thinking and the capacity of receiving new
information reaches its peak.

This sort of development results in endless speculations about abstract issues.

In spite of that, the adolescent still feels uncertain that is, lacks the ability to
direct him/her self and the confidence to translate his/her thoughts and ideas
into a definite course of action. Persistent arguing and pretended wisdom are
characteristic features of adolescents. Moreover, an adolescent rethinks about
matters of life he learnt to be true from his/her parents early in life. What the
adolescent needs by the end of this stage is to find out what sort of person he
or she is and what his/her abilities and limitations are, therefore the period of
adolescence can be called the period of readjustment.

Psychological and social developments continue during this stage. A personal

life-cycle develops during this period. Generally, it is during this period that a
person establishes a relationship with a significant other, a commitment to
something, and competence. Marital and vocational choices represent the
determinants of one’s overall personality development in general and future
personality development in particular, since they are two of the most significant
decisions of a lifetime whose responsibility is borne by the young adult.

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Commitment of oneself to a specific way in life takes place through marriage

and children raising. A person has attained adult status with the completion of
physical maturation, and, he/she has become sufficiently well integrated and
emotionally mature to utilise the opportunities and accept the responsibilities
that accompany it (Erikson, 2000). His/her independence from their parental
families motivates them to achieve interdependence and find their places in
society. Through vocation and marriage they become united to networks of
persons, finds tasks that demand involvement, and gain roles into which they
fit and which help define their identities. Most individuals will give up their
much sought independence to share with another in marriage. Then the life
cycle rounds to the point at which young adults are again confronted by the
start of a new life, but now as members of the parental generation, and they
often undergo profound personality reorientations as they become involved in
the unfolding of a child’s life.

This stage of life ends when a person has achieved stable positions in society
and the time when their children no more need their attention. Intimacy Vs
isolation is the representative of this stage in the psychosocial theory.
Developmental tasks of young adulthood include: choosing education and
occupation, selecting a marriage partner, learning to live with a spouse or wife
and developing a satisfactory sex life.

A second component of personality comes from adaptive patterns related to

a child’s specific environment. Most psychologists agree that these two
factors—‘temperament and environment—influence the development of a
person’s personality the most. Temperament, with its dependence on genetic
factors, is sometimes referred to as “nature,” while the environmental factors
are called “nurture”.

While there is still controversy as to which factor ranks higher in affecting

personality development, all experts agree that high-quality parenting plays a
critical role in the development of a child’s personality (Goleman, 1998). When
parents understand how their child responds to certain situations, they can
anticipate issues that might be problematic for their child. They can prepare
the child for the situation or in some cases they may avoid a potentially difficult
situation altogether. Parents who know how to adapt their parenting approach
to the particular temperament of their child can best provide guidance and
ensure the successful development of their child’s personality.

In 1956, a psychiatrist Erik Erikson provided an in depth description as to

how personality develops based on his extensive experience in psychotherapy
with children and adolescents from low, upper, and middle-class backgrounds.

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According to Erikson, the socialization process of an individual consists of

eight phases, each one accompanied by a “psychosocial crisis” that must be
solved if the person is to manage the next and subsequent phases satisfactorily.
The stages significantly influence personality development, with five of them
occurring during infancy, childhood, and adolescence.

2.7.1 Infancy
During the first two years of life, an infant goes through the first stage: Learning
Basic Trust or Mistrust (Hope). Well-nurtured and loved, the infant develops
trust and security and a basic optimism. Badly handled, the infant becomes
insecure and learns “basic mistrust.”

2.7.2 Toddlerhood
The second stage occurs during early childhood, between about 18 months
to two years and three to four years of age. It deals with Learning Autonomy
or Shame (Will). Well-parented, the child emerges from this stage with self-
confidence, elated with his or her newly found control. The early part of this
stage can also include stormy tantrums, stubbornness, and negativism,
depending on the child’s temperament (Erikson, 1993).

2.7.3 Preschool
The third stage occurs during the “play age,” or the later preschool years from
about three to entry into formal school. The developing child goes through
Learning Initiative or Guilt (Purpose). The child learns to use imagination; to
broaden skills through active play and fantasy; to cooperate with others; and
to lead as well as to follow. If unsuccessful, the child becomes fearful, is
unable to join groups, and harbours guilty feelings. The child depends
excessively on adults and is restricted both in the development of play skills
and in imagination.

2.7.4 School age

The fourth stage, Learning Industry or Inferiority (Competence), occurs during
school age, up to and possibly including junior high school. The child learns to
master more formal skills:
 relating with peers according to rules,
 progressing from free play to play that is structured by rules and requires
teamwork (team sports),

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 Learning basic intellectual skills (reading, mathematics).

At this stage, the need for self-discipline increases. The child, who, because
of his or her successful passage through earlier stages, trusts, autonomous
and is full of initiative, will quickly learn to be industrious. However, the
mistrusting child will doubt the future and will feel inferior.

2.7.5 Adolescence
The fifth stage, Learning Identity or Identity Diffusion (Fidelity), occurs during
adolescence from age 13 or 14. Maturity starts developing during this time;
the young person acquires self-certainty as opposed to self-doubt and
experiments with different constructive roles rather than adopting a negative
identity, such as delinquency. The well-adjusted adolescent actually looks
forward to achievement, and, in later adolescence, clear sexual identity is
established. The adolescent seeks leadership (someone to inspire him or her),
and gradually develops a set of ideals to live by.

The Child Development Institute (CDI) rightfully points out that very little
knowledge is available on the type of specific environment that will result, for
example, in traits of trust being more developed in a person’s personality.
Helping the child through the various stages of emotional and personality
development is a complex and difficult task. Searching for the best ways of
accomplishing this task accounts for most of the research carried out in the
field of child development today.

Renowned psychologist Carl Rogers emphasised how childhood experiences

affect personality development. Many psychologists believe that there are
certain critical periods in personality development—periods when the child
will be more sensitive to certain environmental factors. Most experts believe
that a child’s experiences in the family are important for the child’s personality
development, although not exactly as described by Erikson’s stages, but in
good agreement with the importance of how a child’s needs should be met in
the family environment. For example, children who are toilet trained too early
or have their toilet training carried out too strictly may become rebellious.
Another example is shown by children who learn appropriate behaviour to
their sex lives when there is a good relationship with their same-sex parent
(Carl Rogers, 1995).

Another environmental factor of importance is culture. Researchers comparing

cultural groups for specific personality types have found some important
differences. For example, Northern European countries and the United States
have individualistic cultures that put more emphasis on individual needs and

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accomplishments. In contrast, Asian, African, Central American, and South

American countries are characterised more by community-centred cultures
that focus on belonging to a larger group, such as a family, or nation. In these
cultures, cooperation is considered a more important value than
competitiveness, which will necessarily affect personality development
(Campbell, 2003).

2.8 Common Problems

Infants who are just a few weeks old display differences between each other
in how active they are and how responsive they are to change and also how
irritable they are. Some infants cry constantly while others seem happy and
stay fairly quiet. Child development research conducted by the CDI has
identified nine temperamental traits that may contribute to a child’s personality
development as being challenging or difficult:
 activity level (how active the child is generally)
 distractibility (degree of concentration and paying attention when the
child is not particularly interested)
 intensity (how loud the child is)
 regularity (the predictability of biological functions like appetite and
sleep)
 sensory threshold (how sensitive the child is to physical stimuli: touch,
taste, smell, sound, light)
 approach/withdrawal (characteristic responses of a child to a new
situation or to strangers)
 adaptability (how easily the child adapts to transitions and changes such
as switching to a new activity)
 persistence (stubbornness, inability to give up)
 mood (tendency to react to the world primarily in a positive or negative
way)
Temperamental traits are enduring personality characteristics that are neither
“good” nor “bad.” From start, parents can work with the child’s temperamental
traits rather than oppose them. Children with personality disorders have great
difficulty dealing with other people. They tend to be inflexible, rigid, and unable
to respond to the changes and normal stresses of life and find it very difficult
to participate in social activities. When these characteristics are present in a
child to an extreme, when they are persistent and when they interfere with
healthy development, referral to a counsellor or psychologist is thus
recommended.

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Activity 2.4
? 1. Outline the factors that influence maladjusted behaviour
in children.
2. Critique the notion that ‘nature dominates nurture’ in
personality development.
3. Adolescence is a period of ‘storm and stress’. Discuss
with examples.
4. What intervention strategies can a counsellor employ to
help an adolescent showing juvenile delinquency?

2.9 Summary
This unit focused on how a child develops socially, cognitively, physically and
morally from birth to adulthood, resulting in either a sound or an unsound
personality. The environmental factors that influence personality development
have been looked at as well. As the child grows up, parents, teachers and
counsellors can help the child to adapt to his or her own world in spite of
inborn temperament.

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Counselling in Education Module BSCC216

References
Allen, B. P. (2002). Personality Theories: Development, Growth, and
Diversity. Harlow, UK: Allyn and Bacon.
Berger, E. (1999). Raising Children with Character: Parents, Trust, and
the Development of Personal Integrity. Lanham, MD: Rowman and
Littlefield Publishers.
Buck,et al. (2008). Environmental Factors and puberty timing expert
panel research needs, Paediatrics: 121 Supplementary 3; p192-207.
Erikson, E. (1993). Childhood and Society. New York: W.W. Norton and
Company.
Erikson, E. (2000). The Erik Erikson Reader. New York: W.W. Norton
and Company.
Goleman, D. (1998). Working With Emotional Intelligence. New York:
Bantam.
Rogers, C. (1995). On Becoming a Person. Boston: Mariner Books.
Shaffer, D. R. (1999). Social and Personality Development. Independence,
KT: Wadsworth Publishing.
Biesanz, J. C. et al. (2003). “Personality over time: Methodological approaches
to the study of short-term and long-term development and change.”
Journal of Personality.71, no. 6: p905–41.
Hart, D. et al. (2003).”Personality and development in childhood: a person-
centered approach.” Monographs in Social Research on Child
Development. 68, no. 1: 1p–119.
Jensen-Campbell, L. A. et al. (2003). “Interpersonal conflict, agreeableness,
and personality development.” Journal of Personality.71, no. 6,
December: 1059–85.
Junefelt, K. (2007). Rethinking Egocentric Speech: Towards a new
Hypothesis, New Yolk: Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Karl, R. (2011). Children and their Development (6th ed). Englewood Cliffs,
N.J: Prentice Hall.
Roberts, B. W. and R. W. Robins (2004). “Person-Environment Fit and its
Implications for personality development: a longitudinal study.” Journal
of Personality.72, no. 1 February: p89–110.
Shaffer, D.R. (2009). Social and Personality Development (6th edition).
Australia: Wadsworth.
Thompson, R. (1990). Socio-emotional Development; Nebraska
Symposium on Motivation; University of Nebraska Press.
Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher
Psychological Processes. Cambridge, M.A: Havard University Press.
Wood, D. and Middleton, D. (1975). A Study of Assisted Problem Solving.
British Journal of Psychology, 66(2), 181-191.

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 Unit Three

Theoretical Approaches to
Counselling in Education

3.0 Introduction

I n this unit, we focus on theoretical approaches to counselling in education.

Theories will give a framework in understanding the concept of counselling
in the education sector. Theoretical approaches to counselling in education
from the bedrock of counselling and therapy. They will assist you proceed
with your journey of assisting the different clients in therapy. Some of the
theories to be addressed in this unit will include the Psychodynamic Approach,
the Humanistic Approach, Cognitive Behaviour Approach and the Alderian
Therapy.
Counselling in Education Module BSCC216

3.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit,you should be able to:

 describe the theoretical principles to counselling practices

 explain the assumptions underlying psychodynamic
theories, humanistic theories, cognitive behaviour school
and the postmodern school
 examine strategies and techniques used in each of the
discussed theory

3.2 An Overview of Counselling Approaches

There is a clear distinction between schools of counselling and therapy and
theoretical approaches to counselling and therapy. A theoretical approach
presents a single position regarding the theory and practice of counselling and
therapy. A school of counselling and therapy is a grouping of different theoretical
approaches that are similar to one another in terms of certain important
characteristics that distinguish them from other theoretical approaches in other
counselling and therapy schools (Nelson – Jones, 2011).

Contemporary individual counselling and psychotherapy practice are premised

on three main schools namely the psychodynamic, humanist and cognitive
behaviour. The humanist school at times incorporates existential therapeutic
approaches and is coined the humanistic-existential school. The postmodern
school is the fourth and comprises of more recent approaches.

3.3 Schools of Thought

There are similarities and differences among these schools of thought;

3.3.1 The Psychodynamic School

Sigmund Freud is the founder of the Psychodynamic school of counselling
and therapy. Psychodynamic approaches assume that human personality
development and disturbances is rooted in the interplay or dynamics of
psychosocial energies (drives, needs, instincts) within the individual or between
the individual and society Mpofu (2001). Psychological and social forces
engage in interplay which is often experienced as psychological tension or
conflict. This conflict or tension is seen as the origin of maladaptive behaviour

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otherwise known as psychopathology. Psychosocial energies operate at an

unconscious level and are always seeking to discharge or be expressed in a
range of settings Mpofu (2001). Psychodynamic therapists assume that
individuals are always seeking to reduce conflict by changing themselves
or their world. They believe that tension can be reduced if an individual gains
insight into his or her unconscious and reshape his/her characteristic ways to
respond to self and the environment.

Nelson-Jones (2011) suggests that the term psychodynamic refers to the

transfer of psychic or mental energy between the different structures and levels
of consciousness within individuals’ minds. Psychodynamic approaches
emphasises the importance of unconscious influences on how people function.
Therapy aims to increase individual’s abilities to exercise greater conscious
control over their lives. Gaining insight into unconscious motivation involves
bypassing or comprehending the nature of the psychological defence
mechanisms employed to downplay conflict or tension. Psychodynamic
therapies value getting past the unconscious by by-passing the defence
pretences and distorting façade into the conscious. The individual has to freely
explore and express the deep recesses of one’s psyche in order to get rid of
pathology. They assume that an individual is always seeking completeness
and perfection to achieve a sense of self coherence (Ewen, 1988:99).

Psychodynamic approaches are associated with the counselling practice called

psychoanalysis. The term psychoanalytic is sometimes interchangeably used
with the term psychodynamic. The latter was developed from the former and
mainly from the ideas of Sigmund Freud. The counselling practice called
psychoanalysis is based on the psychoanalytic approaches. Freud (1955)
considered psychoanalysis as a theory of the mind, a method of investigating
the workings of the individual’s mind, as well as a treatment approach aimed
at remedying disturbances in the working of the mind. Psychoanalysis is a
theory of the mind in that it describes and seeks to explain how people acquire
certain thoughts about themselves and the way around them.

Bernstein and Warner, 1993:1 posit that Psychoanalysis is a method or research

tool which enables us to study the requirements for normal
development, and to understand what conditions (internal and external) cause
disordered functioning. Techniques and methods are used to ameliorate
individual psychosocial maladjustment or pathology. Analysis or interpretation
of dreams is one such technique which is central to therapy (Nelson-Jones,
2011).

Psychoanalytic approaches can be divided into four, according to Pine (1988).

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Orthodox or classical psychoanalysis, self-psychology, ego psychology and

object relations are the four such classifications of psychoanalysis. Greenberg
and Mitchell (1993) classified the psychodynamic approaches into drive,
structure and object relational structures. Drive structure theories derive
emphasis from the importance of drives (instincts) and the dynamics of their
gratification, erogenous zones and the maturational-related investment of
psychosexual energy. Psychopathology is seen as associated with intra-
psychic conflicts, associated with instinctual gratification.

The different versions of psychoanalytic approaches serve different clients

differently. Psychoanalysts explain human development, sources of
psychopathology and treatment. Greenberg and Mitchell (1983) suggest that
drive-structure analysts treat people who are otherwise normally functioning,
but are presenting a subjective sense of being (that is, with neurotic anxiety).
Clients could be introspective. Such clients would need examination of
internal thoughts, feelings and ideas. Free association, dream analysis,
interpretation of transference and resistance would be the techniques to use.
The psychoanalyst would be neutral. Relational structure driven analysts
would use delineation of object fusion or enmeshment, empathy, relationship
factors, separation issuers and interpretation of transference. The relations
analyst creates a positive healing environment for the client (Greenberg and
Mitchell, 1983 and Wallerstein, 1990). The two often treat the same kind of
clients producing the same results. The common techniques between the two
are interpretation of transference and resistance (Wallerstein, 1990).

Activity 3.1
? 1.
2.
Analyse the key concepts of the psychodynamic therapy.
Discuss the concepts of the psychodynamic theory.

3.4 The Humanistic School

This is enshrined on humanism which is a system of values and beliefs that
seek to produce better qualities of individuals in particular and the human
race in general. They anticipate people’s abilities to develop their human
potential. The humanist therapists value enhancing client’s abilities to experience
their feelings and think and act in harmony with their underlying tendencies to
actualise themselves as unique individuals. The Person-centred and Gestalt
therapies form the bedrock of the humanistic school (Nelson-Jones, 2001).
Carl Rogers is the main proponent of the humanistic branch called the Person

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or Client centred therapy. Fritz Perls was the originator of the Gestalt therapy.

The Person centred therapy lays great emphasis on the primacy of subjective
experience and how clients can become out of touch with their organismic
experience through introjections, others’ evaluation and treating them as if
they were their own. The person centred therapy, values a relationship
characterised by empathy, respect, unconditional positive regard and non-
possessive warmth towards the client. Nelson-Jones points out that the Gestalt
therapy under the Humanistic school views individuals as becoming neurotic
by losing touch with their senses and interfering with their capacity to make
strong contact with their environments. Gestalt therapy emphasises increasing
clients’ awareness and vitality through awareness techniques, experiments,
sympathy and frustration and dream work.

Activity 3.2
? 1. A boy, 18 tells you; ‘I can’t stand this school anymore. It
doesn’t mean anything. I am bored and frustrated, and I
hate school. I feel like dropping out today, but that is foolish
because I am graduating in two months’
a. What is this person feeling?
b. Respond by reflecting what you heard.

3.5 The Cognitive Behaviour School

Nelson-Jones (2011), consulates that the traditional behaviour therapy focuses
on changing observable behaviours by means of providing different
consequences. The cognitive behaviour school broadens behaviour therapy
to incorporate the contribution of how people think to create, sustain and
change their problems. Aaron Beck is the key proponent of cognitive therapy.
Client according to Beck, 1955 suggests that clients become distressed
because these are faulty processors of information with a tendency to jump to
unwarranted conclusions. Therapy consists of educating clients in how to test
the reality of their thinking by interventions such as Socratic questioning and
conducting real life experiments.

In behaviour counselling, abnormal behaviour is under the spotlight and the

aim is to modify it. The key assumption is that all behaviour is acquired through
associative learning (Nelson-Jones, 2001). Learning principles are used to
teach adaptive behaviour to replace undesirable behaviour. Behaviourists aim

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to specify behaviour frequency, strength, desirability and inappropriateness

(Wozniak, 1997). The baseline of evaluation is formed by these aspects which
have to be measurable observable, predictable and verifiable. Cognitive
counsellors are more interested in how clients interpret events and act as a
result of that interpretation. Maladaptive behaviour is seen as a result of
misinterpretation of events. Behaviour and Cognitive paradigms have been
integrated to form the cognitive behaviour therapy (Scott and Dryden, 1996).
Behavioural therapists have their assumptions strongly based on learning.
Ormrod (1999) identified them as;
 Principles of learning apply equally to different behaviours and to different
animals.
 The primary means of investigating learning is by observation.
 Internal cognitive processes are largely excluded from scientific study.
 Learning involves behaviour change.
 Learning processes can be studied most objectively when the focus of
study is on stimulus and response.
 Organisms are born as blank slates.
 Each organism has a different experience with the environment and has
unique behaviours.
 Learning is the result of environmental events.
At this juncture, it is important to note that orthodox behaviourists maintain
that animals and human beings can be shaped to do certain behaviours without
involving the brain or emotional states (Wozniak, 1997). Classical or Orthodox
behaviourists argue that any behavioural pattern can be taught to any animal
or human being provided the animal or human being is generally predisposed
to acquire that particular response pattern. Behaviour therapy aims to discern
the environmental conditions that lead to a particular behaviour and particular
conditions should then be changed or replaced in order to reduce or eliminate
the targeted behaviour (Karen, 1974). Cognitive therapists target the mental
processes that mediate between the stimulus and the behaviour. Therapy targets
altering disordered cognitive processes that are responsible for acquisition
and maintenance of maladies (Nelson-Jones, 2011). In cognitive therapy
distorted thoughts, beliefs and emotions are linked to maladaptive behaviour,
cognitive and behavioural therapies value hypothesis testing. Therapists concur
that adaptive behaviour can be learnt so can maladaptive behaviour which
can also be reversed. ( Nelson-Jones, 2011).
 Classical conditioning
 Operant conditioning
 Contrasting

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Unit 3 Theoretical Approaches to Counselling in Education

Activity 3.3
? Case: Tafadzwa an attention getting child
A grade five teacher seeks your professional help with a 9 year
old boy in her class. She tells you that Tafadzwa’s behaviour is
so disruptive because he is always continually acting out his
problems in an aggressive way. Tafadzwa punches other pupils
for no reason, tears up other pupils’ books, rarely follows
instruction and draws attention to him through negative
behaviour. He seems to take delight in seeing other children
get [Link] teacher tells you that she is at loss to know how
to deal with Tafadzwa’s behaviour. The teacher considered
asking that he be removed from her classroom, but she hesitated
because she believes that he has many pressing conflicts and is
a deeply troubled child. She asks you to see him for a session
and give her some guidance in dealing with his behaviour. You
see Tafadzwa for an individual session, and you find out that
his father is both verbally and physically abusive. Without
provocation his father calls him names and beats him up. At
one time Tafadzwa was beaten severely that he had serious
cuts and bruises and his father threatened him with “real beating”
if he did not agree to say that he had a bicycle accident. One
other finding is that Tafadzwa comes from a single- parent
family. Tafadzwa tells you that he would feel really lost if he
didn’t have his father. He thinks that maybe he has done many
wrong things to deserve the treatment he [Link] within
a behavioural framework, show how you would proceed in
this session with Tafadzwa so that you might be in a better
position to make recommendations to the father.
1. What speculations can you offer about the reasons for
Tafadzwa’s disruptive behaviour? Where might he have
learned his aggressive behaviour?
2. If you were to continue working with Tafadzwa as his
counsellor what specific behavioural procedure might you
employ and toward what end?

