Data Communications & Networks — Study Notes | Chapters 01, 02 & 04 | Dept.

of ICT, University of Vavuniya

📡
Data Communications &
Networks
Complete Study Notes — Chapters 01, 02 & 04
TICT 2222
Dept. of ICT · Faculty of Technological Studies · University of Vavuniya

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Data Communications & Networks — Study Notes | Chapters 01, 02 & 04 | Dept. of ICT, University of Vavuniya

📋 What's Inside This Book

Chapter Topic Covers

Chapter 01 Data Communications Data communications basics,

components, flow modes, data
types, networks, topologies
(Mesh/Star/Bus/Ring), LAN/WAN,
standards, protocols

Chapter 02 Reference Models Protocol layering, TCP/IP 5-layer

model (all protocols), OSI 7-layer
model, encapsulation/decapsulation,
addressing, OSI vs TCP/IP

Chapter 04 Transmission Media Guided media (Twisted-pair,

Coaxial, Fibre-optic), Unguided
media (Radio, Microwave, Infrared),
propagation methods, comparisons

Every chapter includes: Simple English definitions • Colour-coded tables • Real-life examples • Memory
tricks • Activities with hints • Master summary

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Data Communications & Networks — Study Notes | Chapters 01, 02 & 04 | Dept. of ICT, University of Vavuniya

📡
Chapter 01
Data Communications & Networks
Dept. of ICT · University of Vavuniya

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Data Communications & Networks — Study Notes | Chapters 01, 02 & 04 | Dept. of ICT, University of Vavuniya

1.1 Data Communications

Data communications means sending information from one place to another using a wire, Wi-Fi, or any other
medium. Think of it like sending a WhatsApp message — you type a message (data), press send, it travels
through the internet (medium), and your friend receives it (receiver).

🔑 Key Definitions

Data Any information — text, picture, video, voice — ready to be shared.

Telecommunication Communication over a distance (tele = far away).

Data Comm. Exchange of data between two devices through a transmission medium.

📦 The 5 Components of a Data Communication System

Component Simple Meaning Real-life Example

Message The information being sent A photo you want to send

Sender The device that sends the message Your mobile phone

Receiver The device that gets the message Your friend's phone

Medium The path the message travels Wi-Fi / mobile data / cable
through

Protocol The rules both devices must follow WhatsApp's communication rules

🧠 MEMORY TRICK
Remember the 5 components:
"My Sender Receives Messages Properly"
M=Message | S=Sender | R=Receiver | M=Medium | P=Protocol

📊 4 Fundamental Characteristics

Characteristic Meaning Real Example

✅ Delivery Data must reach the RIGHT Your email reaches YOUR friend
destination

✅ Accuracy Data must arrive WITHOUT errors No missing letters in a message

✅ Timeliness Data must arrive ON TIME (no Live video call — no lag
delays)

✅ Jitter Variation in packet arrival time must Smooth music streaming, no skips
be small

🔄 Data Flow Modes

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Mode Direction Simple Meaning Real Example

Simplex One-way only → Only one device can send TV remote → TV

Half-Duplex Both ways, not together ↔ Take turns sending Walkie-talkie

Full-Duplex Both ways at same time ⇄ Both can send Phone call
simultaneously

How Different Data Types Are Represented

Data Type How it is stored Quick Example

Text Bit pattern (ASCII / Unicode) A = 01000001

Numbers Direct binary conversion 5 = 0101

Images Matrix of pixels, each has a bit code A photo = a grid of coloured dots

Audio Captured by mic → converted to Microphone records, computer

digital stores bits

Video Many image frames played fast 24 photos per second = 1 second of
video

✏️ Activity 1 — Quick Check on Data Communications

1. Name the 5 components of a data communication system without looking.

2. Your lecturer is speaking to students via Zoom. What data flow mode is this?

3. How is a photograph stored in a computer? Explain in 1 sentence.

4. What is the difference between Timeliness and Jitter?

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Data Communications & Networks — Study Notes | Chapters 01, 02 & 04 | Dept. of ICT, University of Vavuniya

1.2 Networks

A network is a group of devices connected together so they can share data. Think of it like a WhatsApp group
— everyone is linked and anyone can send a message to anyone else.

A set of communication devices (nodes) connected by links so they can share

Network
data.