3.6 The Postmodern School

The originators of solution-focused postmodern therapy are Steve de Shazer
and Insoo Kim Berg. The postmodern therapies adopt s social constructionist
standpoint which assumes that people process and construct information about

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them and that their world is central to their existence. Rather than
conceptualising progress as a departure from and a rejection of the past,
postmodernism draws on the past to serve the present. People’s experience
of emotions depends on the names that they give to these emotions. People’s
beliefs about their relationships affect how they interpret the reactions of others
and how they respond to them. Personal behaviour results from these cognitive
processes and is therefore open to change (Nelson-Jones, 2001).

Theories of causation are irrelevant to the process of achieving goals and

resolving problems. The therapist is responsible for diverting the conversation
towards the client’s goals and acknowledging their difficulties. Specific uses
of language and styles of questioning are used to encourage creativity and
flexible thinking around the relevant issues (Nelson-Jones, 2011). An individual
is seen as unique, resourceful and capable of changing for the better. Individuals’
problems are not seen or categorised based on previous experiences.
Favourite theories and techniques are not valued. Unique circumstances,
resources and goals are used for a fresh perspective on clients’ problems.
Values, ideas, life experiences, strengths and feedback are all used to produce
an effective counselling intervention. They assume that what works has to be
done more frequently and if it does not then something different has to be
done. Counsellors have the duty to identify what works for a particular client
and encourage them to do more. Clients have to build on their strengths and
weaknesses and deficits. Client feedback and other resources are also valued.
The value of any counselling technique rests on its effectiveness in fostering
positive change and moving closer to accomplishment of client goals (Wampold,
2001).

The Postmodern therapies assume that cooperative relationships facilitate

solutions to client problems. The best predictor of counselling outcomes rests
on the quality of counsellor and client relationship, where mutual respect and
common set goals are valued. This standpoint is also shared with the Humanists.
Effective outcomes are believed to be achieved through validation of client
problems and perceptions. The client has to take an active role in participation
and decision making. The counsellor has to convey hope, reward and praise
client on positive changes on agreed solutions. Feedback and adjustment
of positions take centre stage. Counsellors are on the watch out for progress
drawbacks and their precedents (Wampold, 2001). The thrust is on
comprehensive, developmental and collaborative counselling alliance between
counsellor and client.

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3.7 The Alderian Therapy

Alder’s therapy rests on the premises that individuals had to be understood
within their social context. Alder’s views took in to account issues surrounding
equality, parent education, the influence of birth order, life style and the holism
of an individual. Alder Alfred (1870-1937) believed that we all have one
basic desire and goal: to belong and to feel significant. Alfred Alder developed
a holistic theory of personality, psychopathology and psychotherapy that was
closely linked to the Humanistic school of thought. His philosophy was
characterised by clear common sense. Alder, in his journal, revealed rare
understanding of mental disorders, a deep insight into the art of healing and a
great inspiration of encouraging optimal human development. According to
Alder when we feel encouraged, we feel capable and appreciated and will
generally act in a connected and cooperative manner. When discouraged we
may act in unhealthy ways by competing, withdrawing or giving up. It is in
finding ways of expressing and accepting encouragement, respect and social
interest that help us feel fulfilled and optimistic.

The Alderian Theory of personality has proven productive as applied to the

growth and development of children. Alder believes that a misbehaving child
is a discouraged child and that helping children to feel valued and significant is
often the most effective strategy in coping with difficult child behaviours. The
Alderian philosophy focuses on people’s efforts to compensate for their self-
perceived inferiority to others. These feelings may derive from one’s position
in the family particularly if humiliation occurred, a specific physical condition
or defect existed or a general lack of social feeling for others was present.
Alderians are concerned with understanding the unique and private beliefs
and strategies created in childhood. One’s lifestyle is of particular interest.
This serves as the individual’s reference to attitudes, behaviours and one’s
private view of self, others and the world. Alder suggests that it is when we
have looked at our early life experiences, examined the patterns of behaviour
that repeat themselves in our lives and the methods by which we go about
trying to gain significance and belonging that healing, growth and change occur.

The Adlerian therapy views consciousness, not unconsciousness as the centre

of personality. Adlerian approach is based on a growth Model. It emphasises
the individual’s positive capacities to live fully in society. It is characterized by
seeing unity in the personality, understanding an individual’s world from a
subjective vantage point, and majoring on life goals that give direction to
behaviour. The model states that humans are motivated by social interest, or
a sense of belonging and having an important place in society. The feelings of
inferiority quite often serve as the spring of creativity, which make people
want to strive for mastery, superiority and perfection.

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Activity 3.4
? 1. Alderians contend that first we think, then we act, and
then we feel. Their thrust is on cognition (thinking, beliefs,
assumptions about life, attitudes). What are the strengths
and limitations of this type of focus for a counsellor?
2. Compare and contrast the basic concepts of the
psychodynamic and Alderian approaches. What are some
of the major differences?
3. How can you apply Alderian concepts to understanding
and working with students?

3.8 Human Development

3.8.1 Child development
There is need to briefly look at the development of the children as they grow
up. It should be noted that it is not the intention to deal with child development
in depth as it would be covered elsewhere. The intent is just to briefly look at
cognitive, emotional, social and moral development since these happen to
function in an interdisciplinary fashion. Knowledge, attitudes, values and skills
will also be looked at as we explore the childhood years of development.

Cognitive Development

Cognition is how we acquire information about the world around us: how we
represent and transform such information into knowledge and how we store,
retrieve and use that knowledge to direct our behaviour (Meyer, 1998:10).
The focus is going to be from the middle childhood years since the earlier may
have been covered in CD102 (Theoretical Approaches). The young child
who is in the middle childhood years (6-7) uses egocentric and magical thinking.
The child sees situations from their own perspectives. Magical thinking is the
belief that one’s thoughts alone are powerful enough to effect changes in the
world (van Dyk, 2008). As the child grows, this rigid, egocentric outlook is
gradually replaced by thought processes that allow children to see things even
from other people’s points of view. At this level, children become aware of a
variety of points of view and become sensitive that other people do not always
think or perceive in the same way as they do. Children are also become able
to postpone a particular action until they evaluate alternative responses to
situations. Their stead reduction in egocentric thinking begins to form the
foundation on which to construct logical thinking and develop and define
concepts of morality as they grow older (Piaget, 1973; Wong et al., 1999:781).

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According to Piaget children in the middle childhood years are in the period
of concrete operations, although they are capable of operational thinking.
Concrete thinking means that children cannot construct or manipulate abstract
ideas or reason in terms of hypothesis or speculate about possibilities. They
reason only in terms of the observable reality or objects in front of them
(Meyer and Van Ede, 1998; Piaget and Inhelder, 1969). During the concrete
operational phase, children begin to understand relationships between things
and ideas. They progress from making judgment based on what they see
(perceptual thinking) to making judgments based on the consequences of
their reasoning (conceptual thinking). Mastery of symbols improves, use of
memory of past events to evaluate and interpret the present and to classify
objects according to common characteristics (Wong et al., 1999). According
to Inhelder and Piaget (1964), the ability to classify hierarchically usually
develops in children between 7 and 11 years of age. Other studies, however
found that children often develop this ability only during mid-adolescence or
beyond (Lowell, 1980).

3.8.2 Social development

Human beings are social animals that value belonging. Adolescents have an
intense desire to belong so their social development is strongly punctuated by
an increased interest in the interaction with the peer group. At this level the
adolescent is anti- family, instructional norms, values and rules. The peer group
plays an important role in the individual’s psychological development. Emotional
needs are satisfied by interacting with friends. The peer group becomes the
main source of information. Conformity to the code of conduct of the peer
group is valued immensely. Adolescents are very sensitive about the approval
of peers in whatever they do. They are not confident to make their own choices.
Conforming to the group rules has its merits and demerits. Excessive conformity
impacts negatively on identity development (Thorn et al. 2005); High risk
behaviours such as early sexual activities, drug abuse, alcohol and smoking
among other anti-social activities have their origins in peer pressure at this
level. Family, educational and other cultural and social expectations conflict
with the individual’s valued priorities at this development level. This is referred
to as the storm and stress period where the adolescent either makes it or
breaks it.

3.8.3 Moral development

Moral development is one of the most important developmental tasks of
children and adolescents. It evolves around what is right or wrong. The
individual has to develop a personal value system that is clear of what is right

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or wrong. Adolescents question the existing family and societal values and
decide, with peer influence, which values to incorporate or discard. Although
many adolescents are still at a conventional level of moral reasoning, they
begin to accept rules because they can identify with them and perceive them
as essential for preserving the coherence of society (Kohlberg, 1978). Once
adolescents develop some capacity for principled moral reasoning, they begin
to see that absolutes and rules may be questioned because such rules may be
based on someone else’s subjective point of view. If the adolescents view the
subjective points as open to various interpretations it therefore invites
disapproval. Adolescents will adhere to rules that are in conformity with the
peer code of conduct.

According to Erikson (1968), one of the main psychosocial tasks of the

adolescent years is identity formation – to ask and answer the questions:
‘Who am I? and ‘what do I want in life?’ Steinberg (in Wong et al., 1999:898)
describes identity development during adolescence in the following way; before
adolescence the child’s identity is like pieces of a puzzle scattered about the
table. Cognitive development and social situations encountered during
adolescence push individuals to combine puzzle pieces to reflect on their place
in society, on the way others view them, and on their options for the future.
The role played by social forces is very important in the development of the
sense of self. Significant others serve as mirrors that reflect information back
to the adolescent about whom they are and who they ought to be. As the
adolescents identities develop views of themselves (self concept) also change.
They become less concrete and become more abstract and illustrate a greater
self awareness (Thorn et al., 2005). It was to be noted that, not all reach
moral maturity. Egocentrism manifests with individuals failing to accommodate
others’ points of view. Heteronomous acceptance of others’ value systems is
another moral dilemma where an individual is under the authority of the values
of others (his/her parents, peers). This individual has not found an independent
and autonomous value system which they own.

3.8.4 Sexual development

Adolescents experience accelerated physical growth during puberty and
become increasingly aware of their sexuality. Their newly developed sexuality
begins to play a greater role in their interpersonal relationships. They discover
their sexual orientation at this stage (that is, whether they have a sexual
preference for people of their own sex, the opposite sex or both (Davison,
1988). They become worried and confused if they experienced homosexual
feelings. Bodily changes confuse uninformed adolescents. They have many
questions about sex and are not willing to ask these questions because they

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do not wish to be labeled as not informed (Davison, 1988). This is the most
opportune time to discuss sexuality and sex issues with the adolescents as
they do not hold strong emotions such as fear and embarrassment at this
level. Older adolescents tend to pretend to know a lot about sexuality and
sex for fear of disapproval from younger adolescents who are part of the peer
group. Trusted adults have to impart psycho-education to dispel myths,
misconceptions, and distortions and to minimise the negative effects of the
‘storm and stress’ period of adolescent development.

Activity 3.5
? 1. Evaluate the statement that the peer group plays an
important role in the individual’s psychological
development.
2. What do you understand by moral development?

3.9 Self-concept
A positive self concept is one of the most important assets an adolescent
should have. This is an essential component of development that will help the
individual when making life choices and decisions. Life skills necessary for the
implementation of knowledge, attitudes and values such as assertiveness,
decision making, negotiation, communication and refusal skills are based on a
healthy, positive self concept (Wong et al., 1999). The self concept refers to
the way in which a person views himself or herself. Self concept and self
esteem refers to the personal assessment of value or worth that we attach to
ourselves (Gillis, 1994).

Parenting systems and significant others are responsible for the development
of the self concept. The expectations and esteem of teachers and parents
have a crucial influence in the child’s development of a robust self concept.
Teachers, parents and counsellors have to make children feel special, worthy
and valuable in themselves. The significant others have to help children increase
their self-confidence by being honest with them and availing opportunities for
them to be creative and providing positive reinforcement (Wong et al., 1999).
Children with a poor self -concept are vulnerable to criticism and praise both
in the classroom and home. A negative self-concept is produced by the
following factors (Gillis, 1994; Wong et al; 1999):
 Insufficient appreciative attention or regards from parents or members
of the family.

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 The conviction that they are constantly ignored and not noticed (this
makes children feel invisible and worthless)
 Ridicule, excessive and irrational punishments and the insecurity that is
caused by harsh and rigid rules or the insecurity caused by too few or
no rules or parental guidelines.
 Physical violence and threatening or menacing behaviour, psychological
neglect, sexual and emotional abuse; negative cruel and humiliating labels
(verbalised abuse) that make children feel worthless, useless and anxious.
 Inconsistency on the part of parents and teachers towards children.
 Unrealistically high expectations or inconsistent standards applied to
children by parents, teachers or significant others.
 Overprotective attitudes by parents towards their children (this makes
children insecure about their own judgment, thus increasing their levels
of anxiety).
 Deprivation of basic needs such as food, shelter and safety
 Physical disability or a perceived physical disability
 Unfavourable or humiliating comparisons based on various unfair
characteristics.
The psychodynamic theory was originated by Sigmund Freud and focuses on
ways in which the unconscious impacts how people function (Freud, 1933).
Freud believes that the unconscious is a component of the mind that the
individual unaware of, but which manifests through behaviour. Infantile wishes,
desires, demands and needs are hidden from consciousness awareness
because of the conflicts and pain they would cause if they were part of everyday
life (Feldman, 1993). The goal of psychoanalysis, which is the practice, is to
locate and release powerful emotional thoughts and feelings trapped or
repressed in the unconscious, with the most frequently used technique being
free association (that is, verbalising everything that comes to mind without
censorship).

There is need to create a safe place for the recalling of repressed childhood
memories for the free association to totally occur (Bergmann, 2010). A strong
client-counsellor relationship that is less about encouraging client authenticity
but more about developing a dependence relationship based on meeting
counselling needs of different school pupils is a major challenge taking into
consideration their diverse ages, sexes, backgrounds, among other variables.
Individual and intellectual goals have to be clarified if positive outcomes are to
be realised. Societal change, educational expectations, family issues and
student needs need careful consideration given their dynamic nature (Lee,
2001).

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Activity 3.6
? 1.
2.
What do you understand by self- concept?
According to Gillis (1994) Wong et al (1999), what
factors produce a negative self-concept?

3.10 Summary
In the unit we discussed some of the theories a counsellor can employ in
trying to understand the issues, concerns and problems which students meet
so as to effectively assist the pupils to be more functional and attain their
educational goals. The major focus on this theory should be on basic
assumptions, key concepts, application, limitations and advantages.

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References

Beck, A.T. (1979). Cognitive therapy of depression. New York: Guilford

Press.
Bergmann, M. (2010). The Oedipus Complex and Psychoanalytic
Technique. Psychoanalytic Enquiry, 30(6), 535-540.
Feldman, M. 1993). New Introductory lectures on psychoanalysis. Lecture.
33: Femininity. Standard Edition, [Link] 136-157.
Lazarus, A.A. (1976). Multimodal behaviour therapy. New York: Springer
Publications.
Nelson-Jones, R. (1997). The Theory And Practice Of Counselling, London:
Cassell.

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 Unit Four

Contemporary Issues in Education

4.0 Introduction

I n this unit we explore on contemporary issues in education. Learners in the

present dispensation have access to volumes of varied information due to
the advent of computers and the internet. Some of them are unable to adapt
that information which when implemented take them to the promised land.
Instead, they quickly absorb and practice habits that not only endanger their
lives but draw a lot of finance from their families in an attempt to rehabilitate
the child. This unit also focuses on the current issues which are negatively
affecting primary, secondary and tertiary learners. These include early
indulgence in sex, drug/substance abuse, smoking, and pornography and
computer/internet abuse. When allowed to go on unchecked, these vices will
destroy a significant number of the population, that is, the children, youth in
schools and colleges. Among the rescue intervention strategies available,
counselling in schools and colleges is considered one of the best because it
empowers an individual to decide a way out of his/her predicament. We
therefore, hope that you will significantly benefit from this unit.
Counselling in Education Module BSCC216

4.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 identify contemporary issues in education sector

 explain how each of the contemporary issues affects the
learners in education
 discuss intervention strategies to those contemporary
issues in education
 describe any four types of sexually transmitted disease
that are common amongst youths
 examine the effects of drug abuse on adolescents

4.2 Contemporary Issues

These are current issues affecting youth with ages between ten (10) and twenty
four (24) years. The youth could be in primary, secondary and/or tertiary
institutions. Some of the youth could be out of the secondary and tertiary
institutions. What is of significance is that the category of people under discussion
is youth of a given age wherever they could be, in the school system or out of
the formal school system.

4.3 Identified Contemporary Issues

4.3.1 Indulgence in early sex
Youth especially girls are on record to have indulged in sexual intercourse as
early as 12 years old (oral tradition Chirinda Village Hwedza 1990). The
main reason could be lack of counselling. Vital information on the dangers of
teenage pregnancies is not available. It is critical that at every school be it
primary or secondary, a counsellor must be engaged. The counsellor makes
the counselee to realise the dangers associated with indulgence in early sexual
relations (Kolher, 2006).

4.3.2 Consequences of early indulgence in sex by youth

Kohler; Manhart, and Lafferty, (2008) cited some of the consequences as
pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases, HIV and AIDS, social isolation and
loss of career potential. The family of the girl child forks out money towards
maternity prenatal care and postnatal care. The family is obliged to honour

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medication expenses should the adolescent contract sexually transmitted

diseases.

4.3.3 Adolescent pregnancy

Women, including youth who indulge in sexual intercourse could become
pregnant. Elfenbein, and Felice, (2010) define adolescent pregnancy as
pregnancy in girls age 19 or younger. They go further to define it as unplanned
pregnancy of females in primary, secondary and tertiary institutions. Any
youth in his/her normal senses would not want to become pregnant because
this would jeopardize her future. Although the Ministry of Education Sport,
Art and Culture policy says the girl should be assisted to continue with her
education in the formal education system after delivery. This could be difficult
for the girl/lady. Her colleagues would consider her character as loose. They
will laugh at her. She becomes a laughing stock. Her friends can abandon her
and she becomes isolated.

She needs time to breastfeed the baby, meanwhile teaching and learning goes
on. She loses lessons/ lecturers. This results in a negative bearing on her
performing badly in examinations and necessitates repeating. Government
policy in primary and secondary education is very stringent on repeating. This
is so because government pays equalization grant to schools. Every pupil has
a share of the equalization grant. Each learner should be afforded one chance
and the learner should utilise it properly. The list of age groups claiming
equalisation grants from government is unending if we consider that the nation
shall continue to reproduce itself to eternity.

4.3.4 Possible causes of engaging in sexual intercourse

Abma, et al (2008) suggested the following as some of the reasons for
adolescents and youth engaging in sexual relations: - economic deprivation,
poor school performance, low self esteem, experimentation, young age, peer
pressure, lack of recreational activities and sense of hopelessness. In the local
environment, forced marriages, girl child pledging and statutory rape account
for early indulgence in sex.

4.3.5 Economic deprivation

A child in primary school who does not have pocket money to buy eats at
break and lunch time when others have the money experience a sense of
inferiority. To reduce the inferiority she accepts money to buy eats in exchange
for sex and so indulges in sex at a tender age. Some of the secondary school

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girls are known to do the same. It is no secret that some female students at
tertiary institutions offer sex in exchange for money for transport and lunch.
Students themselves have testified this through Radio Star FM phone in
programme by Tilder Moyo on Sundays starting at 0700hrs.

4.3.6 Poor school performance

Studies by Fergusson and Lynske (1996) confirmed that poor school
performance led to negative self-esteem, self-concept and self-control. To
minimise the perception, female students engage in any activities including
early sex which in most cases is unplanned. In local schools and tertiary
institutions, some minutes of disciplinary procedures reflect inappropriate
association with school girls most of whom perform poorly in school work.

4.3.7 Experimentation
Some youth, according to Robins (1984), are eager to experience sexual
encounter and they do it on experimental basis regardless of the consequences.
They are influenced by some of the movies they watch on television.

4.3.8 Low self- esteem

Low self- esteem could lead learners to get into sexual intercourse to salvage
lost pride (Tennant and Detels 1996).

4.3.9 Young age

Youth aged 18 years and below are more likely, than the 19 to 24 age group,
to have unplanned sexual intercourse (Schwartz, Hayden and Getson 1986).
They are unable to resist due to young age.

4.4 Peer Pressure

Smith, Schwartz and Martin (1989) cite peer influence as a pivotal force in
the initiation of intimacy. The thinking would be that everyone is doing it why
not me.

4.4.1 Lack of alternative recreational activities

When learners lack alternative recreational facilities they become more

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enterprising (Cornelius and Taylor, (1995). In the locality of this writer, they
simply offer sex for sale to make ends meet.

4.4.2 Sense of hopelessness

Researchers discovered that when adolescents need help be it economical,
spiritual and/ or social, they should be offered that which they require. When
they lack the support, a sense of hopelessness grips them and some end up
indulging in early sex.

Activity 4. 1
? 1. In the present dispensation, youth as young as 9 years
are known to have indulged in sexual relations. Discuss.
2. Examine the consequences of early indulgence in sex by
youths.

4.4.3 Sexually transmitted disease in youth

Diseases of adults, namely sexually transmitted diseases have invaded the
youth. Research studies by Elfenbein, and Felce, (2011) discovered that 1 in
4 teenage girls in the United States have sexually transmitted disease. Botvin,
(199) noted that as adolescents experiment on sex, some of them catch sexually
transmitted diseases with dire consequences. Youth’s lack of awareness of
catching a sexually transmitted disease is suicidal. Schinke, (1984) observed
that unprotected sex is a risky youth behavior that can lead to pregnancy and
sexually transmitted diseases.

In Zimbabwe efforts to prevent unprotected sex were made and are being
sustained. Hospitals, clinics and beer outlets give male condoms free of charge.
Pharmacies and large supermarkets sell them cheaper such that everyone has
access to them. Research studies by Kohler and Manhart, (2008) revealed
that in the United States 34% of sexually active teens reported having
unprotected sex in 2005.

4.4.4 Transmission of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)

According to US Teenage Pregnancy Statistics (2010) sexually transmitted
diseases can be transmitted through all types of sexual contact including
penetration, deep kissing, sucking male organ and oral sex. The STDs are of

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two types: - the curable and the incurable. Some youth are unaware of this
fact.

4.4.5 Reasons for having unprotected sex

Youth think that pregnancy happen to other people not themselves yet
worldwide 10 million boys and girls get STDs from unprotected sex (Pentz,
1983., Glynn, Leukefeld and Ludford, 1984).

Youth do not know the risks of unprotected sex (Sussman and Dent, 1993).
They do not know where to get condoms moreover they think they are
expensive (Perry and McAlistv, 1983). They feel pressured by their partners
to do so (Snow, Tebes, Arther and Tapasak, 1992). But a real honest
partner does not force his/her other half into an unhealthy situation.

4.4.6 Sexually transmitted disease common among youth

Gilbert, (2000) summarised them as follows;
 Genital Warts
 Herpes
 HIV and AIDS
 Hepatitis B
 Chlamydia
 Syphilis
 Gonorrhea
Some of the STDs have no visible symptoms; others have symptoms that
only occur periodically so even if a person looks healthy he/she may still have
an STD (Abma, et al 2006).

4.4.7 HIV and AIDS

HIV and AIDS have been singled out for discussion due to its widespread
devastating emotional, social, economic and physical effects. In Zimbabwe
HIV and AIDS have cut across the primary, secondary and tertiary institutions
with adverse consequences. Pupils living with HIV are not as hyperactive as
their peers. They shy away from compatriots and in a reciprocal manner the
HIV negative children shun associating in any manner with the HIV positive
ones.

Youths living with HIV should be assisted to get treatment. Some youths who
were diagnosed of being HIV positive 2 years ago are still not on ARV

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treatment. But some, 2 years after being diagnosed positive, are not yet on
ARV treatment. According to the Sunday Mail (April 7 – 13, 2013) Zimbabwe
has 178421 children living with the HIV and [Link] this number, only 46874
are on ARV treatment. The Zimbabwe 2009 statistics revealed that 150 000
children of 15years and below were infected with HIV. Of these 1 out of 8
dies before reaching the age of 5 from HIV related illnesses.

The Sunday Mail (April 7-13,213) further said that a Dr. Angela Mushavi,
national co-ordinator for prevention of mother to child transmission and
paediatric HIV care and Treatment in the Ministry of Health and Child Welfare
said less than half of children living with HIV had access to ARV treatment. In
Dr. Mashavi’s opinions the number of children accessing HIV treatment in
Zimbabwe was very small. She said: “At the moment, paedriatic ARV treatment
is low.

There is need to increase the number of children on HIV and AIDs treatment
to more than 85percent so that we can deal with the current 21 percent
mortality rate that is attributable to HIV and AIDS.”

It is clear from the above quotation that HIV and AIDS are playing havoc in
the youth population sector of the country (Zimbabwe). Zimbabwe
Demographic Heath Survey (2010) issued a statement to the effect that most
Clinics in the country offer HIV and AIDS testing for patients including children.
But results are slow in coming. There was a huge backlog at the Central
Laboratory where the blood is processed, screened and tested for HIV. The
delay in the processing of the blood means delay in accessing treatment by
sufferers.

What is pleasing to note is that the Zimbabwe Government has made a two
pronged approach towards the scourge. Firstly it has made an undertaking to
eliminate new HIV infections among youth and children by 2015 and secondly
to achieve a 50 percent reduction of HIV and AIDS related deaths in
adolescents and children by 2015.

Efforts by stakeholders to reduce the impact of HIV and Aids are commended.
From some quarters, concerns have been raised on children (including those
in primary schools) that only 30% have access to treatment. What would be
the fate of the other 70%? Medical personnel say most parents were not
brining their children for treatment due to stigma and discrimination. According
to Dr. Mushavi, reports from clinics in Harare suggest that some women
collected HIV treatment drugs for their children but dumped them in dustbins
fearing that family members and or neighbours would know their status.

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Zimbabwe National Network for people living with HIV confirmed stigma
Counselling in Education Module BSCC216

and discrimination were a problem. For that reason, most people living with
HIV are not comfortable to disclose their status. The same is true of parents
who are not at ease to disclose the HIV status of their children to just anyone.
United Nations Millennium development goal number four (4) is about the
reduction of child death. In line with the goal one would suggest that all children
in schools who are HIV positive should be identified and put on treatment
early.

4.4.8 Prevention measures

The best, everlasting, life measure of preventing acquisition of STDs is
knowledge. No one, in their normal senses, under normal conditions,
voluntarily/ knowingly, would acquire an STD. It is acquired through ignorance
or accident. All social institutions like schools, churches, universities and Poly
Techniques should initiate and sustain programmes that encourage youths to
postpone having sex until they are matured (Kohler and Manhert, 2008).
Youth should be given knowledge based programmes that provide detailed
information about STDs (Abma, et al 2006).

Abstinence is one sure way of avoiding STDs. But sex is one of the basic
needs of a human being. Bangert – Drowns (1988) argue that telling people
to abstain without giving them knowledge/information on adverse consequences
of STDs does not prevent the spread of the diseases. Peer Counseling
Programmes that involve older teens to encourage young teens to resist peer
and social pressure to have sex should be tried (Schinke, 1984). When birth
control measures suggest for instance the proper use of male and /or female
condoms, youth may not contract STDs (Telch and Killen 1982). Schinke,
and Gilchrist, (1984) concur with Telch, and Killen (1982) that using a
condom correctly reduces the chances of catching an STD. But, they argue,
abstaining from sex is the best prevention. Counselling: A health care provider
can also provide counselling with regards to sexually transmitted diseases and
prevention (Shope, Dielman and Butchart, 1992).

4.4.9 Social rejection

From experience, it was observed that people who suffer from sexually
transmitted diseases are stigmatised. Youth who contact STDs suffer the same
fate. They are rejected by society and left to the mercy of health providers,
traditional and faith healers. Most members of the public think that when they
get in contact with the patient, they acquire the disease. Although efforts to
educate the population about STDs are being made, people remain skeptical.

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4.5 Loss of Career Potential

Youth who indulge in unplanned sex and get pregnant jeopardize their careers.
They drop from schools, polytechniques and University Colleges.
Discontinuation of the programme permanently results in loss of career
potential. But at times the youth is given a second chance that is allowed to
re-join the institution and continue, after giving birth.

4.5.1 Drug abuse and related consequences: Definition of

drug abuse
Drug abuse is described from various perspectives. Botvin, Schinke, Epstein,
Diaz and Botvin (1995) defined drug abuse as taking of a drug for non-
medically approved purposes. Drug abuse refers to continued use of a legal
drug with the knowledge that it is hazardous to one’s health (Ellickson and
Bell 1990). Excessive use of a substance other than food that when taken in
small quantities alters one’s physical, mental or emotional state is drug abuse
(Caplan, Weissberg, Grober, Sivo, Grady and Jacoby, 1992). From the
definitions above, one would perceive drug abuse as a continued act of taking
an over-dose of a drug for no genuine reason other than self gratification.

4.5.2 Drugs being abused

According to Donaldson, S. I., Graham, J. W., and Hansen, W. B., (1994)
drugs that are commonly abused are:
 Alcohol
 Tobacco
 Marijuana
 Cocaine
Young people including adolescents experiment at a large scale with the stated
“gateway” drugs (tobacco alcohol and marijuana).

4.5.3 Reasons for taking drugs

Adolescents give several reasons for taking drugs that include forgetting or
solving problems, peer pressure, enjoyment, excitement and fun, self imaging,
risk taking, curiosity and experimentation (Johson, V., and Pandina, R. J 1991).

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4.5.4 To forget or to solve problems

Previous research studies (by Resnick 1997, Kandel and Yamaguchi 1993)
discovered that youths took drugs to relieve stress and become level headed.
Donovan and Jessor (1983) argue that Youth took drugs to relax. But other
research studies by Kandel and Fauest (1975) say drugs seem to take away
pain from youth. In a survey conducted by South Africa United Nations Office
on Drugs and Crime in May 2004, South Africa adolescents said they took
drugs so as to solve problems, takeaway loneliness and to relieve sadness.

4.5.5 Peer pressure

Teenagers looking for peer acceptance may decide to use drugs if the peers
use drugs. Robins and Przybeck (1985) observed that adolescents associating
and socialising with peers who use drugs get an opportunity to access and use
the drugs. The peer group reflects who adolescents are and plays an important
role in the development of a self-concept. To the adolescent, it is vital to
maintain peer support even if it means taking drugs (Kandel and Yamaguchi,
1993). Peer group pressure can be viewed as external pressure exerted on a
potential friend to join “birds of the same feathers”. But literature of some
researchers (Robins and Przybeck 1985) discovered that peer pressure from
within the adolescent is more potent pressure where the youth feels that it
may be safer to take drugs than risk losing the support of the group, the
identity, status / social prestige, and self concept which goes with it.

4.5.6 Enjoyment, excitement and fun

Human beings are joy seekers. Adolescents are no exceptions. They resort
to drugs to feel good (Donovan and Jessor 1983). Drugs are thought to make
the user feel good initially. This is one of the reasons why people take them.
The use of drugs is associated with fun and enjoyment. In some poor high
density urban areas of metropolitan cities of the world, some drugs are
marketed with music, dress and energy boosting drinks all wrapped up as
one package (UN Office on Drugs and Crime 2004). In a research survey
conducted by Gil et al (1998) adolescents said that they took drugs to be
happy; to laugh; to relieve boredom, to feel on top of the world and to get
energy. The media and advertisers create an idealised world in which
adolescents are portrayed enjoying themselves with unlimited smoking, drinking
and drugging. The desire to make profits supersedes promotion of health
habits. All they are after is to create a huge market that consumes their products.

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4.5.7 Self- imaging

Adolescents take drugs to improve their images. Studies by Resnick (1997)
revealed that youths desire to be models in all fields of human endeavour
(physical, psychological and aesthetical). From adolescents’ point of view
using drugs means one is adventurous, fun loving, rebellious, special, above
other youths and intelligent (Kandel and Yamaguchi 1993). Male youths may
use steroids to enhance their sporting prowess while female youths use slimming
tablets to attain the ideal body shape (beauty). Adolescents want to draw
attention wherever they are and on whatever they do. Drugs give them the
guts to assume the “mancho” type of attitude, the ‘hero’ status in any
endeavour. That is the image they want of themselves.

4.5.8 Risk taking

As they pass through adolescence, risk-taking is a normal feature of the youth.
Death is seen as a distant reality (Killpatrick 2000). A feeling of invincibility is
inherently dominant. That is why adolescents do not take the dangers of using
drugs critically. To some of them, drugs are a ‘forbidden fruit’ which add to
their excitement.

4.5.9 Curiosity and experimentation

Human beings, by nature, are curious animals. They want to know and
experiment with everything. The developmental stage of adolescents makes
them susceptible to these dynamics. Research studies by Goldberg et al (1996)
showed that adolescents test alcohol, drugs and tobacco to quench their
unending curiosity. Donovan and Jessor (1983) discovered that youths, on
seeing drugs, want to experiment with them, to get to know how they tested
through experimentation. Of course in this scenario, peer pressure plays a
complementary role.

In 2006, six girls aged between 16 and 17, from Pote Secondary School in
Chinamhora Communal area, ended up at their local clinic complaining of
strange aches all over their bodies. The girls accompanied by their teacher
had gone for a netball competition in Goromonzi. On their return home trip,
they stopped at Mverechena Shopping Centre for a recess. Their teacher
went into a beer hall. On realizing that the teacher would take a longer time
before coming back, they connived, entered a bottle store and bought whisky.
The whisky was hurriedly gulped down to avoid being caught by the teacher.
Before long, the girls began to feel dizzy, powerless and collapsed. On return,
the teacher panicked on seeing his girls unconscious. He hired a vehicle to

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take them to the clinic. Clinical processes and testing concluded that the girls
had taken whisky. The above narrated scenario confirms that adolescents
are curios and given the chance they can experiment with anything fatal or
non-fatal.

Activity 4.2
? 1. Identify any three commonly abused drugs in your
community.
2. What is the impact of social rejection on those youths
who abuse drugs and indulge in unprotected sexual
relations?
3. Conduct a small scale survey involving adolescent fifteen
boys and fifteen girls to find out reasons why youth take
drugs.

4.6 Effects of Drug Abuse on Adolescents

Drug-, alcohol – abuse do have negative effects not only on users but
stakeholders as well. Disasters, accidental or intentional related to alcohol
and drug abusers among youths symbolise one of the leading causes of death
for the 15 to 25year old population (Swisher, Growford, Goldstain and Yura
1971). Alcohol and other drug use in adolescent population cause school
under achievements, delinquency, and teenage pregnancy and stress (Telch,
Killen, 1982). Drug and alcohol abuse are associated with an increased risk
of contracting human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) due to impaired judgement
that craves for sex for enjoyment (Tobler N. S. 1986). At more risk are the
abuser, the partners and unborn children. The younger a child initiates alcohol
and other drug uses, their life becomes riskier at adult age level (Horoly,
Belcher and Shinit 1998).

Continued abuse of drugs leads to addiction. Robins and Przybeck (1985)

observed that adolescents who sniff cocaine may find that the amount that
they have to inhale to get the desired effects becomes enormous. Users may
switch to injecting the cocaine instead of inhaling it. The new method of
administration exposes users to a more potent form of the drug as well as to
increased medical complications. Hostility and lack of warmth towards family
members by adolescents is associated with alcohol and drug abuse (Johnson
and Pandina 1996). Jinga Mbabvu (21) an inmate at Chikurubi maximum
security prison testified that when he committed rape in 2007 he did so under

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the influence of drugs and marijuana. In view of the discussed effects, one
would suggest strongly the deployment of counsellors in schools, churches
and places where youths commonly converge and offer services.

4.6.1 Drug-abuse prevention programmes for adolescents

No single programme would work for all young people at all ages. The adoption
of a multi-faceted approach could address this drug-abuse challenge.
According to Trinkoff, Antony and Muz, (1990) three approaches employed
were:- the shock-horror approach – fear arousal and scare tactics; information
based programmes and the life skills approach.

4.6.2 The Shock – Horror Approach

Research studies by Fergusson et al, (1996) say the approach is also known
as the fear arousal and scare tactics. Its messages to the young people are
based on fear. The idea being that when adolescents are exposed to the shocking
horror of alcohol and drug abuse, they will refrain. Study findings by Robins,
L. N. (1984) suggested that this approach is unhelpful because it fails to
influence positive behaviour. The scenario given was that in a ghetto in an
urban area of the US was a poster depicting a dead body of a drug abuser
who had died from both alcohol and drug abuse.

The poster was meant to instill fear and scare adolescents from using drugs.
However the youth happened to know several hard-core drug-abusers in
their neighbourhood who, despite taking drugs for a decade or more years,
were alive. Fergusson , Lynskey, (1996) argue that by focusing on negative
effects of drug abuse and death, the shock-horror approach, falls short on
convincing. Drugs do not kill all or even the majority of abusers (Smith,
Schwartz, Martin, 1989). Campaigns based upon this premise are likely to
be dismissed by adolescents as false/untrue and lacking integrity. This makes
future campaigns to educate adolescents about drug abuse difficult. After taking
drugs, people experience mood altering; an experience which they enjoy.
This writer had the opportunity to ask his Uncle, John Bedzura (35) who lives
in Mbare suburb whether or not drugs do kill. He responded in the negative
and remarked that taking drugs was a sign of a real man as distinguished from
ordinary men, gulped down Zed, a prohibited drug from Mozambique. The
shock-horror approach cannot be dismissed in its entirety. Some of its aspects
are true, for example, from so many who abuse drugs, some die.

Cornelius, Taylor, Gava, D and Day, (1995) noted the shortfalls of the fear
arousal and scare tactics and suggested what the approach lacked. According

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to them what was important was to explain causes of addiction, the different
addictive properties of different drugs and the fact that most people who took
drugs do not die from them. But what is known is that once young people are
told that most people do not die from drugs they increase drug abuse. However,
Fergusson, Lynskey, (1996) asset that the Schock – horror approach is still
the basis for some investigators in the field of prevention.

4.6.3 Information- based programmes

This approach is based on the premise that adolescents abuse drugs because
they are unaware of the consequences (Ternant, Detels, 1998). The logic is
that once young people are provided with information they will desist from
using drugs. Previous Research Studies indicate that excessively information-
based programmes have in some cases actually resulted in an increase in drug
use. This happens especially when adolescents get the true information that
drugs alter the mood which is what they want. Some say information is power.
This approach empowers the youth to avoid being carried over by alcohol,
tobacco and drug-abuses. Information based programmes, according to
Smith, Schwartz and Martin (1989) would be more effective when combined
with another approach, for instance, the life skills approach.

4.6.4 The Life Skills Approach

The intervention deals with a range of social skills that have to be placed at
the disposal of the adolescents. The underlying assumption being that drug
abuse is at least partly due to poor social coping strategies, undeveloped
decision making skills, low self-esteem, inadequate peer pressure resistance
skills and lack of health activities during leisure time. The life skills approach
seeks to address the stated underlying assumptions through understanding
youth perception, involving youth in planning and implementation, disseminating
accurate and evidence-based messages involving parents and guardians in
programmes and other related activities.

4.6.5 Understand youth perception

A prevention programme adopted should be acceptable in the mind of the
adolescents Schwartz, Hayden, Getson and Paola (1996) warned that what
works for adults does not necessarily work for adolescents. Young people
have a different mindset which needs to be catered for and used to improve
the impact of a programme. The programme should be psychologically sound
in the mind of the youth.

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4.6.6 Involving young people in the programme design and

implementation
In Zimbabwe, there is an adage which says: - “Anything designed for the
youth without youth participation is not for the youth” Similarly, prevention
programmes should involve the adolescents from the planning stage through
implementation to evaluation. According to Jessor, R. and Jessor, S. L. (1997)
Youth are best place to advise on the values, attitudes and behaviours which
will have greatest impact.

4.6.7 Message accurate and evidence based

Some prevention programmes are based on intuition than research findings.
Programme planners should endeavour to obtain and disseminate accurate,
evidence based message (Robins, 1984). Cornelius, Taylor, Gevan and
Day, (1995) submit that prevention programmes need to present the facts
about drug – and alcohol abuse in an unbiased manner if they want to be seen
as credible but without giving the impression that it is good to abuse drugs.
The message should come out clearly factual and credible. The facts should
include the dangers, the immediate effects, the perceived positive effects and
the short term negative effects of tobacco, alcohol and drug abuse. When
taking drugs for the first time it is absolutely critical to warn adolescents that
the greatest risk is that of doing something one would not normally do but
because of an altered state of perception one would not mind even having
unprotected sex.

4.6.8 Starting early

The programme should be initiated to catch the adolescents early before they
have experimented with tobacco, alcohol or drugs. It is here where the adage
“Catch them Young” applies.

4.6.9 Programme duration

As long as there are adolescents the programme should be in place. There is
no time people could say they no longer want prevention programmes unless
a time comes when there would be no tobacco, alcohol and / or drugs.

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4.7 Effectiveness of Prevention Programmes

Prevention programmes need to be comprehensive to cater for a wide range
of factors that contribute to drug-abuse. Adolescents are not all the same.
They live in different communities with different norms. Their backgrounds
are varied. They come from both high and low income families. Some
approaches may work better with certain groups than others. According to
Friedman, Kramer, Kreisher and Granick, (1996) the most important
objective of prevention measures should be to reach at-risk adolescents and
prevent those who would have become involved in drug – abuse from doing
so. Those addicted could be encouraged to seek help from experts.

4.7.1 Involvement of parents and guardians

Parents or guardians are key stakeholders in programmes for adolescents
because they influence the attitude and behaviour of their children. Effective
inclusion of parents/ guardians is aimed at increasing the success of achieving
the desired effect in the target group (adolescents).

4.7.2 Building life skills among the youth

Prevention programmes should include life skills as core to their messages.
Life skills development complement accurate, evidence – based information
(discussed above) provided elsewhere in the programme. Life skills, in this
context refer to the cultivation in the adolescent, of the following abilities: -
decision making, goal setting, communicating effectively, and refusing to abuse
tobacco, alcohol and drugs and to manage stress. Tenant and Detels (1996)
assets that when these life skills are mastered, the young person stands a
better chance of being able to deal with stressful situations which might
otherwise results in experimentation with drugs. Jessor and Jessor, (1997)
highlight the critical importance of role play in prevention programmes. Young
people practice strategies for avoiding drug use coupled with guidance on
how to deal with various high-risk situations thereby building the highly
necessary refusal skills.

Programme planners should focus discussions on choices and consequences.

Adolescents should know that choices have consequences. It would be prudent
to examine consequences of choices before adopting those choices. The
decision on whether or not to smoke tobacco, drink alcohol and use drugs is
the individual (the self) decision and nothing can change this fact (Ternanat
and Detels, 1996). Programme activities should reinforce desirable traditions
and practices of the community which respect the dignity of the individual.

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4.7.3 Effects of pornography on adolescents

Marshal, (1988) report that the internet is used as a tool by pedophiles to
distribute children pornographic materials and engage in sexually explicit
conversations with them. The more pornographic materials the adolescents
access the higher risk of acting on what they see – rape, sexual assault and
child molestation. Some studies (Eysenck, 1984) have reported that early
exposure to internet pornography related to deviant sexual practice like rape
leads youth to confrontation with the law.

4.7.4 Abuse of the Internet by adolescents

While the Internet is a useful source of information and channel of speedy
communication, adolescents abuse it in one way or another. The cut and paste
process can be used to plagiarise assignments (Laidi, 2006). The young
generation may access information relating to violence, deviant sexual practices
and horrible adventurism. The excessive use of the internet may cause
destruction from their studies (Morahan-Martin 2001). According to Yunus
and Khayel (2000), adolescents’ interaction with the internet bring them in
contact with people of different cultures which may result in the adolescents
accepting these foreign cultures which may be taboo to the society in which
they live. This will create identity confusion among the youngsters. There is no
guarantee of avoiding the exchange of verbally harassing or sexually aggressive
chat. (Laid, 2000).The worst danger to internet users, is internet addiction.
Addicts suffer psychiatric disorders (Ellery 2008). Recent research study by
Morahan – Martin (2001) discovered that some youth commit crime through
internet by intruding into other peoples’ data, spreading pornographic materials
and sending damaging anonymous messages. Threatening messages levelled
against public figures are a cause for concern. Also, bad news becomes
magnified (Yunus Khayel 2000). Some adolescents have adopted the habit
of downloading vulgar pictures and pornographic items for ulterior motives.

In another similar study by Postman, (1994) one third of child molesters

revealed that they were incited to commit the offences by exposure to
pornography. Habitual consumption of pornographic materials leads to a desire
for more deviant and violent materials (Davis and Braucht, 1990) In a study
of convicted child molesters, (Cames, 1991) the convicts admitted being
influenced by internet pornography. They testified that photos of nude people
on internet, videos and magazines stimulated them. They use the photos to
demonstrate what their victims should do, at the same time, to arouse the
victims’ feelings.

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Exposure results in young people learning extremely dangerous messages, for

example, that sex without responsibility is acceptable and desirable (Postman,
1994). This assumption endangers children’s health. Children and adolescents’
bodies are tender and can get sexually transmitted diseases easily and can
also get pregnant. Experts in the field of research report that exposure to
pornography may incite adolescents to act out against other youth (Cline
1990). Children imitate what they have seen, read and heard but with disastrous
consequences. The stimulants that cause them to initiate are exposure or
experience (Kavanagh, 1997).