Node Any device connected to the network — a computer, printer, phone, server.

Link The path a signal travels on — cable, fibre, or wireless signal.

📏 Network Performance Criteria

Criteria What it means How it is measured

Performance How fast and efficient is the Throughput & Delay

network?

Reliability Does the network fail often? Can it Frequency of failure, recovery time
recover?

Security Is data safe from hackers? Confidentiality, Integrity, Availability

(CIA)

🧠 MEMORY TRICK
Security = CIA
C = Confidentiality (only right people see data)
I = Integrity (data not changed/corrupted)
A = Availability (data accessible when needed)

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1.3 Network Topologies

Topology means the shape or layout of how devices are connected. Physical topology = actual physical
placement. Logical topology = path data actually follows.

Topology Shape How it works Advantage Disadvantage

Mesh Every device Dedicated link Very reliable — Expensive — too

connects to every between each pair alternate paths if one many cables
other fails

Star All devices connect Device → Hub → Easy to add/remove If Hub dies,
to central Device — one failure everything stops
Hub/Switch doesn't affect others

Bus One long backbone Signal travels along Less cabling, easy to If backbone breaks,
cable backbone set up everything stops

Ring Devices form a circle Signal travels one Easy to add/remove One break disables
direction whole ring

🧠 MEMORY TRICK
4 Topologies: "My Star Bus Rings" (M-S-B-R)
Mesh=spiderweb | Star=asterisk(*) | Bus=one long road | Ring=circle
Mesh formula: n × (n-1) ÷ 2 links
Example: 5 devices → 5×4÷2 = 10 links

✏️ Activity 2 — Topology Quick Check

1. Draw a simple Star topology with 4 devices and label the Hub.

2. A university computer lab has 30 computers. Which topology is most practical?

3. How many links does a Mesh network with 6 devices need?

4. True or False: In a Bus topology, if the main cable breaks, only one device is affected.

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1.4 Network Types & The Internet

Network Type What it is Size Example

LAN (Local Area Network) Connects devices in a Room, floor, building University computer lab,
small area office network

WAN (Wide Area Network) Connects devices over City, country, continent Sri Lanka Telecom, Dialog
large area internet

Internetwork Two or more networks Any size University LAN connected

connected to the internet

Switching Type How it works Analogy

Circuit-Switched Dedicated path reserved for entire Old telephone — the line is yours
conversation only while talking

Packet-Switched Data broken into packets; each Sending a book page-by-page via
takes own route; reassembled at different postmen
destination

🧠 MEMORY TRICK
Internet History:
Kleinrock (1961) → Packet Switching theory
ARPA → military research network
Cerf & Kahn → invented TCP/IP gateway
WWW → internet exploded for public use

1.5 Standards & Administration

Type Meaning Example

De Facto NOT officially approved but QWERTY keyboard layout

everyone uses it

De Jure Officially approved by a recognised IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi standard)

body

🧠 MEMORY TRICK
De Facto = FACT of life — people just use it
De Jure = JURY decided — officially approved by law/body

Organisation Short Name Focus Area

International Organization for ISO Global standards for everything

Standardization

International Telecommunications ITU-T Telecom standards worldwide

Union

American National Standards ANSI US standards body

Institute

Institute of Electrical & Electronics IEEE Electrical & networking standards

Engineers (Wi-Fi)

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Organisation Short Name Focus Area

Electronic Industries Associates EIA Electronics hardware standards

Internet Society ISOC Promotes internet research

Internet Architecture Board IAB Technical advisor to ISOC

Internet Engineering Task Force IETF Solves day-to-day internet problems

1.6 Protocols

Protocol A set of rules governing WHAT is communicated, HOW, and WHEN.

Element Meaning Example

Syntax FORMAT or STRUCTURE of the First 8 bits = sender address, next 8

data = receiver

Semantics MEANING of each part Does address tell us where to SEND

or where it came FROM?

Timing WHEN to send and HOW FAST Sender 100 Mbps but receiver only
1 Mbps → data loss!