According to Davis and Braucht, (1990) exposure shapes values and attitudes.
Pornographic materials that depicts rape; dehumanization of females in sexual
scenes constitute sex education. From these scenes young people develop
attitudes. Males develop increased sexual desire towards women, trivialise
rape and no longer consider it as a crime. Some adolescents develop an
appetite for more deviant bizarre violent sexual behaviour. The importance of
monogamy is de-valued. Non – Monogamous relations are viewed as normal
(Cames, 1991).

4.7.5 Adolescents and gangsterism

Trasher (1963) defined a gang as a group of people with the same
characteristics such as appearance, actions and planning but, Miller (1980)
refers to a gang as a group that carries out illegal acts. This writer describes a
gang as a group of misguided elements who respect no human law. They do
whatever they want in their given territory.

4.7.6 Structure
According to Taylor (1993) a gang has a structure composed of the leadership
and gang members. Leadership members are called bosses, a title that
encompasses prowess and bravery. Interaction among members and bosses
is high to check defection on time.

4.7.7 Activities of gangsters

According to Cindy and Moore (1930) this age group’s (adolescents) activities
include being harsh to teachers/lecturers, playing truancy, violating school/
college code of conducts; smoking and drinking, threatening both staff
members and fellow students, stealing, speaking vulgar language, scolding
and beating other students. Artwater (1981), reports that gangs increase the
rate of vandalism and drug addicts. They have murderous tendencies, are

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prone to overthrow those on top of them with most extreme violence. They
move in parks in order to survive. Drug-addicting is one of their roles. Erickson
(1996) reported that the number of adolescents both male and female getting
into gangs is increasing.

Activity 4.3
? 1. Analyse the role of the media and advertisers on youth’s
behaviour in your locality.
2. What anti-drug use measures could be set against pro-
drug advertisements?
3. Outline the merits and de-merits of drugs.

4.8 Summary
This unit has focused on contemporary issues in education. The issues discussed
included adolescents early indulgence in sex, and consequences, drug abuse
and effects, pornography and related results and finally gangsterism. Early
indulgence in sex results in unwanted pregnancies and acquisition of the deadly
HIV and AIDS. Drug abuse leads to addiction, a condition that is difficult to
reverse. Some abusers die as a result. Pornography exposes adolescents to
highly dangerous deviant sexual message. Some get addicted and imitate to
their detriment. Gangsterism, a collection of brutal and misguided social misfits
is negatively viewed by the society they prey upon at will. With all the vices
discussed there is an urgent need to deploy counsellors to schools and colleges
as a therapy.

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References

Abma, J.C. et al (2008). Teenagers in the United States: Sexual Activity.

Journal of Adolescents , Vol 9, 277 – 281.
Bangert – Drowns, R. L. (1988). The effect of school based substance
abuse education.
Botvin, G. J., Schinke, S. P., Epstein, J. A., Diaz, T. and Botvin, E. M. (1995).
Effectiveness of culturally focused and generic skills training
approaches to alcohol and drug abuse prevention among minority
adolescents.
Botvin, J. (1999). Preventing adolescents drug abuse through life skills
training. New York: Russel Sage Foundation.
Cames, P. (1991). Don’t Call it love: Recovery from sexual addictions.
Caplan, m., Weissberg, R. P. Grober, J. S., Sivo, P., Grady, K. and Jaciby, c.
(1992). Effects of social adjustments and alcohol use. Chicago, I
L. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Cindy, T. and Moore, J. (1930). The Politics of education and recent
immigrants as gang members.
Cline, V. B. (1990). Pornography’s effects on Adults and Children.
Cornelius, M. D. and Taylor, P. M. (1995). Tobacco and marijuana use
among adolescents.
Donaldson, S. I; Graham, J. W. and Hansen, W. B. (1994).Understanding
the effects of adolescent drug use prevention interventions.
Donovan, J. E. and Jessor, R. (1983). Problems drinking and the dimension
atinvolvement with drugs.
Elefenbein, D. S and Felice, M. E. (2010) Adolescent [Link]
Textbooks of Pediatrics.19th Ed Philadelphia.
Ellery, K. (2008). An investigation into electronic – source plagiarism in
a first year essay assignments.
Ellickson, P. L. and Bell, R. M. (1990). Drug prevention in junior High: a
multi-site longitudinal test. Science, 247, 1299 – 1305.
Erickson, E. (1968). Identity Youth and Crisis. Exposure to
[Link] and sexual deviants.
Fergusson, D. M. and Lynskey, M. T. (1996). Alcohol misuse and Adolescent
sexual behaviours and risk taking.
Friedman, A. S and Kramer, S. (1996). The relationship of substance abuse
and violent behaviour in youth.
Gil , A. G., et al (1998). Temporal influences of family structure and family
risk actors on drug use initiation in a multiethnic sample of adolescent
boys. Journal of youth and adolescence, 27, 373.

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Glynn, C. G., Leukefeld, K. and Ludford, J. B. (1984) Alcohol abuse

prevention through the development of personal and social
competence. Englewood Cliffs N. J: Prentice Hall.
Goldberg, L., et al (1996). The Adolescents Training and Learning to Avoid
Steroids Program. The Journal of the American Medical Association,
276, 1555. Guttmacher Institute.
Johnson, V., and Pandina, R. J. (1991). Effects of the family environments
on adolescent substance use, delinquency, and copying styles.
Kandel, D. B. and Yamaguchi, K. (19930. From beer to crack.
Developmental patterns of drug involvement.
Killpatric, D. G. (2000). Risk factors for adolescent substance abuse and
dependence. Journal of consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69,19
Kohler, P. K., Manhart, L. E. and Lafferty, W. E., (2008). Abstinence –
only and comprehensive sex education.
Morahan – Martin, J. (2001). Learning and Teaching in the World Wide
Web. San Diego: CA: Academic Press.

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72 Zimbabwe Open University

 Unit Five

Child Abuse

5.0 Introduction

I n this unit we discuss child abuse. A child, under the Convention on the
Rights of the Child (CRC), is a person who is younger than age eighteen
(18) years (UN 1989). Sadly we live in a world where the children are
exploited, abused, neglected and abandoned, all because the families, state
and others do not do enough to protect them. However, due to their core-
relationship these heinous and unjust practices perpetrated on children can be
quite difficult to separate but for the purpose of this unit, one is going to dwell
much on child abuse whose broad definition implies purposeful and serious
injury inflicted upon a child by a caregiver. Child abuse is any act or the failure
to act on the part of a parent or caretaker which results in death, serious
physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation, an act or failure to
act which present an imminent risk of serious harm, (Child Abuse Prevention
and Treatment Act (CAPTA) 2012).Child abuse occurs in the home,
community and at school. In this unit we will give attention to the various
types of abuse, their effects on the child and child counselling methods.
Counselling in Education Module BSCC216

5.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 identify categories of child abuse

 define the following terms (i) abuse (ii) neglect, (iii)
exploitation
 describe the different signs of child sexual, physical and
emotional abuse and neglect
 explain the possible warning signs of sexual abuse in
children and adolescents
 distinguish the difference between discipline and abuse

5.2 Why Single Out Child Abuse?

 Children are individuals: They are neither the possessions of parents
nor of the state, nor are they mere people-in-the-making; they have
equal status as members of the human family.
 Children start life as totally dependent beings: They must rely on
adults for the nurture and guidance they need to grow towards
independence. Such nurture is ideally found among the adults of children’s
families but, when primary caregivers cannot meet children’s needs, it
is up to society to fill the gap.
 Children are particularly vulnerable to abuse and exploitation:
Children are physically more vulnerable than adults. They are also
emotionally sensitive to negative experiences. Physical or mental abuse
can scar children for life. In many parts of the world, children are being
exploited as labourers or child soldiers.
 The actions, or inactions, of government affect children more
strongly than any other group in society: Almost every area of
government policy (for example, education or public health) affects
children to some degree. Short-sighted policymaking that fails to take
children into account damages the future of all members of society.
 Children’s views are rarely heard and considered in the political
process: Children generally do not vote or take part in political
processes. Without special attention to their opinions – as expressed
at home and in schools, in local communities and even in governments
– children’s views on the many important issues that affect them now or
will affect them in the future go unheard.
 Many changes in society have a disproportionate, and often
negative, impact on children: Transformation of the family structure,
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Unit 5 Child Abuse

globalisation, shifting employment patterns and a shrinking social welfare

net in many countries all have serious impacts on children. The effect of
these changes can be particularly devastating in situations of armed
conflict and other emergencies.
 The healthy development of children is crucial to the future well-
being of any society: Because they are still developing, children are
especially vulnerable — more so than adults — to poor living conditions
such as poverty, inadequate health care, poor nutrition, lack of safe
water, poor housing and environmental pollution. The effects of disease,
malnutrition and poverty threaten the future of children and therefore
the future of the societies in which they live.
 The costs to society of failing its children are huge: Social research
findings show that children’s earliest experiences significantly influence
their future development. The course of their development determines
their contribution, or cost, to society over the course of their lives.
Children’s Rights and Journalism Practice - A Rights-Based Perspective
(Michael Foley, Noirín Hayes and Brian O’Neill).

Activity 5.1
? 1. Social research findings show that children’s earliest
experiences significantly influence their future development.
Discuss.
2. Analyse the vulnerability of children in the context of
negligent parents and caregivers.
3. Identify the international treaties that advocate for
children’s rights and assess their efficiency in the
contemporary world.

5.3 Forms of Child Abuse

Child abuse is the physical sexual or emotional mistreatment or neglect of a
child or children. Although there are many formal and acceptable definitions
of child abuse, the following is offered as a guide for information on child
abuse and neglect. Child abuse consists of any act of commission or omission
that endangers or impairs a child’s physical or emotional health and
development (Mersch, 2012). Child abuse includes any damage done to a
child which cannot be reasonably explained which is often represented by an
injury or series of injuries appearing to be non accidental in nature.

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5.3.1 Physical abuse

Any non-accidental injury to a child. This includes hitting, kicking, slapping,
and shaking, burning, pinching, hair pulling, biting, choking, throwing, shoving,
whipping and paddling. Physical abuse can be actual or physical injury to a
child; or failure to prevent physical injury to a child including applying corporal
punishment unprocedurally (Mersh, ibid). Exploitation of children becomes
physical abuse as it occurs when children are taken advantage of by adults. It
may be in form of forced or harmful labour or child prostitution.

5.3.2 Sexual abuse

Any sexual act between an adult and child. This includes fondling,
penetration, intercourse, exploitation, pornography, exhibitionism, child
prostitution, group sex, oral sex, or forced observation of sexual acts. Sexual
abuse can be actual or likely sexual exploitation of a child, including sexual
harassment (Mersh, ibid). Sexual abuse is being forced, threatened, or
deceived into sexual activities such as viewing pornography, exposure of the
gonads for the purpose of hedonistic viewing, penetrative or non penetrative
sex, for example, unwanted fondling and use of obscene language (Cole,
1986; Nosek, and Howland,1998; Reynolds, 1997). These present in many
forms such as sexual assault, sexual harassment, sexual battery, attempted
rape, rape, molestation, inappropriate touching to mention but just a few.
These interfere greatly with the survivor’s school life and adult life at large. If
left untreated, the psychological effects of abuse can be devastating on the
child’s development and this is the reason why the counsellor intervenes with
psycho-social support.

5.3.3 Neglect
Neglect refers to failure to provide for a child’s physical needs. This includes
lack of supervision inappropriate clothing for season or weather, abandonment,
denial of medical care and education and inadequate hygiene. Neglect can be
physical, educational or emotional. Exposing a child to domestic violence and
alcohol or drug abuse included. Educational neglect is not allowing appropriate
schooling or allowing excessive absences (too much time away from child)
(REPSSI/UNICEF, 2010). Neglect refers to having own needs ignored or
trivialized (Baladerian, 1991; Shumba, 2002). Neglect is often associated
with emotional abuse and may be a precursor to emotional abuse (Mutepfa,
2000). The failure to provide for the shelter, safety, supervision and nutritional
health of the child is neglect per se.

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Neglect may occur for many reasons such as problems the parent may have
faced as a child, poverty and other vulnerabilities within the family hence can
be cyclic in nature.

5.3.4 Emotional / Psychological abuse

Emotional/Psychological abuse refers to any attitude or behaviour which
interferes with a child’s mental health or social development. This includes
yelling, screaming, name calling , shaming , negative comparisons to others,
telling them they are bad , no good, worthless or a mistake, failure of providing
protection and support necessary for the development of a child’s emotional
, social, physical and intellectual wellbeing is also emotional abuse. This includes
ignoring, lack of appropriate physical affection (hugs), not saying “I love you”
withdrawal of attention lack of praise and lack of positive reinforcement (Child
Help, 1959-2013).

Activity 5.2
? 1.
2.
How are the various forms of child abuse inter-related?
List down and classify any acts of commission or omission
that endanger or impair the child’s physical or emotional
development and health.
3. In your own opinion, how are children empowered to
stand up against abuse? (remember to respect the best
interests of the child).

5.4 Signs of Child Abuse

A key to reporting child abuse and neglect is being able to recognise common
indicators of signs and symptoms of the different types of child maltreatment.
Child abuse is more than bruises and broken bones. While physical abuse
might be most visible, other types of abuses, such as emotional abuse and
neglect, also leave deep scars that last for a life. Physical abuse is shocking
due to the scars it leaves but not all child abuse is as obvious. Ignoring children’s
needs, putting them in unsupervised dangerous situations or making a child
feel worthless or stupid are also child abuse (Cole, 1986). Regardless of the
type of child abuse, the result is serious emotional harm.

Child sexual abuse is an especially complicated form of abuse because of its

layers of guilt and shame (Cole, ibid). It is important to recognise that sexual

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abuse doesn’t always involve body contact. Exposing a child to sexual situations
or material is sexually abusive, whether or not touching is involved. While
news stories of sexual predators are scary, what is even more frightening is
that sexual abuse usually occurs at the hands of someone the child knows and
should be able to trust most often close relatives. And contrary to what many
believe, it is not just girls who are at risk but both boys and girls suffer from
sexual abuse. In fact sexual abuse of boys may be underreported due to
shame and stigma.

5.4.1 Among others, possible warnings of emotional abuse

in children
 excessively withdrawn, fearful or anxious about doing something wrong;
 show extremes in behaviour (extremely compliant or extremely
demanding, extremely passive or extremely aggressive);
 doesn’t seem to be attached to the parent or caregiver;
 chronic running away;
 neurotic behaviour ( e.g. thumb sucking, rocking);
 self-mutilation;
 compulsive teaching;
 fear of new situations;
 drug /solvent abuse;
 scavenging for food or clothes;
 acts either inappropriately adult (taking care of other children) or
inappropriately infantile (rocking, thumb sucking, throwing tantrums)
(REPSSI/UNICEF, 2010).

5.4.2 Possible warning signs of physical abuse in children

 frequent injuries or unexplained bruises cuts or welts;
 is always watchful and ‘on alert’ as if waiting for something bad to
happen;
 injuries appear to have a pattern such as marks from a hand or belt;
 shies away from touch, flinches and sudden movements, or seems afraid
to go home;
 wears inappropriate clothing to cover injuries such as long sleeved shirts
on hot days;
 chronic running away;
 fear of parents being contacted;
 aggression towards others; (REPSSI/UNICEF, 2011).

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5.4.3 Possible warning signs of neglect in children

 clothes are ill fitting, filthy or inappropriate for the weather;
 hygiene is consistently bad ( unbathed, matted and unwashed hair;
noticeable body odour);
 constant hunger;
 frequent lateness or non attendance at school;
 compulsory stealing;
 low self-esteem;
 scavenging for food or clothes;
 non-social relationships;
 untreated medical problems;
 untreated illnesses and physical injuries;
 is frequently unsupervised or left alone and allowed to play in unsafe
situations and environments; and
 is frequently late or missing from school.

5.4.4 Possible warning signs of sexual abuse in children

 trouble walking or sitting, or shows discomfort in both;
 display knowledge or interest in sexual acts impropriate to his or her
age; or even seductive behaviour;
 draw sexually explicit pictures;
 say obscene words;
 attempt to sexually abuse another child;
 talk or write about sexual matters;
 makes strong efforts to avoid a specific person, without an obvious
reason;
 do not want to change clothes in front of others or participate in physical
activities;
 act in a sexually inappropriate way towards adults;
 an STD or pregnancy , especially, under the age of 14;
 run away from home;
 have terrifying dreams; and
 exhibit sudden inexplicable behavioural changes (REPSSI/UNICEF).

The signs can do more than give rise to suspicion - they are not in themselves
proof that abuse has occurred. Be that as it may, the teachers/counsellors
should be alert to all such signs at all times. Seeking information from the child
should thus be tactful and is not the teacher’s responsibility to investigate such
suspected cases of abuse. Their role remains that of alerting the relevant
authority for professional measures and procedures.

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5.5 Differences between Discipline and Abuse

Discipline teaches a child the difference between acceptable and unacceptable
behaviour and should be a positive force focusing on what a child is allowed
to do, whereas the goal of punishment is to inhibit unacceptable behaviour
(Carlson, 2009). Physical abuse involves physical harm or injury to the child
resulting from a deliberate attempt to hurt the child but not always. It can
result from severe discipline such as using a belt on a child, or physical
punishment that is inappropriate to the child’s age or physical condition.

However many physically abusive parents and caregivers insist that their actions
are simply forms of disciplinary ways to make children learn to behave, yet at
times, it becomes detrimental to the child’s wellbeing. There is a big difference
between using physical punishment to discipline and physical abuse. The point
of disciplining children is to teach them right from wrong not to make them live
in fear (Carlson, ibid).

Discipline helps a child learn a lesson that will carry over and positively affect
future behaviour. Abuse affects the future in a negative way, leading to anger,
hatred and more deviant behaviour. Discipline enhances the child’s sense of
self worth, helping the child learn self control and thus becoming comfortable
within the family and in society. Abuse robs the child of self worth and causes
him/her to feel outcast and resentful. Discipline is not shame or guilt. Abuse is
shame or guilt which satisfies the needs of the parents at the moment and
destroys the self image of the child in a hostile manner (May, 2009).

5.6 Elements Present in Physical Abuse

5.6.1 Unpredictability
The child never knows what is going to set a teacher or parent off. There are
no clear boundaries or rules. The child therefore is constantly walking on
eggshells never sure what behaviour will trigger a physical assault.

5.6.2 Lashing out in anger

Physically abusive teachers or parents act out of anger and the desire to assert
control, not the motivation to lovingly teach the child. The angrier the teacher
or parent, the more intense the abuse is.

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5.6.3 Using fear to control behaviour

Teachers and parents who are physically abusive may believe that their children
need to fear them in order to behave, so they use physical abuse to ‘keep
their children in line’. However, what children are really learning is how to
avoid being hit, not how to behave or grow as individuals (NCA: 2013).

5.6.4 Risky situations

 Domestic violence
 Alcohol and drug abuse
 Untreated mental illness
 Lack of parenting skills
 Stress and lack of support

5.7 Effects of Child Sexual Abuse

These include guilt, self-blame, flash backs nightmares, insomnia, fear of things
associated with the abuse (including objects smells, places, doctor’s visits)
self-esteem issues, sexual dysfunction, chronic pain, addiction, self-injury,
suicidal ideation, somatic complains, depression post-traumatic stress disorder,
anxiety mental illness including borderline personality disorder and dissociative
identity disorder, propensity to re-victimisation in adulthood, bulimia nervosa,
physical injury to child, among other problems (Childhelp, ibid). Neglected
children experience delays in physical and psychosocial development;
 Impaired language, memory and social skills;
 Become aggressive and reflect hyperactive behaviours;
 Have difficulty in forming and maintaining relationships later in life due
to lack of attachment in earlier stages of life.

Activity 5.3
? 1. ‘Sticks and stones may break my bones but words will
never hurt me.’ Analyse this statement in light of
psychological abuse.
2. Compare and contrast physical discipline and physical
abuse of a child.
3. Critique the traditional saying, ‘Spare the rod and spoil
the child’.
4. Truancy and deviant behaviour can be associated to
abusive background of children. Justify this assertion with
examples.

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5.8 Helping/Counselling (An Abused or Neglected

Child) a Survivor
Although child abuse is a difficult subject that can be hard to accept and even
harder to talk about, remember you can make a tremendous difference in the
life of an abused child especially if you take steps to stop the abuse early
(Mansell, (1998) in Laidi, (2006). In seeking to prevent and treat sexual
abuse, counsellors should work as part of disciplinary team involving
rehabilitation professionals, social workers, those in the criminal justice system,
families and community organisations against abuse (Kairys, Alexander, Block,
and Everett, 2001, in Moharan –Martin, (2001). Counsellors can make a
difference to abuse survivors and follow proper guidelines to detect report,
educate and offer psychosocial support procedurally. Below are suggested
steps to take;
 provide calm reassurance and unconditional support.
 if you are having trouble finding words, let your actions speak for you.
 avoid denial and remain calm, no matter how shocking and unpleasant
the news is.
 don’t interrogate let the child explain in own words what happened.
 reassure the child that it’s not his/her fault.
 safety comes first. If you feel your intervention may threaten child’s
safety, leave it to professionals and provide support later.
Upon disclosure, listen to them most of all; ask only four questions:
 What happened?
 Who did this to you?
 Where were you when this happened?
 When did this happen?
Asking any additional questions would contaminate a case. Be prepared to
refer suspected cases and make use of social support services and legal
systems in the wake of Victim Friendly Courts, Child Protection Society,
Childline, REPSSI, for example. Counsellors should be knowledgeable of
national legislation against abuse (Norsek, Howland and Hughes, 2001).

DO NOT
 Investigate
 Ask leading questions (a question that suggests the answer or contains
the information the questioner is looking for, for example, ‘That man
touched you, didn’t he?’
 Make promises
 Notify the parents or the caretaker

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Unit 5 Child Abuse

DO
 Provide a safe environment (be comforting, welcoming and a good
listener)
 Listen carefully

5.9 Summary
In the unit we discussed child abuse in general. It was highlighted that children
trust and look up to adults for protection, yet these adults may take advantage
of the children’s vulnerability. Most violence against children is carried out by
people that children know and adults that they trust such as parents, step
parents or parents’ partners, schoolmates, teachers and caregivers. It is
pathetic that cases of child abuse go unreported or underreported. Counsellors
however can make a difference to the survivors of child abuse. Working in
partnership with other multidisciplinary team mates helps build confidence in
the survivor as all systems collaborate to prevent, detect, report, educate and
raise awareness in form of advocacy against child abuse.