🧠 MEMORY TRICK
Protocol Elements = SST → "Sending Stuff Together"
S = Syntax (structure/format)
S = Semantics (meaning)
T = Timing (when & how fast)

✏️ Activity 3 — Protocols & Standards

1. Name the 3 elements of a protocol with a one-sentence definition each.

2. What is the difference between De Facto and De Jure? Give one example each.

3. What is an RFC? What does it stand for?

4. Which organisation is responsible for the Wi-Fi standard (IEEE 802.11)?

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📚 Chapter 01 — Master Summary

Topic Key Points

Data Comm. 5 components: Message, Sender, Receiver, Medium,

Protocol 4 characteristics: Delivery, Accuracy,
Timeliness, Jitter 3 flow modes: Simplex | Half-duplex |
Full-duplex

Network Nodes + Links | Criteria: Performance, Reliability,

Security (CIA) Point-to-point vs Multipoint connections

Topologies Mesh (reliable, expensive) | Star (hub centre) | Bus

(backbone) | Ring (circle) Mesh formula: n(n-1)/2 links

Network Types LAN (small, private) | WAN (large, telecom) Circuit

switching (dedicated) vs Packet switching (shared)

Internet Millions of networks | Backbones + national ISPs

Kleinrock 1961 → ARPA → TCP/IP → WWW

Standards De Facto (popular use) vs De Jure (official body) ISO,

ITU-T, ANSI, IEEE, EIA | Internet: ISOC → IAB → IETF
→ IRTF

Protocols SST: Syntax + Semantics + Timing RFC = Request for

Comments → Internet Standard

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🌐
Chapter 02
Reference Models
Dept. of ICT · University of Vavuniya

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Data Communications & Networks — Study Notes | Chapters 01, 02 & 04 | Dept. of ICT, University of Vavuniya

2.1 Protocol Layering

Protocol layering means breaking complex communication into smaller, manageable jobs — each handled by
one layer. Think of it like a restaurant: the waiter takes your order (top layer), the chef cooks (middle), and
delivery brings it to you (bottom).

Protocol Rules that the sender, receiver, and all intermediate devices must follow.

Dividing communication into layers; complex tasks need many layers, each with
Protocol Layering
its own protocol.

Logical Connection Imaginary direct link between the SAME layer on two different computers.

Principle Meaning Lecture Example

Principle 1 — Bidirectional If one side does action X, the other Maria's Layer 2 ENCRYPTS →
must do the OPPOSITE. Ann's Layer 2 must DECRYPT

Principle 2 — Identical objects Same type of object exchanged Layer 3 both sides: Plaintext | Layer
between matching layers on both 2 both sides: Ciphertext | Layer 1
sides. both sides: Mail

🧠 MEMORY TRICK
Layers = Workers on an assembly line
Each worker does ONE job. Product passes along.
Same jobs happen in REVERSE ORDER at the destination.
Maria wraps gift in 3 layers → Ann unwraps 3 layers in reverse.

✏️ Activity 1 — Protocol Layering

1. What is a PROTOCOL? Give a real-life non-computer example.

2. Difference between a PHYSICAL and a LOGICAL connection?

3. Maria's Layer 2 encrypts a message. What must Ann's Layer 2 do?

4. Why do we use multiple layers instead of one single protocol?

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2.2 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is the set of rules used on the internet today. It is
hierarchical — upper layers depend on lower layers. Today it has 5 layers.

The 5 Layers — Top to Bottom

Layer # Name Data Unit Address Key Protocols

Layer 5 (Top) Application Message Names (e.g. HTTP, FTP, SMTP,

[Link]) DNS, SSH, TELNET,
SNMP, IGMP

Layer 4 Transport Segment / Datagram Port Numbers TCP, UDP, SCTP

(:80, :443, :25)

Layer 3 Network Datagram / Packet IP Address IP, ICMP, ARP,

([Link]) DHCP, IGMP

Layer 2 Data Link Frame MAC Address Ethernet, Wi-Fi

(00:1A:2B:3C) protocols

Layer 1 (Bottom) Physical Bits / Signals None Electrical / Optical /

Radio

🧠 MEMORY TRICK
5 TCP/IP layers top → bottom:
"All Teenagers Need Data Plans"
A=Application | T=Transport | N=Network | D=Data Link | P=Physical

Layer Simple Job Real-Life Analogy Key Device

Application (5) Where YOUR apps run. WhatsApp on your phone Computer / Phone
Process-to-process.