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References

Baladerian, N. J. (1991). Recognising abuse and neglect in people with severe

cognitive and/or communication impairments. Journal of Elder Abuse
and Neglect, 9.93-104.
Carlson, B. E. (2009). Mental retardation and domestic violence: An
ecological approach to intervention. Social Work, 42, 79-89.
Child Help (1959-2013). Prevention and Treatment of Child abuse; A journal
of child abuse and neglect. Vol 23.49-62.
Child Welfare Information Gateway, (2008). Abuse Prevention and Treatment
Act (CAPTA) 2012. US.
Cline et al. (1990). Desensitization of children to television violence. Journal
ofPersonality, Sociology & Psychology 27(3):360-365.
Cole, S.S. (1986). Facing the challenges of sexual abuse in persons with
disabilities. Sexuality and Disability, 7, 71-88.
Ellery, K (2008). An investigation into electronic-source plagiarism in a first
year essay assignments. Informa World, 33 (6), 607-617.
Foley, M. Hayes, N. O’Neill, B. (2007). Children’s Rights And Journalism
Practice – A Rights-Based Perspective; UNICEF, Dublin.
Laidi, S.(2006). Identity Development and Internet Misuse; retrieved
December 17, 2008, from [Link]
student-06- Internetmisuse.
Mansell, S., Sobsey, D. & Calder, P. (1992). Sexual Abuse treatment for
persons with developmental disabilities. Professional Psychology:
Research and Practice, 23,404-409.
May, G. (2009). Child Discipline guidelines: Guidelines for parents.
Moharan-Martin, J.(2001). Caught in the Web: Research and criticism of
Internet abuse with application to college students. San Diego, CA,:
Academic Press, pp 191- 219.
Mutepfa, M. (2000). Correlates of spousal abuse. Masters dissertation,
Educational Foundations Department: University of Zimbabwe.
National Children’s Alliance: Empowering local communities to serve child
victims of abuse (NCA) (2013).
Shumba, A. (2002). The nature, extent and effects of emotional abuse on
primary school pupils by teachers in Zimbabwe. Child Abuse and
Neglect, 26, 783-791.
Yunus, M. and Khayel, R. (2000). Glamour or guilt: the Internet today.
IASLIC Bulletin, 45(2) 83-91.

84 Zimbabwe Open University

 Unit Six

Children Living With Disabilities

6.0 Introduction

I n this unit we examine issues to do with children living with disabilities.

Children living with disabilities face the double dilemma, that of being a
child and also of living with a disability. Our culture views disability as inability
resulting in losing hope for both the children and their families. This unit examines
how children living with disabilities and their families suffer isolation,
discrimination, labelling and exclusion due to inadequacies in various systems
(of education). Intervention strategies for care, support and counselling in
education are provided so as to enable full participation and equality.
Counselling in Education Module BSCC216

6.1 Objectives
By the end of the unit, you should be able to:

 define disability
 examine the various forms of disabilities
 describe coping skills for children living with
disabilities and their families
 discuss the process of counselling in education for
children living with disabilities and their families

6.2 Definition of Terms

6.2.1 Disability
This refers to loss or limitation of opportunities to take part in the normal life
of the community on an equal basis with others due to physical, mental or
social factors. WHO (1980:143) defines disability as any restriction or lack
of ability to perform an activity in the manner or range considered normal for
a human being. Children living with disabilities comprise a significant proportion
of the world’s population in the developing world. Their quality of life is a
significant concern both to themselves, significant others, professionals in
education, social work and health, national and provincial governments.

Disability as viewed by many people gives those pictures of someone in a

wheel chair. There are however various types of disabilities. These may include
impairments; problem in body function or structure, activity limitation; difficulty
in executing task or action and participation restriction and problem
experienced in involvement in life situations (WHO 1980). The term disability
therefore is broad. The language is critical in shaping and reflecting our thoughts,
beliefs, feelings and concepts. Some words by their very nature degrade and
diminish people with disability so much that the society tends to shun association
with people living with disabilities. For example, ‘chirema icho’, for the
physically handicapped, ‘bofu iro’ referring to the blind or visual impairment,
‘mbeveve iyo’ for the dumb. The society refers to the disability first and fails
to respect them no matter how able one is. Children by their nature of being
impressionable and vulnerable, find themselves meeting challenges, more so,
children living with disabilities.

Society sees the disability before the person living with it so use terms such as
cripple, spastic, handicapped or invalid which are offensive. Comparing of

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people with disabilities to normal people implies that a person with disabilities
is abnormal and ignores the fact that everyone has their own unique identity
and abilities (Living Heritage Trust 2012). The World Health Organisation
(1976:1) draws a threefold distinction between impairment, disability and
handicap, as thus;

An impairment is any loss or abnormality of psychological, physiological or

anatomical structure or function; a handicap is a disadvantage for given
individual, resulting from an impairment or a disability that prevents the fulfillment
of a role that is considered normal (depending on age, sex and social and cultural
factors) for that individual.

Disability thus, refers to socially imposed restrictions. The discriminatory

practices of society impose this system of social constraints that results in
marginalisation of people living with disabilities and their families. Disabilities
in general are characteristics of the body, mind or sense that to a greater or
lesser extent, affect a person’s ability to engage independently in some or all
aspects of day- to- day life (Ingstad and Whyte 1995). However, the same
kind of disabilities can affect each person differently while all disabilities are
as different as individuals who experience them. The challenges and
opportunities for persons with disabilities often are similar; hence disability is
neither inability nor sickness.

The National Association of Societies for the Care of the Handicapped

(NASCOH) defines people living with disabilities as any person living with
disabilities which may be physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments
but not the aged unless such person or persons fall within the category
specifically mentioned above. The Disabled Persons Act adopted in 1992,
Chapter 17, states: Disabled persons means a person with physical, mental
or sensory disability including a visual, hearing or speech functional disability
which gives rise to physical, cultural or social barriers inhibiting him / her from
participating at an equal level with other members of society in activities
undertaking or fields of employment that are open to other members of society.
Impairment refers to delay in development or non-functional strongly related
to biological maturation of the central nervous system. The functions affected
may include speech or language, vision, intellectual skills and motor
coordination. Sensory impairment shall mean people with visual hearing or
speech language difficulties due to functional and or development disorders
(WHO, 1980).

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6.3 Classification of Disabilities

A disability is an umbrella term covering:
 Impairments : problem in body function or structure
 Activity limitations : difficulty in executing task or action
 Participation restriction: problem experienced in involvement in life
situation
An individual may also qualify as disabled if he/she has had impairment in the
past or is seen as disabled based on a personal or group standard or norm
(Hooper and Umansky, 2009). It can be physical, cognitive, mental, sensory
or emotional. This disability may occur during a person’s lifetime; that is
acquired disability or may be present at birth, that is a developmental or
congenital disability;
a. Physical disabilities: any impairment limiting the physical function of limbs
or fine or gross motor ability.
b. Sensory disabilities: is impairment of one of the senses mainly vision
and hearing impairment but other senses can be impaired too.
c. Intellectual disabilities: is a broad concept that ranges from mental
retardation to cognitive deficits too mild or too specific to qualify as
mental retardation.
d. Mental health and emotional disabilities: a mental disorder is a
psychological or behavioural pattern generally associated with subjective
distress or disability that occurs in an individual, and perceived by the
majority of society as being outside of normal development or cultural
expectations (Auslander and Gold, 1999). Mental retardation is a
generalised disorder appearing before adulthood, characterised by
significantly impaired cognitive functioning and deficit in for more adaptive
behaviour. Historically mental retardation is defined as an Intelligence
Quotient (IQ) score under 70 (Dr Mushambi 2012).
Children living with disabilities require specialised education hence are placed
into special classes. However non-disabled children do not feel connected to
their disabled peers so segregation is sensed. As put forward by Lerner
(2001:33), “In the contemporary world, it is easy to sustain the consciousness
of ourselves as separate beings but it is very hard to develop a sense of
ourselves as part of the “Unity of All Being”. This disconnectedness fosters a
sense of superiority and domination by the able bodied over the disabled.
Mainstreaming is thus a positive move but faces challenges as children living
with disabilities and their families suffer exclusion, rejection, discrimination
and marginalisation.

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Children living with disabilities require counselling that is quite different from
adults even if they also have disabilities because as children, they have tasks
and activities specifically meant for their development as compared to adults.
Since they learn through play, there is need for them to take part actively in all
activities that develop their sensory, fine motor and gross motor skills during
childhood. Teachers therefore should meet the counselling needs of the children
living with disabilities as these are influenced by the interaction between their
disability status and normative developmental needs. For example, a child
living with a disability may experience delay in mastery of certain concepts
but that would not mean that the child is out rightly unable to grasp the concept.
Some children breakdown and cry if they fail to meet the expected levels yet
they feel they have the ego and capacity to do so had it not been for the
hindrance caused by the disability. Concerted effort and individualized
counselling should be applied.

Activity 6.1
? 1. In your own community identity agencies that provide
assistance for children with developmental disabilities.
2. How would you a as counsellor meet the emotional
needs of a parent with a child living with a disability?
3. What is the difference between the counselling needs
of people with acquired disabilities and those with
developmental or congenital disabilities?
4. Outline the advantages and disadvantages of
mainstreaming children living with disabilities.

6.4 Perspectives on Disabilities

Different disciplines, cultures and individuals do not agree about what
“disabilities” are and how to explain them (Harry, 2002: Lynch and Hanson,
2004). Educational professionals have to put it into consideration that one’s
orientation, or way of thinking about differences, shapes distinct responses to
disabilities (Utley and Obiakor 2001). These can be;
 Deficit perspective
 Cultural perspective
 Sociological perspective

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6.4.1 The Deficit Perspective

The Deficit perspective reflects the idea that human behaviour and
characteristics shared by people are distributed along a continuum (Smith
2007). Psychologists, educational and medical professionals refer to children
basing on various characteristics varying from intelligence, visual acuity,
behaviour or academic achievement. Attainment and scores received tend to
create a distribution where those who fall in the middle are viewed as average.
Human characteristics form patterns called Normal Curve. The distribution
with highest number of scores in the middle and proportionally fewer as the
distance from the average score increases is referred to as the bell shaped
curve. Human performance is quantified and used to describe individuals and
thinking about people as below average. Unfortunately this approach
contributes to the tendency of thinking about children living with disabilities as
deficient and less than their schoolmates without disabilities (Murphy et al,
2007).

6.4.2 Cultural Perspectives

Educational professionals and the families with whom the children living with
disabilities work might not share the same understanding of disability. They
might not hold a common belief about what caused the disability (Alfredo
Articles of Arizona State University, 1998). He aptly points that America
today includes many different cultures and some have values and hold to
concepts that differ greatly from mainstream ideas. When families receive the
news that their child has a learning disability, they respond differently. Some
choose to transfer their child from that school, while others accept advice
offered.

In certain situations you find that a parent vehemently denies the school’s
observations and blames teachers for incompetence. Various cultures approach
disabilities differently. Because disability does not have a single fixed definition,
it is not thought about uniformly or universally (Lynch and Hanfon, 2004).
Culture provides a key reference point for identity. The same individual might
be considered different or having a disability in one culture but not in another
(Utley and Obiakor, 2001; Jim Green 2003 October, personal communication).
Disabilities thus are viewed within a cultural context. In general, people from
developed states believe in scientific cause and effect relationship between a
biological problem and the developing baby, for example, when an expectant
mother engages in illicit drug abuse or other teratogens, there is a likelihood of
disturbance in foetal development resulting in a disabled baby, either physically
or in mental retardation (Bee and Boyd 2004).

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In some cultures, disabilities are a resultant of fate bad luck, sins of a parent,
the food the mother ate, or evil spirits (Cheng, 1995; Lynch and Hanson
2004). The differing views shape the types of intervention services that a
family, may be willing to pursue so as to address the child’s educational needs.
Rambiyawo in NASCOH News 2006, points out that, ‘E-accessibility
assumes the existence of the fundamental rights and freedoms like education,
employment, health, sports and recreation for its facilitation. Information
therefore is a powerful empowering tool so denying the disabled people
educational information is actually disempowering them. There is need for
networking in terms of educational and employment opportunities, benefits
and rights at school, workplace and home, grievance reporting procedures,
access to leave and HIV and AIDS issues. Mukuta in NASCOH news laments
that ‘people with disabilities live in a completely different world from the one
the rest of the society lives in a world of shattered hopes, a world of relentless
misery, a world of thwarted dreams (NASCOH News 2006). The access to
information can actually turn around the fortunes of people living with disabilities
as they get included through targeted education and information dissemination.

Disability consciousness is a collective awareness among people living with

disabilities, of their minority status and the use of that consciousness as a basis
for social movements that seek to advance the interests of persons with disability
(Banartt 1996). The disability consciousness transcends gender differences
as it rallies persons in the disability community together or the reasons for a
sense of belonging. It is a leeway for forming social movements through which
they achieve higher economic participation, gain control over self-definition
and greater access to a way of life that validates their disability related
experiences. Being in groups, the disabled persons and their families become
empowered similarly to Marxist notions of class consciousness. They can
clamour for equal participation in all societal activities but the environment if
not enabling, pushes them off balance. Educators working with families need
not repress these cultural issues but reflect sensitivity to the various perspectives
that family members wish to table about their children.

6.4.3 Social Perspective

Instead of focusing on people’s strengths or deficits, the social perspective
construes differences across people’s skills and traits as socially constructed
(Danforth and Rhodes 1997; Longmore 2002). The treatment given to people
living with disabilities constitutes to their differences from others unlike their
condition or set of traits that are part of the individual’s characteristics. (Whadat
1998) warns on the caring concern shown by family members that never fails
to impress but breeds the main problem of over protection, under stimulation

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and ignorance of how to help the child develop. The children lack vital skills
that they will need to use in their adulthood due to this over protection.

If people’s attitudes and the way society treats groups of individuals change,
then the result and impact and of being a member of a group change. How
society treats individuals thought of as different, is that which makes a disability.
Radical views however, suggest that disabilities are a necessity in society, its
structures and values. (Grossman 1998) posits, “When societies are stratified,
variables such as disability, race and ethnicity become economic and political
imperatives.” These classifications however result in restricted opportunities
that end up marginalising some groups of people.

Mental retardation, according to sociological perspective, exists because

society and people treat these individuals poorly. Everyone has his/her strengths
and weaknesses and with supporting services to help every individual, then
mental retardation would be positively treated and with success. Kauffman
(1997) calls for ‘sameness’ where everyone is truly alike despite physical or
mental disabilities. It is the involved individual who is affected by disabilities
regardless of sociological construction and treatment.

Activity 6.2
? 1. With reference to one disability, critique the
sociological perspective from Grossman 1998’s view.
2. Examine the notion of ‘sameness’ and identify its
dangers to children living with disabilities.
3. Discuss with reference to a case example of your
experience, how a teacher can meet the counselling
needs of children living with disabilities.
4. How can educational counselling help children with
disabilities to better manage both their disability and
their environment for greater personal functioning?

6.5 Identification of Learning Disabilities

Some children have exceptional needs and require significantly different
instruction and support in order to thrive in educational programs (Feeney et
al, 2010). Both the school and the family should work effectively with these
children basing on the knowledge and skills, ability to reflect on one’s own
feelings and reactions, knowledge of child development, skill in guiding

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behaviour and knowledge of how to design and implement a learning

environment and plan curriculum. Children living with disabilities are entitled
to receiving special education. It is the educational practitioner, who is working
with the child and at the same time helping the family to understand that the
child may need referral for evaluation and possibly specialised services. If
their specialised needs are recognised and met during the early years, children
living with disabilities will have a much better chance of succeeding and
becoming independent adults (Hull, Goldhaber and Capone, 2002).

A classroom teacher gets to know every child in the natural context of daily
routines and activities, so she/he may be the first person to recognise that a
child needs additional support. For example, a teacher at Warren Park School
observed a child in her class who often seemed to squint her eyes and sat
motionlessly for a while before resuming her activities and the child’s progress
was not commensurate with that of her peers. She suggested that the problem
be explored. After a full evaluation it was concluded that the child was
experiencing petit mal seizureswhich affected the child’s academic
development. Moraveiketal (2006:389) recommend, “Early intervention
(education and services) can help avoid developmental problems that will be
more difficult to remediate when the child gets older.” Teachers’ knowledge
of signs of physical, emotional or cognitive disabilities is thus essential. It is
however not the teacher’s role to diagnose a disability no matter how alert
one is, but to suggest the need for screening or evaluation. Steps to take:
 Observe the child in a variety of situations.
 Note the child’s strengths and ways in which he/she is functioning similar
to other children.
 Pinpoint the ways in which the child’s behaviour and skills seem atypical
or cause concern.
 Make written anecdotal records being careful to make objective
statements about what you observe the child doing and when it occurs.
 Share observations and concerns with co-workers or supervisors.
 Discuss with your administrator and contact family.
(Adapted from Feeney et al, 2010, “Who am I in the lives of children?”)

6.6 Referral for Children Living With Learning

Disabilities
While the teacher employs maximum effort to help the children with exceptional
needs, some cases need specialised expertise. The federal definition of
language learning disabilities says it can include problems in production and/

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or comprehension that violates the rules of language pertaining to phonology,

morphology, syntax, semantics or pragmatics (Hallahan, ibid). In some cases
the family might not be ready to accept that their child may have a problem. It
is however imperative that you help both the child and the family. After collecting
observable data, it is not advisable to approach the family with conclusive
statements like, for example, “Nyemudzai has a problem…..” as such
statements arouse anxiety to such a degree that open communication becomes
difficult if not impossible. A simple approach like, ‘Can we share what we are
trying at school with Nyemudzai and see what works for you at home?” Always
begin on a positive note because parents appreciate hearing what the teacher
enjoys about the child’s strengths and capabilities. You can follow the sequence
below;
 Share the recorded observations lightly.
 Enquire from them whether they have observed similar behaviour and
how they handled it.
 Build an alliance with the family.
 Allow them time to think over your discussion and schedule another
meeting.
 With family consent you make a referral for further evaluation and
appropriate assistance for the child.
Private agencies such as the Association for Children and Adults with Learning
Disabilities and hospitals also provide assistance in some countries like the
United States but in Zimbabwe the administrator refers the child to District
Schools Psychological Services who further refer him/her to the regional
Schools Psychological Services (SPS) for assessment and placement.
Confidentiality is golden. Assurance of ethical consideration and encouragement
of forming support groups alleviate social isolation that accompanies having a
child with a disability. The synergy of expertise from multidisciplinary effort,
of supportive community, psychologists, qualified teachers for special classes
and the curriculum planners’ results in quality outcomes for both the actual
and perceived children living with disabilities.

6.7 Summary
In this unit we examined on children living with disabilities in the various contexts
of communities globally. Children living with disabilities and their families would
not necessarily benefit from educational counselling in a society that does not
perceive disability as a social prejudice. Teachers as educational practitioners
should be on the watch out to identify as early as possible the difficulty of

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malleability of children into educational programmes and make swift moves

to seek for possible diagnoses and assistance towards their placement.
However, this cannot be done without the parents’ consent as their much
needed support is vital in the reinforcement of the learning skills being imparted
at school.

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References
Barton, L. (1996). Disability and Society Emerging Issues and Insights.
Britain. Longman.
Boyd, B. (2004). “The Developing Child. India. Pearson Education Ltd..
Ferenay, S. et al (2010). Who am I in the Lives of Children? New Jersey
Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River.
Hallahan, D. P. Kauffman,J.M., and Pullen,P.C. (2005) Exceptional learners:
Introduction to special education (11thed). Boston: Allyn Bacon.
Hooper, S. R. and Umansky, W. (2009). Young children with special needs;
(5thed); Upper Saddle River. N.J. Merill/ Pearson.
Ingstaad, B. and Whyte, S.R. (1995). Disability and Culture. Berkeley,
CA: University of California Press.
Murphy, Robert (1987). Encounters: The Body Silent in America: in Ingstaad;
B. and Whyte, S.R. (1995): Disability and Culture: California,
University of California Press.
Smith, D. D. (2007). Introduction to Special Education: Making a
Difference. India. Pearson Education Inc.
UNESCO. (1995). The Cultural Dimension of Development. Geneva,
1995 Report.
Waahdat, Hayatulah (1998). Mission Report to Wardak and Ghazni. CDAP
internal report.

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 Unit Seven

Gender Issues in Educational

Counselling

7.0 Introduction

T his unit focuses on gender issues in educational counselling. The

development of a child is of paramount importance to teachers and
professionals in education, so the child’s potential cannot be divorced from its
effective learning. It is during the course of imparting knowledge and skills
that unequal opportunities for male and female pupils are provided particularly
with regard to access, participation, retention and achievement. Because the
unit involves coining of gender, education and counseling it focuses on the
child mainly. This unit thus focuses on gender equality, equity, policies and
intervention strategies addressing disparities and providing supportive
counselling in education to empower the disempowered.
Counselling in Education Module BSCC216

7.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define gender from a social construct

 discuss gender discourses in education
 explain the bond between gender issues and counselling
in education
 examine gender empowerment strategies in the classroom

7.2 Gender Discourses in Education

Classrooms provide lessons not only in the subject content but also in socially
approved terms of academic discourse (Bergvalle in press). Social constructs,
thus have a bearing on the girl child and woman, in light of gender. Gender
refers to socially constructed roles, responsibilities, opportunities, relations,
privileges and expectations of men and women, boys and girls. These can
change over time and vary from place to place having nothing to do with sex.
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU 2002) has it that Gender
refers to the social attributes and opportunities associated with being male or
female and relationships between women and men. These attributes,
opportunities and relationships are socially constructed and learned through
socialisation processes. They are context and time specific hence changeable.

Gender determines what is expected, allowed, valued in a woman or man in

a given context. This contributes towards inequalities between men and women
in responsibilities assigned, activities undertaken, access to and control over
resources as well as decision making opportunities. Until educational sexism
is eradicated, more than half our children will be short-changed and their gifts
lost to society (Sadker, 1994). The fact is that classrooms are microcosms of
society, mirroring its strengths and ills alike, it follows that the normal socialisation
patterns of young children that often lead to distorted perceptions of gender
roles are reflected in the classrooms (Marshall 1997). Sitting in the same
classroom, reading the same textbook, listening to the same teacher, boys
and girls receive very different educations (Mulrine, 2001). The first question
that clicks into one’s mind is “How?”

The issue of the hidden curriculum of lessons taught implicitly to students

through everyday functioning of their classroom brings with it gender bias that
is embedded in textbooks, lessons and teacher interactions with students.
These will be dealt with later. Gender bias in education is an insidious problem
that causes very few people to stand up and take notice (Bailey, 1992).

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Activity 7.1
? 1. With examples, outline the differences between sex and
gender.
2. ‘Classrooms are microcosms of society’. Discuss this
notion referring to a classroom set up of choice.
3. Write a detailed case description (real or contrived) of an
individual who has been deprived of educational
opportunities under the guise of gender.