Transport (4) Breaks data into Packing dept — numbers Computer / Phone
segments. TCP=reliable. boxes, checks delivery
UDP=fast.

Network (3) Finds the best ROUTE GPS choosing which road Router
using IP addresses. to take

Data Link (2) Moves data across ONE Local courier in one Switch
link. Uses MAC neighbourhood
addresses.

Physical (1) Converts bits to signals The actual road the courier Cable / Wi-Fi
and sends them. drives on

📱 Application Layer Protocols

Protocol Full Name What it does Port

HTTP HyperText Transfer Loads websites 80

Protocol

HTTPS HTTP Secure Secure websites 443

SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Sends emails 25

Protocol

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Protocol Full Name What it does Port

FTP File Transfer Protocol Transfers files 21

SSH Secure Shell Secure remote access 22

TELNET Terminal Network Remote access (old, not 23

secure)

DNS Domain Name System Converts [Link] 53

→ IP

SNMP Simple Network Manages network devices 161

Management Protocol

IGMP Internet Group Group/multicast —

Management Protocol membership

🚚 Transport Layer — TCP vs UDP vs SCTP

Feature TCP UDP SCTP

Connection Connection-oriented (sets Connectionless (sends Connection-oriented

up first) right away)

Reliable? ✅ YES — checks all ❌ NO — no checking ✅ YES

arrived

Flow control ✅ YES ❌ NO ✅ YES

Speed Slower Faster Medium

Data unit Segment User Datagram Data chunk

Use case Web, email, file transfer Video call, gaming, VoIP, multimedia
streaming

🧠 MEMORY TRICK
TCP = Careful postman — knocks, waits, checks every letter arrived
UDP = Speed delivery — drops package at door and drives away
SCTP = Best of both worlds — reliable + multi-stream

🌍 Network Layer Protocols

Protocol Full Name What it does

IP Internet Protocol Defines packet format; routes

packets source→destination.
Connectionless.

ICMP Internet Control Message Protocol Helps IP report errors (e.g.

'destination unreachable')

IGMP Internet Group Management Manages group memberships for

Protocol multicast/streaming

DHCP Dynamic Host Configuration Automatically gives device an IP

Protocol address when it connects

ARP Address Resolution Protocol Finds MAC address when you only
know the IP address

📦 Encapsulation & Decapsulation

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Encapsulation = Adding a HEADER (and sometimes trailer) as data goes DOWN the layers at
the SENDER. Decapsulation = Removing headers layer by layer as data goes UP the layers at
the RECEIVER.

Step Layer Action Data Unit What is added

1 Application (5) App creates raw Message Nothing — raw data

data

2 Transport (4) Adds header H4 Segment / Datagram Port numbers

3 Network (3) Adds header H3 Datagram / Packet IP addresses

4 Data Link (2) Adds header H2 + Frame MAC addresses +

trailer T2 error check

5 Physical (1) Converts to signals Bits / Signals No header — just

signals

🧠 MEMORY TRICK
Encapsulation = wrapping a gift in layers (sender adds headers going DOWN)
Decapsulation = unwrapping the gift (receiver removes headers going UP)
Data units: Message → Segment → Packet → Frame → Bits

📮 Addressing — 4 Types in TCP/IP

Layer Address Type Example What it identifies

Application (5) Names [Link] Service by name — DNS

converts to IP

Transport (4) Port Numbers 80 (HTTP), 443 (HTTPS), Specific service/app on a

25 (SMTP) computer

Network (3) Logical / IP Address [Link] Specific computer

anywhere on internet

Data Link (2) Link / MAC Address 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E Specific device on ONE
local network

🧠 MEMORY TRICK
Addresses top → bottom: "Netflix Picks Its Movies"
N=Names | P=Port numbers | I=IP addresses | M=MAC addresses

✏️ Activity 2 — TCP/IP Deep Dive

1. Name all 5 TCP/IP layers and the data unit at each layer.

2. What is the main difference between a SWITCH and a ROUTER? Which layer does each work at?

3. You type [Link]. Which protocol converts that name to an IP address?

4. TCP vs UDP: Give one use case each and explain WHY that protocol is used.

5. CHALLENGE: Trace a WhatsApp message — what happens at each of the 5 layers?

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2.3 The OSI Model

The OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection) is a 7-layer reference model created by ISO. Purpose: allow
ANY device from ANY manufacturer to communicate WITHOUT changing hardware/software. ISO is the
organisation; OSI is the model.