7.3 Identifying the Gender at Risk Students

Negative parental attitudes towards girls, results in gender bias as girls are
kept at home to help with household chores and or income generating activities
while boys pursue education. When it comes to gender, parents and teachers
have spent most of the twentieth century worrying about boys at school and
the kind of men they will become. (Bly R cited in Sadkers (ibid). Girls’ future
was not of any importance as they had prescribed domestic duties and were
being socialised to conform to patriarchy. With the looming competition, the
girls are not players at all. Gender bias at home and in the classroom side-
lines the girl. In a research by Mulrine (ibid), in Europe, across the country,
boys have never been in more trouble. They earn 70 percent of the Ds and Fs
that teachers dole out. They make up to two thirds of student’s labeled ‘learning
disabled’. They are the culprits in a whopping 9 out of 10 alcohol and drug
violations and the suspected perpetrators in 4 out of 5 crimes that end up in
juvenile court. They account for 80 percent of high school drop outs and
attention deficit disorder diagnosis.

Discrepancies in performance are quite vivid. In Ontario, a Mathematics

testing for grades 3 and 6 shows persistent and glaring discrepancies in
achievements and attitude between boys and girls, while in British Columbia,
standardised testing indicates that girls outperform boys at all levels of reading
and writing tests (O’Neill, 2000). Sadly the American Association of University
Women report, 1992, indicates that females receive less attention from teachers
and the attention that female students do receive is often more negative than
that received by boys (Bailey, ibid). Examination of the socialisation of gender
within schools and evidence of a gender biased hidden curriculum demonstrates
that girls are short-changed in the classroom.

Girls are at risk of being socialised to accept that they are unequal to boys.
For example, simple lining up of pupils sees to the teacher assuring girls and
boys different treatment with gender bias where girls are told not to mix with

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boys or have to stand in front and boys behind. Another instance is when
administrators ignore an act of sexual harassment. They are silently giving a
nod to indecent assault, allowing degradation of girls. The so –called ‘don’t
touch areas’ on the girl’s body are left at the risk of being touched, violating
the girls’ right to privacy. Some teachers tend to mock or crack sarcastic
jokes out of the girls’ complaints, which is detrimental to the child’s
psychological development. Her confidence is thwarted and she even loses
trust in the teacher who should be acting in loco-parentis in providing protection
for the child.

Tolerating different behaviours for boys than girls affirm schools perpetuation
of oppression for girls. Utterances like ‘boys will be boys’, ‘boys don’t cry’,
‘boys should be seen to be brave’ or ‘why does this girl behave like a boy?’
socialise boys into assertive behaviours and girls into submissiveness. Teachers
tend to praise girls for being neat, calm and quiet while boys are being
encouraged to think independently like a man. These tendencies socialise the
girl towards feminine ideal, thus putting them at risk. Boys, on the other hand
are more likely to rank independence and competence as more important
(Bailey ibid).

Reay’s research found that ‘nice girls’ was a derogatory term indicating an
absence of toughness and attitude while ‘the girlies’ were a group of girls who
focused their time on flirting with boys. The girls who were labelled, ‘tom
boys’ were those who played sport with boys. The ‘spice girls’ espoused
girl- power and played ‘rate-the boy’ on a playground. The research shows
that each of the girls defined their own feminities but in relation to boys (Reay
2001). Assertive girls are seen as disruptive and viewed negatively by some
teachers and adults. Girl’s misbehaviour is at risk of being labelled as a character
defect yet boy’s misbehaviour is viewed as a desire to assert themselves and
trying to find their free space on the universe.

7.4 Factors Negatively Affecting Girls’ Education

Gender inequalities are brought about through ways in which people (especially
teachers and students) have been socialised to view gender and education
and the fact that males and females learn differently. Looking precisely at the
subject of history, it has been presented as if important things in the public
arena happened predominantly because of and to males (Fennema 2000).
The naming of the subject History signifies male dominance as it relates ‘His
story’. One would ask why it was not named ‘Her story’ because whatever
events took place they involved both men and women. The various fields of

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educations have been developed by men for men for hundreds and hundreds
of years. How then can we expect our girls and young women to learn in a
system predesigned for men?

Academic fields are supposed to be neutral and value free but that it is not the
case because these fields of study are in reality based on masculine values
and perceptions (Fennema, ibid). In most public spheres such as education,
politics and economy, women are excluded. Although people may be sceptical
of the problem in that education was developed from a male perspective. No,
it is not really the problem but just that considering that women constitute a
greater chunk of the population 50-60%, and they hold very few if ever any,
decision making positions, there is need for women to be empowered and
take up active parts in decision making roles. Mathematics and Science fields
are dominated by men not necessarily because they outsmart women, but
because women lack the opportunity to access this field. While young men
did not strongly stereotype Mathematics as a male domain, they did believe
much more strongly than did young women that mathematics was more
appropriate for males than females (Fennema, ibid).

When in a classroom setting, the manner in which events transpire within the
teacher- student dynamic, males are just treated differently from females and
the treatment mostly favours males. The teacher’ responses of praise,
remediation, criticism and acceptance build a perception on gender. For
example, if a teacher asks a question and students respond, the giving of boys
more chances to respond even if girls also want to try, sidelines the girls. The
practice thwarts the girls’ zeal and they eventually stop bothering raising their
hands resulting in them assuming silent voices and even losing interest both in
the classroom and public arena at large as they feel that no one is interested in
hearing their opinions. Autonomous Learning Behaviours Model suggests
that because of societal influences (of which teachers and classrooms were
main components) and personal belief systems (lowered confidence, attribution
style, belief in usefulness) females do not participate in learning activities that
enable them to become independent learners of Mathematics and Science
fields predominated by men.

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Activity 7.2
? 1. What areas would you focus on in the classroom in a bid
to empower the girls to develop a positive attitude towards
the male dominated fields?
2. Critique the autonomous learning behaviour model in light
of gender empowerment in a classroom situation.
3. A grade seven girl in your class suddenly changes her
attitude towards school work, comes to school late, is
absent on certain days and drops in performance. How
would you the teacher as a counsellor assist this child?

7.5 Gender Equity and Equality

The term ‘gender equity’ is often used interchangeably with ‘gender equality’
yet the two have different meanings. Here a distinction is drawn between
these two concepts reflecting divergent understandings of gender differences
and of the appropriate strategies to address these. Gender equality denotes
women having the same opportunities in life as men, including the ability to
participate in the public sphere. As advocated for in the Quota system by
African Union (AU) women should occupy 30% of parliamentary seats and
40% senior civil service positions by 2005 (Millennium Developmental Goals
Mid Term Report 2007-8). Gender equity, however, denotes the equivalence
in life outcomes for men and women, recognising their different needs and
interests, and requiring redistribution of power and resources (Development
Assistance Committee (DAC) 1998).

The use of gender equitable materials allows students to have more gender
balanced knowledge to develop more flexible attitudes towards gender roles
and to imitate role behaviour contained in the materials (Klein 1988). The
resources chosen in a classroom teach implicitly of gender equality and bias.
For example, use of texts that omit contributions of women, that tokenize the
experiences of women or that stereotype gender role, compounds gender
bias in schools’ curriculum. The socialisation of gender biased hidden curriculum
leads to an inequitable education for boys and girls. Assigning girls to sweeping
of the floors while boys water the garden is one example of prescribing them
to domestic chores and masculine duties respectively.

In Early Childhood Development, for example, teachers usually give dolls

and kitchen utensils to girls and boys are given building blocks and toy cars.
During modelling activities, girls are asked to make clay pots and boys make
animals or cars. The textbooks show pictures of men as pilots and train drivers

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while women are shown as nurses, housewives and or teachers. The images
of women that children build from a tender age are the ones that they believe
in even in their adulthood. Folktales describe women as victims of violence,
misfortunes and perseverance while men are strong hunters, fighters and
perpetrators of violence on both women and children, taking advantage of
them in various ways. Co-curricular activities in schools leave a lot to be
desired. Although of late girls have been allowed to play football, it is not
without concern why boys do not play netball as well. Socially men must not
lower themselves and be seen to engage in female fields. Games like cricket
and rugby are still dominated by boys and men.

Activity 7.3
? 1. Given the chance to plan a school curriculum, what would
you include in your plan to help eradicate inequality in
education?
2. List down sporting activities offered in the schools and
categorise them according to dominance of males and
females.
3. What suggestions would you make as solutions to gender
inequality in schools?

7.6 Empowerment Strategies

Changes to create a more equitable learning environment for all children include
the following;
 Teachers need to be aware of their gender biased tendencies.
 The teachers need to be provided with strategies for altering the
behaviour.
 Efforts need to be made to combat gender bias in education materials.
 Females deserve, just as much as males, an equal chance at rewarding
education.
 During class discussions, be sure to call on girls as often as boys.
 Ensure equal participation opportunities in all areas, be it academic,
sport, arts or culture.
 Encourage children to explore career choices and interests that might
not be ‘typical’ for their gender.
 Affirmative action in all universities and colleges should be a must.
 Learning resources do not need to be guaranteed, especially for female

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learners, there is need to create equilibrium on such.

 Gender fair materials need to affirm variation by being inclusive, accurate,
affirmative, representative and integrated, weaving together the
experiences, needs and interests of both males and females (Bailey,
ibid).
Without a national framework to ensure that gender sensitivity in classroom
teaching and learning is reduced or completely eliminated, the issue of female
equality in human endeavour will continue to be fragmented, despite the
pronounced consensus about the importance of life-long education for female
learners for active citizenship. The effectiveness and success of such framework
would be a factor of relative bargaining power of the female folks, to ensure
equal and full participation in the national development.

Activity 7.4
? 1. How can the school system perpetuate gender
stereotypes?
2. In a society where the children grow there are various
practices that enforce gender roles and stereotypes.
Critique this notion with examples.
3. How can the school intervene to promote gender equality?
4. Gender fair materials need to be inclusive, accurate,
affirmative, representative and integrated. Justify.

7.7 Summary
In the above unit we discussed gender issues in educational counselling.
Constructs in gender stereotypes, bias, inequality and inequity influence
negatively on the learning and achievements of girls and boys, resulting in an
intergenerational cycle of disadvantaged populations. Teachers in the classroom
have a vital role to play towards creating an equal playfield to ensure equal
access, participation and success for both boys and girls regardless of sex.
Fairness and justice on issues arising in the classroom is the teacher’s core
responsibility if confidence is to be built in girls. The empowered girl develops
into an empowered woman who later makes informed decisions on individual,
family and national issues at large, thus benefitting the whole nation per se.

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References

Bergvall, V. L (in press); Constructing and Enacting Gender Through Discourse:

Negotiating Multiple Roles as Female Engineering students in Bergvall,
V. L., Janet MBing and Alice F Freed (eds) Rethinking Language and
Gender Research: Theory and Practice, pp.173-201 London;
Longman.
Bernstein, B. (1990). The Structuring of Pedagogic Discourse: Class, Codes
and Control, Vol. [Link] ; Routledge and Kega Paul.
Conell, R. W. (1987).Gender and Power. Stanford, CA: Stanford University
Press.
Madeline, A. (1982). Male Hegemony, Social Class and Women’s Education.
Journal of Education. 164(1): 64-49.
Murphy, R. (1987) The Body Silent. New York: Holt.
Povalko, S. M. and Gentler, Y. S. (1995). Review of Failing at Fairness:
How America’s Schools cheat girls, Journal of Industrial Teacher
Education, 33(1), 86-89.
Smith, J. D. (1985). Minds that feeble: The myth and legacy of the
Kallikaks. Rockville, MD: Aspen Systems.
Weiler, K. (1998). Women Teaching for Charge Gender, Class and Power.
New York: Bergin and Garvey Press.
Zimbabwe Millennium Developmental Goals; 2009. The 2000-2007 Mid-
Term Progress Report to the United Nations; Zimbabwe Govt. Publishers
and UNDP. Harare.

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 Unit Eight

Students’ Needs, Concerns and

Challenges

8.0 Introduction

T his unit seeks to explore students’ needs, concerns and challenges which
require counselling. Numerous issues with varying impact on students
will be discussed. The likely causes will also be discussed. Some suggestions
on what the counsellor can do in order to alleviate the challenges the students
experience will be outlined.
Counselling in Education Module BSCC216

8.1 Objectives
By the end of the unit, you should be able to:

 examine issues, concerns and problems which require

counselling in schools
 describe counselling strategies in resolving some of the
challenges students face
 evaluate the need of counselling in schools
 analyse counselling issues in schools

8.2 School-based Counselling

According to Cooper (2013) school-based counselling is one of the most
prevalent forms of psychological therapy for young people. School-based
counselling services offer one-to-one supportive therapy with clients. Pupils
who attend school-based counselling experience psychological difficulties to
a lesser extent. Evidence suggests school-based humanistic counselling is
effective at reducing psychological distress and helping young people realise
their goals. Service users evaluate positively school-based counselling, and is
seen by them as an effective means of bringing about improvements in students’
mental health and emotional wellbeing.

School-based counselling enhances young people’s capacity to engage with

studying and learning, the key strengths of school-based counselling are that it
is seen as a highly accessible service and that it increases the extent to which
all young people have an independent, supportive professional talk about
difficulties in their lives. It is evident that counselling has an important part to
play in enhancing both learning and effective schooling. Counselling helps to
cater for the various needs, concerns and problems of pupils. It is therefore
hoped that through counselling pupils would be helped to resolve their areas
of personal conflict.

8.3 Why Do Students Need Counselling?

People come to counselling centre when their usual ways of handling problems
are not working well. Sometimes it is easier to talk to someone outside of
friends or family about what we are experiencing rather than someone close
to us. Sharing our problems with people who are trained to listen to problems
can deepen a person’s understanding of what is happening and develop
alternative ways of dealing with concerns or problems.

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Counselling is tailored to meet the needs of the student. Counselling provides

a chance for students at any level and at any time to access professional
therapeutic counselling so that they may better develop and fulfil their personal,
academic and professional potential. Students need counselling service for a
range of reasons. Quite often they bring issues that friends, family or teachers
are unable to help with and when thinking/ talking to someone outside their
immediate network may be useful. Sometimes it can be difficult to define
issues that students bring for counselling, broad headings include; self esteem
problems, depression, problems around eating, anxiety and stress around
personal or academic issues, loss and so on.

8.4 How Does Counselling Work?

Counselling enables a client to make a sense of events or experiences and
explore options for change by providing a specific chance where they will be
respected. In counselling much time is spent helping the client to understand
how he/ she can experience life. Through reflecting, clarifying,and elaborating
the client can gain a clearer awareness of who they are and what they do. If
the client has a clear understanding of themselves and their patterns, he/she
can live more choiceful, realistic and more satisfying lives, taking responsibility
for one’s feelings and behaviour. Counselling helps raise a client’s awareness
to patterns, themes and feelings that recur from a client’s early days that may
be impacting on the present. Counselling can help the student to focus on and
understand more clearly issues that concern him/ her. The counsellor can work
together with the client by respecting his/her values, choices and lifestyle
towards making choices or changes that the client feels are right for them.
(counselling@[Link]) Various theoretical models that influence the
way in which a counsellor can work with a client can be identified. Some of
these models include person-centred, psychodynamic, cognitive-behaviour
and integrative (McLeod, 2009).

Activity 8.1
? 1.
2.
Evaluate the effectiveness of school-based counselling.
Explain why students need counselling.
3. Compare and contrast the Person centred and
Psychodynamic models.

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8.5 Depression
Depression can affect one’s body, mood, thoughts and behaviour. It can result
in change of eating habits, feeling and thinking, one’s ability to work and study
and how to interact with other people. Depressed people cannot “pull
themselves together” and get better (Brown 2000). According to Rowe-
Routledge (2009) one may be uncertain as to whether or not one is depressed.
It is true that everyone’s depression is different and there is a wide range of
symptoms as indicated below. Many people feel down occasionally, but have
areas in their lives that make them feel good and like things about themselves.
To some other people they feel bad about themselves and their lives in many
ways. At times they feel complete despair. If one feels like this the one is
probably depressed.

8.5.1 Symptoms of depression

 Disliking or even hating oneself or people in general
 Thinking negatively; always seeing the worst in everything
 Being very irritable
 Eating too little or too much
 Heavy dependency on alcohol or drugs
 Cutting oneself off from other people
 Unable to stop crying or unable to release tears.

8.5.2 Dealing with depression

It is essential that a counsellor should be well versed with the ways of dealing
with depression so as to effectively render meaningful help to clients. Depression
spans a spectrum. At one end one can struggle on leading a more or less
normal life , but feeling awful; at the other end the depression may be life
threatening and one may feel suicidal Rowe-Routledge (2009)

8.5.3 How can a counsellor help a client?

The following can be done to help a student who is depressed;
 Encourage the client to keep as occupied as much as they can with
things that really interest them.
 ‘Have the client get physical exercise; play sport, jog, dance. Here
encourage the client do anything that stops them from brooking.
 Help the client do anything which makes them laugh. Advise the client
to eat healthy food and avoid drugs.
 Assist the client by trying to make them enjoy the living environment as

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pleasantly and comfortable as possible.

 Ask the client not to hold their feelings in. let the client cry and get angry
if they need to.

Activity 8.2
? 1.
2.
Analyse the symptoms related to depression.
Discuss the effects of depression.
3. How can a counsellor help a student who is depressed?

8.6 School- Based Family Counselling

School-based Family Counselling is an approach to helping children succeed
at school and overcome personal and interpersonal problems. According to
Cerrah (2011) School-based Family Counselling is an integrated approach
which combines schools counselling with family counselling in a broad system
approach. School-Based Family Counselling is conducted on site at the school
and the School-Based Counsellor is identified as a member of the school
staff. The need for School-Based Counselling comes from he inadequacy of
traditional school counselling and family counselling in addressing with issues
of children who are failing at school because of family problems (Gerrad,
1990).

The family problems include; marital discord, parent divorcing, custody

problems with children, substance abuse, older siblings involved in gangs,
sexual and physical abuse, parental neglect, single parents overwhelmed
by economic and emotional problems and chaotic families with little
parental control. School counsellors who have no training in family counselling
are not equipped to intervene effectively in these family problems. The school-
Based Family counsellor is viewed as part of the school system and not as a
“third party” and this minimises the concept of triangulation (in which two
family members form a coalition against a third family member who is often
the family scapegoat or “identified patient”. Due to the fact that the school-
based family counsellor is the school counsellor they are viewed as an advocate
for the school and the child. The focus of the counselling is on working with
parents and families to help their children succeed in school. By going to
school to consult with the school counsellor on how to help one’s child succeed
in school is something that many parents are willing to accept. The counselor
values their need for parental help.

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The above normalises the counselling and reframes it in a way that de-
stigmatises coming for counselling. As the counsellor works with the parents
and family to help the child, trust is built which permits the counsellor to
eventually work on other family issues affecting the child. School-Based
counselling is a multi-culturally sensitive approach because it engages parents
and families as partners with the School-based family counsellor in working
to promote the success of the child at school.

8.7 School Counsellor’s Role in Sexuality Education

According to Milton et al (2001) research in the area of adolescent sexuality
suggests that young people use and trust school counsellors as a source of
information about sexual issues. The most likely sexuality issues to be presented
for counselling are concern about relationship breakdown, sexual orientation,
pregnancy, harassment and sexual abuse. Sexual growth and development
are part of adolescence. As a result, especially at high school many adolescents
engage in sexual activity with a partner while still at school. In high schools,
school counselling is a fundamental part of the support services given for the
welfare of students. School counsellors normally serve a wide range of
functions in addition to counselling students. These demands often challenge
their capacity to respond in a comprehensive way to students’ needs. According
to Moore (1999) many students find sexual development stressful and helping
students discover sexual development and the sometimes resulting crises is
one of the most critical roles a school counsellor can play.

To help students with sexuality issues, it is important that counsellors have to

be comfortable with sex and sexuality at a personal level. Counsellors also
have to build avenues of trust so that students in crisis will feel assured that
their confidences are not misplaced, and that outcomes will be better and not
worse for the effort. Furthermore, if counsellors want to keep lines of
communication open with students their demeanor must be respectful and
non-judgmental.

School counsellors, in their day to day duty have many competing tasks.
They can leave out sexuality issues completely. Alternatively school counsellors
can be major contributors to helping students with their sexual health concerns.
If a school counsellor is effective in this role, much can be done to help with
sex and relationship issues. Below are some suggestions to help school
counsellors. During counselling, the school counsellor should present factual
information and skills development within the context of relationship. This
information should be presented even if not asked for. The counsellor should

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give students information about relevant community agencies. It is ideal to

have printed materials available with contact details and phone numbers, for
example, Childline and Girl child network. Make necessary references and
follow up with the student after the referral.

The counselor should encourage students to talk with their parents. Counsellor
should assist the students become comfortable and feel empowered about
discussing sexual issues by employing strategies such as rehearsals to practice
talking with their parents. The counsellor should be available to help parents
in developing skills to communicate with their children about sexuality and
related issues. This can be done through workshops, parent/youth seminars
etc. The counselor should help the school community to develop effective
policies and practices to keep students safe.

Activity 8.3
? 1. What are the likely sexuality issues students may present
for counselling?
2. Examine ways a school counsellor can respond to
students’ sexuality needs.
3. What are the implications of school based counselling to
the counsellor?

8.8 Suicidal Risk

Suicide is a common cause of death among young adults and research indicates
that the incidence is rising. Most people who attempt suicide are ambivalent
about killing themselves and in most cases what they seek is to put to rest
unbearable feelings or a situation that seems intolerable. An individual who is
suicidal may well be feeling frightened, trapped, hopeless, helpless, confused
and distressed and desperate to escape from their suffering rather than actually
preferring to die. Thoughts concerning suicide are very common. The thought
will probably cross the mind of the majority of people at some point in their
lives (Foster, 1995). The following are some of the feelings and experiences
that may contribute to someone feeling suicidal;
 Loneliness; The suicidal person can feel totally alone and isolated.
 Feelings of hopelessness and helplessness; Where the student
feels that no matter what they do, nothing seems to get better and that
no-one is able to help.

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 Feelings of worthlessness, of being a “: waste of space”; The

student can never amount to anything and that any care, interest or
encouragement shown would be unjustified or based on a false promise.
The person is convinced that they are likely to have very low self-
esteem, and will not readily accept compliments or praise.
 Depression; Those who are depressed have a low perception of
themselves; others and their situation are usually unduly negative.
 Anger; Suicide can sometimes be seen as an act of someone who is
very angry, perhaps as an out of revenge for example after the end of
a relationship.
 A history of mental or physical illness
 Alcohol and drugs; To some, a suicide attempt maybe an impulsive
act under the influence of alcohol or drugs. In such a state a person
may seriously underestimate the risks of their actions, and be more
vulnerable to the above feelings.
Foster (1995) found in his survey that financial worries and stress caused by
academic pressures and concerns were two main factors associated with
suicide attempts. Whatever the cause may be suicide attempts should always
be treated seriously. Research shows that those who make several suicide
attempts are more likely to finally die by their own hands, whether by intent or
by accident.