Layer # Layer Name What it does Simple Analogy

7 (Top) Application Provides services to user Instagram, browsers,

applications. Data users email apps
work with.

6 Presentation Translates, encrypts, and A translator who converts

compresses data. languages

5 Session Manages sessions — Phone operator

starts, maintains, ends connecting your call
connections.

4 Transport End-to-end reliable Courier company tracking

delivery. Error & flow delivery
control.

3 Network Routes packets across GPS choosing the best

multiple networks using IP. road

2 Data Link Hop-to-hop transfer on Local delivery within one

ONE link. Detects errors in city
frames.

1 (Bottom) Physical Sends raw bits as The actual road/cable/air

electrical/optical/radio
signals.

🧠 MEMORY TRICK
OSI 7 layers top → bottom:
"All People Seem To Need Data Processing"
A=Application | P=Presentation | S=Session | T=Transport | N=Network | D=Data Link | P=Physical

Bottom → top:
"Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away"

⚖️ OSI Model vs TCP/IP — Side by Side

Feature OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Layers 7 layers 5 layers

Created by ISO ARPA / Internet community

Used in practice? ❌ NO — reference/teaching only ✅ YES — real internet uses TCP/IP

Top layers Application + Presentation + Combined into ONE Application

Session (3 separate) layer

Purpose Universal reference model Real working internet protocol

OSI failed because (1) Arrived too late (2) Layers —

undefined (3) Poor performance

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✏️ Activity 3 — OSI Model

1. List all 7 OSI layers from top to bottom (Layer 7 to Layer 1).

2. Which 3 OSI layers are combined into TCP/IP Application layer?

3. State 3 reasons why OSI did NOT succeed in real networks.

4. What is the DIFFERENCE between ISO and OSI? (Common exam trap!)

5. CHALLENGE: Draw the OSI-to-TCP/IP mapping table from memory.

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📚 Chapter 02 — Master Summary

Topic Key Points

Protocol Layering Protocol = rules for all parties Principle 1: bidirectional

(encrypt↔decrypt) Principle 2: identical objects at
matching layers Logical connection = imaginary direct
link

TCP/IP 5 Layers All Teenagers Need Data Plans Application →

Transport → Network → Data Link → Physical

Application Layer HTTP(80), SMTP(25), FTP(21), SSH(22), TELNET(23),

DNS(53), SNMP(161), IGMP

Transport Layer TCP=reliable+slow | UDP=fast+no-check |

SCTP=multimedia Addresses: Port numbers

Network Layer IP routes using IP addresses | Key device: Router

ARP=finds MAC | DHCP=gives IP | ICMP=error
reporting

Data Link / Physical Data Link: Frames + MAC | Switch Physical:

bits→signals | Cable/Wi-Fi/Fibre

Encapsulation Sender ADDS headers DOWN | Receiver REMOVES

headers UP
Message→Segment→Packet→Frame→Bits

Addressing Netflix Picks Its Movies Names→Ports→IP→MAC (top

to bottom)

OSI Model All People Seem To Need Data Processing Reference

only — TCP/IP used in real networks ISO≠OSI:
ISO=organisation | OSI=model

Devices Switch = Layer 2 (MAC addresses) Router = Layer 3 (IP

addresses)

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📶
Chapter 04
Transmission Media
Dept. of ICT · University of Vavuniya

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Introduction — Transmission Media

A transmission medium is the physical path through which a signal travels from sender to receiver. It sits
directly below the Physical Layer of TCP/IP.

Class Also Called How it works Examples

GUIDED MEDIA Wired Signal travels through a Twisted-pair | Coaxial |

PHYSICAL conductor Fibre-optic
(copper or glass).

UNGUIDED MEDIA Wireless Signal travels through Radio waves | Microwaves

FREE SPACE as | Infrared
electromagnetic waves.

🧠 MEMORY TRICK
Guided = pet on a LEASH (has a wire to guide it)
Unguided = bird flying FREE (no wire, just air)

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7.2.1 Twisted-Pair Cable

Two copper wires, each in plastic insulation, twisted together. The twisting cancels out EMI — more twists =
less noise (crosstalk).