8.8.1 Risk indicators

Under normal circumstances people are likely to feel distressed, aggrieved or
depressed in response to the difficulties and disappointments the encounter in
the course of their lives. The person who responds by making a suicide attempt
is more likely to be overwhelmed by major problems than to rise to the difficult
task facing them (Foster 1995). Below are some indicators;
 Depression, including excessive feelings of guilt and self- reproach
 Feelings of worthlessness and low self- esteem
 Feelings of hopelessness and helplessness
 Feelings of alienation and isolation’
 A detailed suicide plan
 Alcohol or other substance abuse
 Comments about killing oneself
 Significant change of behaviour for example being withdrawn

8.8.2 Suggestions on helping the student contemplating

suicide Howton (1990);
 Ask: Asking if a student feels suicidal is very unlikely to put the idea

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into their head and they may feel relieved to talk.

 Listen: Take the student and what he/she says seriously and try to
understand their perspective of the situation. The student might be able
to tell the counsellor what they need and who might help.
 Discuss: The counsellor must try to discover what might make a
difference without imposing their solutions on the situation.
 The counsellor should offer practical help towards problem solving
for example the lifting of an academic deadline.
 The counsellor should not over-reach their own limits of time and
expertise, or promise something which cannot be delivered. A person
who is suicidal doesn’t need further disappointment.
 Refer: The counsellor should not take sole responsibility for the
situation. Instead the counsellor should sensitively indicate that they
are concerned enough to arrange for further help, even if it means
breaking the confidence.
In conclusion, while we will never successfully eliminate the risk of suicide,
something can be done to minimise the risk. Given below are some of the
measures;
 Avoid making public comments which imply it is “weak” to seek help.
 Be sensitive to changes in students under you care.
 Discuss the difference between those who are comfortable with being
alone, and the isolated and alienated.
 Sarcastic criticism is not acceptable and can deeply disturb.
 The counsellor should by all means challenge and encourage students
to achieve their best, but avoid implying that to fall short of some
standard for example getting a 1st would mean utter failure.

Activity 8.4
? 1.
2.
3.
Suggest why a student would attempt to commit suicide.
Analyse the suicide risk indicators.
How would you help a student contemplating suicide?
4. Evaluate Hawton’s suggestions on helping a student
contemplating suicide.

8.9 Summary
In this unit we focused on the issues that students are most likely to bring for
counselling. In the unit we also explained why students need counselling
services. Discussion on what a school counsellor can do to help students
facing various challenges has also been provided.

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References
American School Counsellor Association, (2003). The ASCA National
Model: A framework for school counselling programs. Alexandria,
VA: Author.
Baker, S.B. (2000). School Counselling for the twenty-first century. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Baldo, M. Aggleton, P. Slutkin, G. (1993). Does sex education lead to earlier
or increased sexual activity in youths? Geneva: World Health
Organisation.
Don Foster MP. 1995). A Report on the Level of Student Stress and Suicide
Rates. House of Commons Library.
Gingiss, P. & Hamilton, R. (1989). Teacher perspectives after implementing a
human sexuality education program. Journal of School Health, 159,
427-431.
Hawton, K. Haig, R. Sinkin. S. and Faggy, J. (1995). Psychological
Medicine, OxfordUniversity.
Schmidt, J.J. (2003). Counselling in the schools: Essential services and
comprehensive programs. (4thed.) Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

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 Unit Nine

Guidance and Counselling in

Education

9.0 Introduction

T his unit will present the general need for guidance and counselling in schools.
The basic principles of guidance will be outlined. The different types of
guidance will be discussed. The advantages and limitations of guidance will
also be looked at. In the unit also, we seek to distinguish the difference between
guidance and counselling.
Counselling in Education Module BSCC216

9.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 identify the need for guidance and counselling in schools

 distinguish the differences between guidance and
counselling
 develop school-based action plans to address students’
issues
 explain the origins of guidance services

9.2 Origin of Guidance Services

In 1905, Parsons worked directly with young people struggling to find work
for living. He helped to establish the Vocation Bureau and wrote his classic
“Choosing a Vocation”. Parsons was later followed by a number of social
reformers like Jesie Davis, Anne Reed and Eli Weaver who looked more into
guidance services. Guidance is not direction. It is not the imposition of one’s
point of view upon another. It is not making decisions for an individual which
he should make for himself. It is not carrying the burden of another’s life.
Guidance is assistance made available by competent counselors to an individual
of any age to help him direct his own point of view, make his own decisions,
carry his own burdens” Crow and Crow (2011). Hatch and Costar (1961)
defined guidance program as a system of services designed to improve the
adjustment of each and every person for whom it was organised.

Dictionary of Psychology defines guidance as the procedure to assist individuals

to find maximum satisfaction in their educational and vocational careers.
Guidance involves the utilisation of interviews and tests, and the study of
background information, in order to arrive at a systematic plan of educational
or vocational pursuit. Blake (1978:33) argues that “guidance in schools is
aimed at helping students know themselves and is designed to provide
specialised help with educational, vocational, and personal social decisions
which they face in a complex and changing world.” Guidance and counselling
programmes are therefore, intended to assist students understand their own
potentialities and develop them to the full. Students must be helped to cope
with personal crises in their lives which may impact on their academic
performance if not attended to. Listed below are some of the needs for
guidance;
 The changing family
 Changing cities

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 Conflicts in values, attitudes and morals

 Economic factors
 New pressure and demands on school
 Problems of young people

9.3 The Principles of Guidance

According to Hollis and Hollis (2008) there are eight principles on which any
guidance programme should be based. The principles are as listed below;
 The dignity of the individual is supreme.
 Each individual is different from every other individual.
 The primary concern of guidance is the individual in his social setting.
 The attitudes and personal perceptions of the individual are the bases
on which he acts.
 The individual generally acts to enhance his perceived self.
 The individual has the innate ability to learn and can be helped to make
choices that will lead to self direction consistent with social
improvement.
 The individual needs a continuous guidance process from early
childhood through adulthood.
 Each individual may at times need the information and personalized
assistance best given by competent professional personnel.
According to Padne (2012), the organisation of school guidance service
includes the following;
a) Typical elementary school guidance programme
b) Typical secondary/higher secondary school guidance programme
c) Maintenance of personal inventory
d) Collection and dissemination of occupational information
e) Counselling
f) Placement
g) Follow up study

a) Typical elementary school guidance programme

This involves cooperation with other staff members in the development
and maintenance of good habits of study. The school counsellor can
make use of materials in the classroom to show not only how people
live, but how they make a living. There is need also to develop a healthful
relationship between parents and the school. Introduction and use of
adequate cumulative record should be started when the pupil enters

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school. This is to continue until the pupil leaves school. The counsellor
should also identify pupils who have problems both in and outside
school such as pupils who have specific weakness in mastering the
basic skills. Pupils who have health conditions not appropriate to good
school and home adjustment, pupils who have problems of social and
emotional adjustments and so forth.

b) Typical secondary/high school guidance programmes

The counsellor should keep cumulative records for each pupil; the testing
programme should be established to include intelligence, achievement
aptitude and interests tests.

c) Collection and dissemination of information

The counsellor should look for information about local occupational
requirements and opportunities. The school counsellor should secure
and present a general background of occupational information. Students
should be assisted in correlating occupational information with regular
school subjects. The strategy to be used includes use of printed,
illustrated and visual materials in presenting occupational information.
The counsellor can also plan visits to view numerous types of local and
regional employment patterns and opportunities?

d) Counselling
The counsellor should assist the student to identify their problems in
educational, vocational, personal, social and physical needs. The role
of the counsellor should be to help the student find possible solutions
to their problems. The individual should be assisted in making a new
start. The pupil should also be assisted in the implimentations of their
plans.

e) Placement
The counsellor should help the student in securing part–time jobs
according to aptitudes. When leaving school pupils can also be assisted
to get permanent employment by taking into account aptitudes, abilities
and interests.

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Activity 9.1
? 1. Outline the organisation of school guidance service
according to Padne (2012).
2. What is involved in typical elementary school guidance
programme?
3. Evaluate the eight principles of guidance according to
Hollis and Hollis.

9.4 Types of Guidance

According to (Ndungu, 2012) there are various types of guidance that include
health, educational, personal, economic, vocational and social:
a) Educational guidance
This is guidance rendered to clients in all aspects of education. It entails
providing help to do satisfactorily in the academic field and choose
appropriate courses for the studies. It also assists students overcome
learning difficulties and foster creativity by improving levels of motivation
in the learners.
b) Vocational guidance
This type of guidance is meant to:
 Assist in the selection of a vocation and preparation of the same.
 Enable clients to acquire information about career opportunities, career
growth and training facilities.
c) Personal guidance
It is guidance rendered to students to:
 Enable them to adjust themselves to their environment so that they can
become efficient and effective citizens.
a) Social guidance
This enables:
 Clients to make meaningful contribution to society.
 Assume leadership.
 Conform to social norms.
 Work as team members.
 Develop healthy and positive attitudes.
 Appreciate problems of society.
b) Vocational guidance
The help to be given to students to spend their leisure time profitable
such as:
 Games

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 Photography drama

 Fine arts which have recreational value.

c) Health guidance
This entails the assistance given to students for maintaining good and
sound health.

9.5 The Importance of Guidance (Agrawal, 1956)

A number of issues can be identified to illustrate the importance of guidance.
Given below are some of the important issues;
 Complex nature of society
 Economic, social and political systems, consumption, production and
distribution
 Individual differences
 Changed industrial and educational pattern of country
 Audience for good citizenship
 Intellectual development.

9.5.1 Guidance is useful in

 Problem solving
 Great insight
 Self guidance
 For counselling
 Leads to success
 Plan wisely
 Telling individuals difficulties with help of psychological test.

9.5.2 Characteristics of guidance

 It is a process which is continuous.
 Assistance to develop capacity for self-direction, self-guidance and
self- improvement
 Services meant for all
 Personal help.

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Activity 9.2
? 1.
2.
Assess the importance of Guidance in schools.
Evaluate the usefulness of guidance in our schools.
3. What do you consider to be the characteristics of
guidance?
4. Discuss with relevant examples Ndungu’s types of
guidance.

9.5.3 Objectives of guidance

 To enable students discover information about themselves
 To develop educational and occupational plans
 To promote self-concept in an individual
 To improve personal capacities
 To bring in desirable elements in curricular activities to improve
educational standards
 To help each individual to meet and solve their own problems as they
arise

9.5.4 Elements of guidance

 Guidance leads to self- development and self direction.
 It helps the individual plan wisely for the present and the future.
 It assists students to become adjusted to the environment.
 It helps to achieve success and happiness.

9.5.5 Advantages of guidance

Guidance helps the student to understand himself/herself. It also helps the
pupil in making careful choice of subjects and courses and enables the teacher
to understand and appreciate the strengths and weaknesses of their pupils.
This facilitates better and more meaningful help by the teacher. Guidance also
enables the parents to understand their children and this helps clear some
misunderstandings which may arise between parents and their children.

9.5.6 Limitations of guidance

Guidance feeds the community with better adjusted citizens. It has also been
noted that it prevents problems which may lead to mental illness.
 It is limited due to lack of personnel and other facilities. Thus, in our
schools there are no qualified personnel in guidance and the facilities
are not adequate.
 There is an overdoing of psychological tests.

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 Conditions of life are too complex for any person to solve the challenges
of another.

Activity 9.3
? 1. Outline and discuss the advantages of guidance in a school
set up.
2. State the limitations of guidance.
3. Discuss the elements of guidance.

9.6 Purposes of Counselling

Counselling is meant to give the student information on issues important to
their success. Thus through counselling, a student becomes aware of some
challenges and how to overcome them so as to realise set goals in life. The
need for counselling is also to assist the student in solving problems. The
counselee is empowered with necessary and appropriate copying strategies
to overcome different life challenges. The other purpose of counselling is to
establish mutual understanding between students and teachers and help students
work out a plan for solving difficulties.

Activity 9.4
?
1. What do you understand by counselling?
2. Evaluate the purposes of counselling in a school.
3. Is counselling of any importance? If so why?
4. Discuss the limitations.

9.6.1 Characteristics of counselling

 It is a person to person relationship.
 Involves two individuals.
 It helps the client to discover and solve their personal problems
independently.
 It establishes a relationship of mutual respect, cooperation and
friendliness between the two parties (counselor and client)
 Discovers the problem of the client and helps them set up goals and
guide them through challenges.
 The main emphasis is on the counsellor’s self-direction and self-
acceptance.
 Counselling is democratic.

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Activity 9.5
? 1. What do you understand by the concept that counselling
is democratic?
2. What do you consider to be the characteristics of
counselling?

9.6.2 Steps of counselling (Perez 1965)

 For counselling to be more meaningful, a counsellor can apply the
following phases of couselling;
Step 1 – Greet the client.

Step 2 – Ask the client about themselves.

Step 3 – Give information of strategies of coping mechanism.

Step 4 – Help the client choose a method.

Step 5 – Explain how to use a method.

Step 6 – Return for follow –up.

If these six steps are followed they enhance a better counselling outcome as
they all promote a conducive environment for counselling.

9.6.3 Counselling process

The counselling process is divided into various phases. Below is an outline of
these different counselling phases.
 PHASE 1
Establishing a relationship
This entails the counsellor introducing themself to the client. This enables
the client to create a trusting relationship and gain confidence in the
counseling relationship. The counsellor should also listen attentively
and always address the individual by their name. In establishing a
working relationship, physical comfort should also be ensured and the
counsellor should not interrupt the client while they are talking. Observe
non-verbal communication.

 PHASE 2
Assessment

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This can be done through observation, interview or by way of some

tests. This is done to collect as much information as possible which
would help the counsellor understand the client. When the counsellor
understands the client then they will be in a better position to render
more meaningful assistance, Pepinsky and Pepinsky (1954).

 PHASE 3
Setting goals
This phase entails the skills of drawing inference. It is about
differentiation and teaching individuals to think realistically. The counsellor
should assist the client to set achievable goals. The goals give direction
to the counselling process.

 PHASE 4
Intervention
This involves handling the interventions and knowledge of its effects.
The counsellor should have the ability to read and interpret the client’s
reaction.

 PHASE 5
Termination and follow up

Activity 9.6
? 1.
2.
Critically evaluate phase 1 of the counselling process.
In the counselling process what does termination and
follow up entail?
3. Compare and contrast the steps of counselling and the
process of counselling.
4. How would you assess a client and what is the need of
assessment in the counselling process?

9.7 Difference between Guidance and Counselling

according to Cornier and Hackney (1987)
Counselling is the helping relationship that includes someone seeking help,
and someone who is willing to give help and who is capable or trained to help.
Jone (1971) defines guidance as the help given by one person to another in
making choices and adjustments and in solving problems. It aims at aiding the
recipient to grow in their independence. In counselling, information is given to

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solve a problem. On the other hand, guidance is an organised service to identify

and develop the capacities of students. Comprehensive information about all
the clients is collected in the help of different tests, tools and resources, records.
This information is communicated to the individual to help them understand
themselves and for their all round personality development.

Counselling requires a special set up room to conduct. Guidance may be

given in any normal set up. Counselling requires a high level skill as well as
special professional training. On the other hand guidance can be done by a
counselor and guidance workers. Counselling is therapeutic, developmental
and remedial whereas guidance is preventive and developmental. In counselling
decision making operates at emotional levels. In guidance decision-making
operates at intellectual levels. Counselling is needed in all the fields and guidance
is an integral part of education and helps in achieving its aims.

Activity 9.7
? 1.
2.
What is guidance?
What is counselling?
3. Distinguish the differences between guidance and
counselling.

9.8 Purposes of Guidance and Counselling

Guidance and counselling is aimed at helping students to draw up their own
plans and find solutions to the challenges. The programme also helps the
individual student realise their capacities and to make optimum contribution
to the growth of the society. Guidance and counselling also helps the student
solve their own problems and make proper choices and adjustment.

The scope of guidance and counselling is also to enable the student acquire
abilities which promote self direction and self- esteem. The student is also
helped to develop good qualities, for instance, perseverance, dedication,
sincerity and devotion. It also leads to positive outlook respect for views of
others, temperament which are crucial to them for making important
contributions.

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9.9 Principles of Guidance and Counselling

Guidance and counselling is a professional activity which is based on certain
principles. These principles are;
 Guidance and counselling is unique to an individual.
 It is concerned with total individual.
 It is always goal oriented.
 It is a professional activity.
 It is based on a thorough knowledge of characteristics of the stages of
human growth and development.
Guidance and counselling is for all those who need help and is not specific to
any state of development. It is a continuous process and should be based on
reliable data. One other principle is that Guidance and Counselling should
have a flexible approach.

Activity 9.8
? 1. What are the principles upon which guidance and
counselling is based?
2. Guidance and counselling is for all those who need help.
Discuss.
3. Is guidance and counseling of any significance in schools?
4. State the aims of guidance and counselling.

9.10Summary
In this unit we have spelt out the need for guidance and counselling in schools
in Zimbabwe. The various types of guidance have been discussed. An attempt
has also been made to highlight the differences between guidance and
counselling. The principles of guidance and counselling have been stated and
it is clear that the application of these is not particular to any state or
development.

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References
Campbell, Clari A. and Dihir, Corol. A (1997). Sharing the Vision: The
National Standards for School Counselling Programs, Alexandria,
VA: American school Counsellor Association.
Nayarama. S. R. (1997). Counselling and Guidance, Second Edition.
New Dehli: Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited.
Schimdt, J.J. (2003). Counselling in the schools; essential services and
comprehensive programmes (4th ed.) Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
The ACA Encyclopedia of Counselling (2009). Alexandria; VA.
Va, B. (2003). American School Counsellor Association. The ASCA
National Model, VA.

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130 Zimbabwe Open University

 Unit Ten

Professional, Legal and Ethical

Issues in Education

10.0 Introduction

I n this unit we explore on the professional, legal and ethical issues in education.
The main object of this unit is to elucidate legal, professional and ethical
issues as they are applied in education as well as the extent to which these
areas interrelate and intertwine in the conduct of educators, learners and other
stakeholders in education. You will familiarise with the law as applicable to
education in Zimbabwe vis-à-vis the rights, obligations and commitments of
educators and learners. Professionalism in education is of essence because it
brings in day- to- day teaching situations, the theory of the law of education
and answers pertinent questions relating to ethical conduct in education.
Eventually, it becomes apparent that the law is not only required in the formal
education environment, but in the like manner, is required outside this sphere.
Thus outside human rights, it is of paramount importance that you take into
cognisance that everyone has obligations, commitments and responsibilities.
Counselling in Education Module BSCC216

10.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 identify laws which apply in the field of education

 describe duties and responsibilities of each player in the
field of education
 explain professional and ethical conduct of education
professionals and consequences of breach thereof
 discuss ethics, morality and law
 analyse the strengths and limitations of ethics

10.2 Background
Education as a Human Right is established in terms of Articles 13-14 of the
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Article 10
of the Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against
Women, Article 12 of the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and
Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa, Articles 28-29 of the
Convention on the Rights of the Child, Article 26 of the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights, Article 11 of the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare
of the Child, Article 24 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with
Disabilities, Article 14 of the SADC Protocol on Gender and Development,
Rule No. 6 for the United Nations Standard Rules on the Equalization of
Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities and Article 17 of African Charter
on Human and Peoples’ Rights. Education is a vital cog in the society which
exhibits multi-faceted roles therein. Paragraph 1 of General Comment No.
13 for the Committee on the Economic, Social and Cultural Rights succinctly
establishes these roles.

Education is both a human right in itself and an indispensable means of realising

other human rights. As an empowerment right, education is the primary vehicle
by which economically and socially marginalised adults and children can lift
themselves out of poverty and obtain the means to participate fully in their
communities. Education has a vital role in empowering women, safeguarding
children from exploitative and hazardous labour and sexual exploitation,
promoting human rights and democracy, protecting the environment, and
controlling population growth. Increasingly, education is recognised as one of
the best financial investments States can make. But the importance of education
is not just practical: a well-educated, enlightened and active mind, able to
wander freely and widely, is one of the joys and rewards of human existence.

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The above comment sums up the paramount importance of education. Any

State party that therefore neglects its duty to ensure the education of its citizens
is doomed to a gloomy future. Taking a closer look at this comment reveals
the following critical issues:
 Education is a right.
 Education is an indispensable means through which other rights are
realised or simply put, education is the backbone of all other rights.
 Education is an empowerment right.
 Education provides a poverty alleviation mechanism.
 Education empowers women and children to resist all forms of
exploitation.
 Education empowers people to participate in communities.
 Education promotes human rights.
 Education promotes democracy.
 Education provides the mechanisms through which population growth
can be arrested.
 Education promotes environmental protection.
 Education can be described as the best financial investments State Parties
can make.
 Education allows people to wander freely and widely thereby enjoying
the right to liberty and freedom of movement established in terms of
Articles 3 and 13 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
respectively.
The stability in the Zimbabwean economy in the 1980s ensured that
commensurate resourcing of primary schools. The increase in primary and
secondary education resulted in the Zimbabwean literacy rate rising to more
than 90 percent, one of the highest rates in the world, UNICEF (2006). The
investment in education by the government of Zimbabwe has seen many
countries benefiting from this educational policy as many Zimbabweans went
into the Diaspora in search of better employment when the economy began to
decline. The brains of the Zimbabweans have proved to be some of the best
in the world hence the adage ‘From bread basket of Africa to brain basket of
the world.’ Towards the end of the 1990s, education in Zimbabwe began to
register a serious decline. The worst decline of education in Zimbabwe was in
2008 when teachers downed their tools in demand for better remuneration
and working conditions. Pupils were heavily affected by this. Many teachers
left for greener pastures during this time. Some could opt to go and work on
the South African farms and other sectors of the industry.

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10.3 Introduction to the Legal Regime of Education

in Zimbabwe
The Law of Education can be typified as the component of the Constitution,
other statutory laws, customary and case laws that establish and regulate an
educational system regarding the multilateral interaction between individuals,
independent groups (outside parliamentary interests groups) and official groups
as well as groupings in a specific system (Maree, 2005). Thus the educator,
regardless of managerial or promotional post, should have knowledge of all
laws relating to education. During official hours, every educator acts “in loco
parentis” position, hence the need for him or her to be fully conversant with
all laws that encompass his or her area of responsibility.

10.3.1 Education Laws operational in Zimbabwe

The Constitution of the Republic of Zimbabwe

For a long time the right to education has not been constitutionally guaranteed
in Zimbabwe. The right to education falls within the class of Economic, Social
and Cultural Rights established in terms of International Covenant on Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights. All such rights were excluded from the Constitution
of Zimbabwe. The former Constitution only recognized Civil and Political
Rights established in terms of International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights. As regards the Right to education, the new Constitution of Zimbabwe
in Section 75 states that:
“(1) Every citizen and permanent resident of Zimbabwe has a right to-
a) A basic State-funded education, including adult basic education; and
b) Further education, which the State, through reasonable legislative and
other measures, must make progressively available and accessible.
(2) every person has the right to establish and maintain , at their own
expense, independent educational institutions of reasonable standards,
provided they do not discriminate on any grounds prohibited in this
Constitution.
(3) A law may provide for the registration of educational institutions referred
to in subsection (2) and for the closing of any such institutions that do
not meet reasonable standards prescribed for registration.
(4) The State must take reasonable legislative and other measures,
within the limits of the resources available to it, to achieve the
progressive realisation of the right set out in subsection (1).”
This provision is interdependent with other rights as enshrined in the Bill of
Rights.

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Activity 10.1
? 1. Analyse the assertion that: “Education is a vital cog in the
society which exhibits multi-faceted roles therein.”
2. How does education promote human rights?
3. Why is it necessary for every educator to be fully
knowledgeable of the law of education?
4. What do you understand by the term “in loco parentis”
position?
5. Why is Zimbabwe being referred to as “The brain basket
of the world”?
6. State and explain how ten other rights, as enshrined in the
Bill of Rights, relate to the Right to education.

As regards children, the right to education as stated in Section (81) can be

summarised as follows:
 To be treated equally before the law
 To be given appropriate care when removed from the family environment
 To be protected from any form of abuse
 To be given education, health care services, nutrition and shelter, and
 A child’s best interests are paramount in every matter concerning the
child.
As regards the principles of rights and duties, it must not be taken for granted
that the application thereof is automatic, thus it is important to be cognisant of
the fact that:
 No rights can be claimed without an act of fulfilling the duties bearing
them.
 The right of the individual is subordinate to the State
 The rights of the other party must be measured up to establish whether
an individual’s rights have been breached.

10.4 The Legislative System of the Republic of

Zimbabwe
The legislation constitutes of Parliamentary and Subordinate legislation.
Parliamentary legislation consists of acts of Parliament such as the Education
Act. Subordinate legislation consists of statutory instruments promulgated by
relevant ministries for example, the Education Policy and Public Service
regulations.

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10.4.1 The Education Act

The Education Act discourages discrimination of pupils upon various grounds
including gender, tribe, race and ethnic origin. This is established in terms of
Section 4(2) (A)-(B) of the Education Act. Section 4(1) of the Education Act
establishes the right to education for all children. It is the government’s objective
to make primary education compulsory. This is established in terms of Section
5 of the Education Act. In terms of this section, parents have a duty to ensure
that their children attend primary education. Further, the Education Act has
no provision for free primary education.

The Constitution is the supreme law of the land and any law that is inconsistent
with it shall be null and void because of its inconsistence. This is established in
terms of Section 3 of the former Constitution and Section 2 in terms of the
new Constitution of Zimbabwe. Section 4(2) of the Education Act condemns
discrimination in the field of education. Section 4(1) of the Education Act
creates the right to education which is now in line with the new constitution of
Zimbabwe. Prior to the formulation of this new constitution this right established
by the education Act was just cosmetic as the right was not constitutionally
guaranteed. Rights are created in terms of the Constitution and not in terms of
the Act of Parliament.

The government established an objective that primary education is supposed

to be compulsory in terms of Section 5 of the Education Act. However, the
Education Act has no provision for free primary education contrary to
international human rights standards. In terms of Article 28 of the Convention
on the Rights of the Child, primary education is supposed to be free. Zimbabwe
is a signatory to this Convention. The government was reminded by the
Committee on the Right of the Child in Paragraph 19 of 1996 Concluding
Observations where it stated:

The Committee is concerned that primary education is neither free nor

compulsory. Moreover, it expresses its concern at the lack of learning and
teaching facilities.

10.4.2 Laws related to Education

The Education Act does not operate in isolation but works in tandem with
other legislation, not specifically enacted for education, but have a causal and
effect relationship on education. Below are examples:
· The Children’s Act of 2001 which covers the protection and welfare
of children

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 The Criminal Codification and Law Reform Act and Criminal

Procedure and Evidence Act which in certain sections restricts legal
representatives, parents, guardians or guardians in loco parentis to act
on behalf of accused minors in courts of law.

Activity 10.2
? 1. “The Constitution is the supreme law of the land.” What
does this mean?
2. Distinguish between Parliamentary Legislation and
Subordinate legislation.
3. Can school rules be regarded as laws? Explain your
answer.
4. Some educators transport learners privately to and from
school, sports and other co-curricular activities. In your
opinion, why is it important for the educator to have
thorough knowledge of the Road Traffic Act and
regulations?
5. How would the counselor advocate for the protection
and welfare of vulnerable children and orphans?

10.5 Ethical Conduct

Education is a novel pursuit and imparting education is alike. There are certain
ethical principles that must be kept in mind and thought of from time to time to
ascertain the worthiness that is added, to the society through the media of
education. In light of this, this section is going to focus on some ethical issues
a school counsellor should be familiar with. By ethics, (Hazard Jr, 1995)
means norms shared by a group on a basis of material and usually reciprocal
recognition. Ethics as defined is a two-way transaction. Ethics is a set of
moral rules and analysis of human behaviour. It is a set of rules that attempt to
encourage moral behaviour and the analysis and measuring of human acts for
their rightness or wrongness. Morals refer to a notion of right and wrong that
guide each of us individually and subjectively in our daily existence, (Hazard
Jr, 1995).

10.5.1 Law
Is an enactment made by the state? It is backed by physical coercion. Its
breach is punishable by the courts. It represents the will of the state and

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realises its purpose. Law reflects the political, social and economic relationships
in the society. It determines rights and duties of the citizens towards one another
and toward the state. (Oruka, 1990)

10.5.2 Law and morality or Ethics

 The Law regulates and controls the external human conduct. It is not
concerned with inner motives. For instance a person may have an evil
intention in their mind but the law does not care for it.
 It is universal in a particular society and does not change from man to
man. The Law is framed and enforced by a determinant political
authority and enjoys the function of the state. Disobedience of law is
accompanied by physical punishment

10.5.3 Morality
It regulates and controls both the inner motives and the external actions. It is
concerned with the whole life of man. The scope of law is rather limited as
compared with that of morality because the law is only concerned with external
actions and does not consider inner actions. Morality condemns a person if
they have evil intentions which laws do not consider unless such intentions are
shown externally. Morality is variable whereas laws show precision and
definiteness as there is authority to enforce them. Morality is studied under
ethics whereas law is studied under jurisprudence. (Gilchrist, 2012)

10.6 Professional Ethics and Legal Issues

School counsellors are expected to follow standards, regulations, laws and
ethical codes. These are developed by professional associations, the state,
the courts and other similar institutions.

10.6.1 Ethical codes

These are parameters set by professional bodies on how its members should
conduct themselves when delivering their duties. Allyn and Bacon (2004)
have the opinion that ethical codes do not always give counsellors clear and
defined instruction about what to do in an ethical situation. Such a situation
presents a dilemma in the sense that we are normally not quite certain that
we have made the right choice. The uncertainty of the conditions determining
our choice renders the choice difficult, Oruka and Odera (1990). The codes
are used as a guide to practice. Their purpose is to serve as a broad framework

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upon which counsellors can make best possible decisions. Counsellors are to
protect themselves by acquainting themselves with their professional standards,
local, state laws and know the current law governing counsellors.

10.6.2 Ethical standards for School counsellors

School counsellors should be governed by their professional body, for instance,
school counsellors are governed by the American School Counsellor
Association (ASCA). School counsellors should understand the limits of these
standards. It is essential that school counsellors should enrich their knowledge
base of sound ethical and legal practices from various resources (Schmidt,
2003). It is important that the school counsellor should know that they serve
three different populations thus, students, parents and teachers and the ethical
codes are divided accordingly.

10.6.3 Responsibility to students

The school counsellor is mandated to value the total development of each
pupil. The counsellor must disclose to pupils the services they offer. The
counsellor should guard against imposing their own values on pupils, instead
they should assist the pupils explore their own values. The school counsellor
should protect pupil confidentiality, Allyn and Bacon (2004).

10.6.4 Confidentiality
This refers to the right of the client to privacy. “What is discussed in the
counselling should not be made public without the consent of the client.

10.6.5 Releasing confidential information to an outside

agency
Good practice means that counsellors stay informed about and follow
information and privacy policies that are in place Schalz (1999;98) Before
the information from a counselling relationship or record is released to a third
party, written consent must be obtained from the parent or guardian or the
student. A copy of written consent outlining the information to be released is
to be kept in the counselling record.

10.6.6 Privileged communication

This refers to a legal term which means that the client is protected from having
information disclosed in a counselling relationship against them in a court of

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law. The counsellor should find out if this law applies in their country. The
counsellor should also know the limitations of the privileges.

10.6.7 Clear and imminent danger

If the student is being in danger or intend to harm another, the school counsellor
must report this. It is essential that the school counsellor must ensure that
student individual needs are being met.

10.6.8 Responsibility to parents

It is the counsellor’s responsibility to inform parents about the services that
are open to their children. An ethical dilemma might exist between involving
parents and keeping the confidentiality of the client (student). It is important
that a school counsellor should be aware of these ethical and legal issues. If
the parents are to be involved, the counsellor should seek authority from the
student first. The counsellor must be aware of some cultural issues that may
affect the student and their family in line with these issues. According to Allyn
and Bacon (2004), ethical code promotes the qualities of cooperation, fairness,
respect and objectivity. A counsellor who is ethical displays regard and respect
for the profession. Ethical counsellors keep all the lines of
communication open.

10.6.9 Responsibility to the school and community

A counsellor should act as an advocate of the educational process and the
students’ right to education. If any programme or policy threatens the welfare
of the student, the counsellor’s should speak up. The school counsellor is
mandated to inform the school Head when conditions in the school do not
allow counsellor’s effectiveness in rendering service to students.

10.6.10 Responsibility to self

The school counsellor must be aware of their cultural identity and as well as
that of students. It is essential that a counsellor should attend to their
professional development by advancing their education. This is important for
the development of the needed competences. To avoid burn out and
compromise of services, the counsellor must exercise self- care.

10.6.11 Responsibility to the profession

The school counsellors are responsible for conducting research and reporting

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their results to benefit the field. Counsellor should take part in counselling and
educational associations. Counsellors should also attend workshops,
conferences and read professional publications to keep in touch with
developments in their field. It is also important that counsellors should behave
professionally when in the public view (Allyn and Bacon, 2004).

10.6.12 Maintenance of standards

It is imperative that school counsellors be responsible for seeing that the ethical
standards are followed. They must bring any ethical violations to the knowledge
of supervisors. They should also make an effort to discuss the ethical issues.
If the school counsellor is unable to resolve an ethical issue within their school,
they should take the issue to their supervisors. Counsellors need to understand
how ethical guidelines comply with or contradict government law; counsellors
should comprehend how policies passed by their school affect their practice.

10.6.13 The law and schools

It is essential that counsellors should be acquainted with the laws that affect
their practice in their country. Counsellors should be versed with the constitution
of their country and also be familiar with educational law. All these things
assist counsellors be within the legal parameters of their profession (Allyn
and Bacon, 2004).

10.7Legal Issues for Counsellors

10.7.1 Student’s rights
Freedom of expression, the rights to due process, appropriate education and
the right to privacy.

10.7.2 Parent’s rights

The right to provide guidance to their children, be involved with their child’s
education and access their child’s student records when children are under
the age of eighteen (18) years.

10.7.3 Counsellor liability

According to (Allyn and Bacon, 2004) the following activities could lead to

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malpractice or liability lawsuit;

1. Administration of drugs.
2. Giving birth control advice.
3. Giving abortion related advice.
4. Making statements that might be defamatory.
5. Violating confidentiality and the privacy of records
The counsellor can take preventative measures against liability. Some of these
measures according to (Allyn and Bacon, 2004) include;
 Maintaining strict adherence to programme standards and criteria.
 Reliance on other professionals for guidance and advice and in making
referrals.
 Through comprehension of the ethical codes and standards of practice.
 Understanding laws and ethical interpretations that affect school
counsellors.

10.7.4 Rationale
Both the counsellor and the client are not free of ethical views of life. Hence
effective counselling deals with ethical understanding, legal responsibilities and
moral realities. It is true that counselling does not take place in a fantasy
world. Instead, it occurs in a world of reality where individuals are required to
make ethical choices and decisions. Hence observance of professional ethical
codes protects both the public and the counsellor.

10.7.5 Unethical behaviour (Canadian Counselling

Association 2001)
Unethical behaviour relates to conduct by a professional, in this case, a
counsellor, which is not in line with the expected code of behaviour. It is
behaviour which violates guidelines of operations. Stated below are some of
the unethical behaviours by a counsellor;
 Violating confidences
The information disclosed in a counselling relationship is confidential.
 Imposing values on clients
The counsellor must be aware of their value and their impact on others.
 Incompetence
This refers to insufficient knowledge or understanding and the absence
of skills which are required for professional behaviour.
 Exceeding the level of professional competence
It is important that a counsellor must recognize their strengths and

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limitations in helping clients in the most effective and competent way. If

not competent, the counsellor should refer clients to experts.
 Creating dependence on the part of the clients to meet the counsellor’s
own needs, for example sexual relations, gifts and social interactions.
 Improper advertising, for instance advertisements that seem to suggest
that the counsellor has the skill, competence that they do not actually
have.
 Lack of integrity, moral commitment and good professional judgment
to stick to acceptable standards of right and wrong action (ethics).

10.7.6 Ethical codes

Ethical codes or standards are structured to provide guidelines for behaviour.
They spell out how a certain professional should conduct himself/herself to
avoid harm to both the client and the profession. Ethical codes serve a variety
of purposes;
 They are there to protect members from practices that may end up in
public condemnation.
 They outline a measure of self-regulation. That is they give members a
certain freedom and autonomy.
 They protect clients from unscrupulous counsellors, that is from cheats
and the incompetent.
 They provide counselors with protection from the public if they are
sued for malpractice.
Ethical conduct covers four broad areas that inter-relate Professional
interaction with students, parents, families, teachers, other school personnel,
fellow Education professionals, and other consumers of Education
professionals’ services. According to Jacob (2005), a … practitioner with a
broad knowledge base in ethical principles and standards is more likely to
anticipate and prevent ethical problems from arising. Moreover, this practitioner
is more likely to make ethically and legally sound choices when challenging
situations occur.

The conduct of Education professionals should be twofold: (a) education

professionals act as advocates for their students/clients; and (b) at the very
least, Education professionals do no harm to their students/clients. In all duties
of education professionals, children are the top priority for protection, thus
the former are obligated ethically to address concerns for the rights and welfare
of children. Discussed below are four broad areas covering professional ethics:
(a) professional competence; (b) professional relationships; (c) professional
practices; and (d) professional practice setting.

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10.8 Professional Competence

This area prescribes that education professionals engage only in those practices
for which they are qualified by virtue of their training. This is achievable in
three ways:
i. In order to remain relevant and remain current in their profession,
education professionals should engage in continuing professional
development.
ii. Education professionals should refrain from any activity in which their
personal problems might interfere with their professional effectiveness.
iii. Education professionals should know and apply their professional ethics
as and when required.

10.9 Professional Relationships

This sphere requires Education professionals to be committed to promoting
improvement in the quality of life of children, their families and the school
community. Education professionals should respect diversity in all persons
without regard to their disabilities, race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation
or religion. Dual relationships are to be avoided because engaging in both a
personal and business relationship concurrently could cloud one’s judgment.
Education professionals should try to informally resolve any concerns about
their colleagues’ professional conduct but, if necessary, consult state and
national ethics committees for assistance. An extremely important area for
Education professionals is that they are knowledgeable about, and honor
confidentiality; they understand the limits of confidentiality, e.g., informed
consent and need to know principles. Education professionals should maintain
the dignity and integrity of children and other clients and understand their
responsibilities when interacting with parents, legal guardians, and surrogates.
The area of professional relationships also extends to principles involving the
community, other professionals, trainees and interns.

10.10 Professional Practice — General Principles

Education professionals are obliged to serve as advocates for children, always
remembering that their primary client is the child. When delivering services,
Education professionals should be knowledgeable about the school or other
organisations and attempt to become integral members of their school. In
instances when conflicted loyalties might occur, Education professionals should

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clearly communicate their roles in advance. In the role of performing assessment

and developing interventions, Education professionals should remain
knowledgeable regarding current practices in the areas of assessment, direct
and indirect intervention, and counselling. Education professionals must also
use materials and technology responsibly respecting test security and assume
responsibility for electronically transmitted information.

In Zimbabwe, the professional conduct of educators employed by government

is regulated by the Public Service Regulations of 2000. On the other hand,
private institutions such as universities and other colleges are governed by
their various codes. Thus it is of uttermost importance for the educator to be
knowledgeable of the professional code they subscribe to. In this regard the
Public Service Code is used for discussion below. Disciplinary action against
educators guilty or accused of misconduct as provided for by the Public Service
Regulations of 2000 are as but not limited to the following:
a) Contravene or fail to comply with any provision of the same;
b) Is negligent or indolent in the performance of his or her duties;
c) Is under the influence of intoxicating liquor or stupefying drugs while on
duty or acting in an official capacity;
d) Disobeys, disregards or willfully defaults in carrying out a lawful order
given to him or her by a person having the authority to give it, or by
word or conduct displays insubordination;
e) Misappropriates or makes improper use of property of the employer
under circumstances not amounting to an offence;
f) Commits an offense;
g) Is absent from his or her office or duty without leave or a valid reason.
In terms of this Act, the acquittal or conviction of an educator of an offence by
a court of law does not in any way preclude the taking of disciplinary steps
against him or her. Even if the facts set out in the charge of misconduct, should
they be proven, they would constitute the offense of which he or she was so
acquitted, convicted or could have been convicted. It is important to note that
if an educator is convicted by a court of law, the record of the trial and
conviction shall serve as proof in the disciplinary hearing.

10.11 Professional Practice Settings — Private Practice

This section covers areas regarding education professionals dually employed
in private and public sectors. Education professionals must act responsibly
and ethically in these situations, for example., they do not accept remuneration
from clients who are entitled to the same service provided by the school

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employing the same. Further, they are obligated to inform the child’s parent of
the availability of services in the public schools. When education professionals
are dually employed, they do not use materials in their independent setting
that belong to the school unless approved in advance by their employer.

Activity 10.3
? 1. What is the difference between the statutory and non-
statutory role of the parent?
2. Briefly explain the necessity of parent-teacher relationship
(partnership) for effective education.
3. What precautions will you take to prevent injuries during
the physical education lesson?
4. Read any newspaper or magazine articles for examples
of educator’s negligence resulting in lawsuits by parents/
guardians. Identify errors made by the educator(s) in each
case. What will the reaction of the “reasonable man” be?
5. State any three obligations of the educator.
6. Why is it absolutely necessary for learners to be always
under constant supervision during official hours?
7. In your opinion, is it appropriate to proceed with a
disciplinary hearing when the accused has been acquitted
in criminal proceedings?

Self- assessment

1. Excessive force

A certain teacher has problems with discipline in his class, on a certain occasion
he hits one of the ring leaders in the face resulting in the broken nose of the
learner. Explain the consequences of his deed?

2. Disaster at Applegrape High School

A freaky accident occurred in the school swimming pool.

Beet, fourteen years of age, the only daughter of Mr. and Mrs. Wangopango
was found drowned in the swimming pool two hours after a swimming session.

According to Mr. Wangopango, he was notified of his daughter’s demise by

the Head of the school Mrs. Fango, four hours after the discovery of Beet’s

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body. It is believed that the school caretaker, Mr. Jambo noticed the body of
Beet floating in the water whilst facing downwards. He called for help from
his assistants who helped retrieve the body from the pools’ deep end;
unfortunately all their efforts to resuscitate her were futile. The class teacher
who had taken her class for swimming lessons said she had last seen Beet in
the change house after the swimming lesson. Mr. Wangopango is threatening
to sue the school for negligence.
1. Do you think that anyone was negligent? Give reasons for your answer.
2. What type of damage or infringement did Mr. and Mrs. Mangopango
suffer?
3. Do you think anyone should be held responsible?
4. Do you think the school should in any way be involved in the proposed
legal suit if so, to what extent?

10.12 Summary
In this unit we examined professional, legal and ethical issues in education
sector. A brief background to education was given in the discussion above;
duties and responsibility of each player in the education sector were also
outlined. This unit also elucidated legal, professional and ethical issues as they
are applied in education as well as the extent to which these areas interrelate
and intertwine in the conduct of educators, learners and other stakeholders in
education. Education is both a human right in itself and an indispensable means
of realising other human rights. As an empowerment right, education is the
primary vehicle by which economically and socially marginalised adults and
children can lift themselves out of poverty and obtain the means to participate
fully in their communities.

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References
Hapanyengwi, O. (2009). A Synoptic View of the History of Special Needs
Education in Zimbabwe
h t t p : / / w w w . t h e f r e e l i b r a r y . c o m /
A+Synoptic+View+of+the+History+of+Special+Needs+Education
+in+Zimbabwe-a01073960231 (accessed 21 November 2009).
Mutepfa, M.M. et al, (2007). ‘Inclusive education in Zimbabwe: policy,
curriculum, practice, family, and teacher education issues’, In: Childhood
Education, 8;6: 342 (online)[Link]
Childhood+Education/2007/August/15 p5216(accessed 21 October
2009).
Nziramasanga, C. T. (1999). The Chairman’s Report of the Presidential
Commission of Inquiry Into Education and Training, Harare, The
Commission.
UNICEF (2003). Inclusive Education Initiatives for Children with
Disabilities Lessons from the East Asia and Pacific Region, Bangkok,
UNICEF Regional Office for East Asia
Pacific.(Online)[Link]
[Link], (Accessed 19 March 2010) .
Human Rights Instruments
African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights
African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child
Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
Convention on the Rights of the Child
International Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Racial Discrimination
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights
of Women in Africa
SADC Protocol on Gender and Development
Salamanca Statements and Framework for Action
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Statutes
The Constitution of the Republic of Zimbabwe of 1980
The Constitution of the Republic of Zimbabwe of 2013
The Children’s Act of 2001
The Criminal Codification and Law Reform Act
The Criminal Procedure and Evidence Act
The Education Act
The Labour Act

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Public Service Regulations of 2000

Public Service Act
The Road Traffic Act

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