Feature UTP (Unshielded) STP (Shielded)

Shield ❌ No metal shield ✅ Metal foil shield around pairs

Noise protection Lower Higher — shield blocks EMI

Cost Cheaper More expensive

Installation Easier Harder (stiffer)

Common use Home & office LANs Industrial, high-interference areas

Connector RJ-45 (keyed — one direction only) RJ-45

🧠 MEMORY TRICK
UTP = Unprotected Thin Pair — cheap, easy, no shield
STP = Shielded — knight in armour, heavy but protected
RJ-45 = KEYED connector — only goes in ONE direction (like USB-A)!

📊 UTP Categories

Category Speed Key Feature Use

CAT 1 < 0.1 Mbps Oldest Old telephone lines

CAT 3 10 Mbps Improved for LANs Early LANs

CAT 5 100 Mbps 24 AWG wire with jacket Standard LANs

CAT 5e 125 Mbps Extra EMI reduction Home & office LANs

CAT 6 200 Mbps Matched components Modern LANs

CAT 7 600 Mbps Each pair individually High-performance LANs

shielded (SSTP)

CAT 8 25-40 Gbps 2000 MHz bandwidth Data centres, server

rooms

How to reduce crosstalk: (1) Increase number of twists per metre (2) Use STP with metal shield

✏️ Activity 1 — Twisted-Pair Cable

1. What are the 2 types of twisted-pair cable? What is the KEY difference?

2. Why are the wires twisted in a twisted-pair cable?

3. Which UTP category would you choose for a new university computer lab? Why?

4. True or False: RJ-45 can be inserted in any direction.

5. Name 3 real-life applications of twisted-pair cable.

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7.2.2 Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable has a central copper core surrounded by layers — like an onion. The outer metallic layer serves
TWO jobs: it is the second conductor AND it shields against noise.

Layer (inside→out) What it is Job

1. Center conductor Copper wire at the very centre Carries the signal

2. Dielectric insulator Insulating material around the core Separates inner & outer conductors

3. Outer conductor (Braided shield) Metallic mesh/foil wrapped around 2nd conductor + noise shield (DUAL
insulator role)

4. Plastic outer jacket Tough plastic cover Protects the whole cable

RG Rating Impedance Use

RG-59 75 Ω Cable TV (set-top box cable)

RG-58 50 Ω Thin Ethernet (10Base2)

RG-11 50 Ω Thick Ethernet (10Base5)

Connector Use

BNC connector Standard connector — joins coaxial to a device

BNC T connector Junction connector — connects device at a midpoint

BNC terminator End-cap (50Ω) — placed at END of cable to stop signal

reflection

✏️ Activity 2 — Coaxial Cable

1. List the 4 layers of a coaxial cable from inside to outside.

2. What are the TWO jobs of the outer metallic conductor?

3. What RG rating is used for Cable TV? What is its impedance?

4. What is the job of a BNC terminator?

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7.2.3 Fiber-Optic Cable

Fiber-optic cable uses glass or plastic to carry signals as pulses of LIGHT. No electrical current. Fastest
guided medium. Immune to EMI.

Layer (inside→out) What it is Job

1. Glass/plastic core Thin glass strand at centre Carries the light signal

2. Cladding Less dense glass surrounding core Reflects light BACK into core (Total
Internal Reflection)

3. Plastic buffer Plastic layer around cladding Protects the glass

4. Du Pont Kevlar Tough Kevlar fibres Adds strength — prevents snapping

5. Outer jacket Tough plastic cover Overall protection

Total Internal Reflection (TIR): When light hits the core-cladding boundary at an angle
GREATER than the critical angle, it is completely reflected back into the core — it cannot
escape! This keeps the light signal bouncing all the way to the receiver. Angle < critical →
REFRACTION (exits core — signal lost) Angle > critical → REFLECTION (stays in core —
signal preserved ✅)

📡 3 Propagation Modes

Mode Light Path Core Density Signal Quality Use

Multimode Step- ZIG-ZAG — sharp CONSTANT Most distortion Short distances

Index bounces throughout

Multimode Graded- HELICAL VARIES — highest Less distortion Medium distances

Index (curved/spiral) at centre

Single Mode STRAIGHT — laser- Very low, tiny Least distortion — Long distances
like beam diameter best (backbone)

🧠 MEMORY TRICK
3 Modes — Zigzag → Spiral → Straight
Step-Index = Zig-Zag stairs (sudden sharp bounces)
Graded-Index = Spiral slide (smooth curves)
Single Mode = Laser beam (one straight path)
Distortion: Most → Less → Least

✅ ADVANTAGES ❌ DISADVANTAGES

Higher bandwidth — much faster than copper Installation & maintenance needs expert skills

Less signal attenuation — travels farther Unidirectional — need 2 fibres for bidirectional

Immune to EMI — no interference from motors/wires Higher cost — cable AND interfaces more expensive

Resistant to corrosion — glass doesn't rust More fragile — glass cracks if bent sharply

Lighter weight than copper cables —

Harder to tap — more secure against eavesdropping —

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Connector Locking Type Use

SC (Subscriber Channel) Push/pull Cable TV connections

ST (Straight-Tip) Bayonet (twist & lock) — more Connecting to networking devices

reliable

MT-RJ Clip — same size as RJ-45 Modern use

✏️ Activity 3 — Fiber-Optic Cable

1. What is Total Internal Reflection? Why is it important in fibre-optic?

2. Describe the 3 propagation modes. Which has the LEAST distortion?

3. List 3 advantages AND 3 disadvantages of fibre-optic cable.

4. Why does bidirectional communication need TWO fibre cables?

5. LECTURER QUESTION: What phenomenon occurs when light changes direction passing from one
medium to another of different density?

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Data Communications & Networks — Study Notes | Chapters 01, 02 & 04 | Dept. of ICT, University of Vavuniya

7.3 Unguided Media — Wireless Transmission

Unguided media carry signals through FREE SPACE as electromagnetic waves — no physical cable needed.
Signals are broadcast and available to anyone with the right receiver.

Propagation Method Frequency How it travels Real Example

Ground Propagation Below 2 MHz Waves hug the earth's AM radio, long-wave radio
surface and follow its
curvature. All directions.
Power = distance.

Sky Propagation 2–30 MHz Waves go UP into Shortwave radio,

ionosphere and are international broadcasts
REFLECTED back to
earth. Greater range, less
power.

Line-of-Sight Propagation Above 30 MHz Straight lines from antenna TV towers, microwave
to antenna. Must be towers, Wi-Fi, satellite
aligned. Taller towers =
more range.

🧠 MEMORY TRICK
3 Propagation Methods (low → high frequency):
"Ground → Sky → Sight"
G = Ground (hug earth, low freq < 2 MHz)
S = Sky (ionosphere bounce, 2–30 MHz)
S = Sight (straight line, > 30 MHz)

Feature Radio Waves Microwaves Infrared

Antenna Omnidirectional (all Unidirectional (one IR LED/detector

directions) direction)

Alignment needed ❌ NO ✅ YES — must face each ✅ YES (line-of-sight)

other

Wall penetration ✅ YES (low/medium freq) ❌ NO ❌ NO

Outdoor use ✅ YES ✅ YES ❌ NO (sun interferes)

Range Continental Line-of-sight (tower height Same room only

limited)

Interference High (same frequency) Low (aligned pairs don't Low (room-to-room
interfere) isolated)

Communication type Multicast (one-to-many) Unicast (one-to-one) Short-range point-to-point

Applications Radio/TV broadcast, Mobile phones, satellite, TV remote, short-range

paging Wi-Fi devices

Antenna types Omnidirectional tower Dish antenna, Horn IR LED/photodiode

antenna

🧠 MEMORY TRICK
Radio vs Microwave vs Infrared:
Radio = OMNI (all directions) | can go through walls | multicast
Microwave = UNI (one direction) | must align | cannot penetrate walls | unicast

Page 25 of 28 | TICT 2222 | Simple English Study Notes

Data Communications & Networks — Study Notes | Chapters 01, 02 & 04 | Dept. of ICT, University of Vavuniya

Infrared = same room only | no walls | no outdoors (sun interferes)

✏️ Activity 4 — Unguided Media

1. What is the difference between OMNIDIRECTIONAL and UNIDIRECTIONAL antenna?

2. Which propagation method does microwave use? What are the tower requirements?

3. Explain why infrared CANNOT be used outdoors.

4. Which wireless type is best for TV/radio broadcasting? Why?

5. At what frequency range does Line-of-Sight propagation occur?

Page 26 of 28 | TICT 2222 | Simple English Study Notes

Data Communications & Networks — Study Notes | Chapters 01, 02 & 04 | Dept. of ICT, University of Vavuniya

📊 MEGA COMPARISON — All 6 Transmission Media

Feature Twisted-Pair Coaxial Fibre-Optic Radio Waves Microwaves Infrared

Type Guided Guided Guided Unguided Unguided Unguided

Signal Electrical Electrical Light EM waves EM waves EM waves

Material Copper Copper Glass/Plastic Air Air Air

Max Speed 40 Gbps ~10 Gbps Tbps range Varies Varies Gbps range
(CAT8)

EMI effect Affected Less affected IMMUNE Affected Affected Some effect

Max range ~100m (LAN) Few km Very long Continental Line-of-sight Same room

Wall ✅ Yes ✅ Yes ✅ Yes ✅ Yes (low ❌ No ❌ No

penetrate freq)

Cost Cheapest Medium Most Low Medium Low

expensive

Connector RJ-45 BNC SC/ST/MT-RJ Antenna Dish/Horn IR

antenna LED/detector

Common use LAN, Cable TV, old Internet Radio, TV, Mobile, TV remote,
telephone, Ethernet backbone, paging satellite, Wi-Fi short range
DSL LAN

📚 Chapter 04 — Master Summary

Topic Key Points

Guided vs Unguided Guided=leash(wire) | Unguided=bird(free/air)

Twisted-Pair 2 copper wires twisted — cancels EMI UTP(no

shield,cheap) vs STP(metal shield,expensive) Reduces
crosstalk: more twists OR use STP RJ-45 connector
(KEYED — one direction only) CAT1(<0.1Mbps) →
CAT8(40Gbps)

Coaxial Core→Dielectric→Shield(2nd conductor)→Jacket Outer

conductor = 2nd conductor + noise shield RG-
59(75Ω,TV) | RG-58(50Ω,thin Eth) | RG-11(50Ω,thick
Eth) Connectors: BNC | BNC-T | BNC Terminator

Fiber-Optic TIR keeps light inside: angle>critical→reflection 3

modes: Step-index(zigzag) → Graded(helical) →
Single(straight) Advantages: high BW, immune EMI, low
attenuation, secure Disadvantages: expensive,
unidirectional, expert installation Connectors:
SC(push/pull) | ST(bayonet) | MT-RJ

Propagation Methods Ground(<2MHz,hug earth) | Sky(2-30MHz,ionosphere) |

LoS(>30MHz,straight)

Radio Waves Omni antenna | No alignment | CAN penetrate walls |

Multicast Use: radio/TV broadcast, paging

Microwaves Uni antenna | MUST align | CANNOT penetrate walls |

Unicast Line-of-sight | Dish & Horn antennas | Use:
mobile, satellite, Wi-Fi

Infrared Same room only | Cannot penetrate walls | Cannot use

outdoors (sun interferes) Line-of-sight | Use: TV
remotes, short-range devices

Page 27 of 28 | TICT 2222 | Simple English Study Notes

Data Communications & Networks — Study Notes | Chapters 01, 02 & 04 | Dept. of ICT, University of Vavuniya

Topic Key Points

Lecturer Question Light changes direction at density boundary =

REFRACTION Angle > critical angle = TOTAL
INTERNAL REFLECTION (TIR)

🧠 MEGA MEMORY CARD — All Chapters

Ch01 — 5 Components: My Sender Receives Messages Properly (M-S-R-M-P)
Ch01 — 4 Characteristics: Delivery, Accuracy, Timeliness, Jitter
Ch01 — 4 Topologies: My Star Bus Rings | Security = CIA
Ch01 — Standards: De Facto=habit | De Jure=official | Protocol SST=Syntax+Semantics+Timing
Ch02 — TCP/IP 5 layers: All Teenagers Need Data Plans
Ch02 — OSI 7 layers: All People Seem To Need Data Processing
Ch02 — TCP=careful postman | UDP=speed drop-and-run | Addresses: Netflix Picks Its Movies
Ch02 — Encapsulation: DOWN=add headers | UP=remove headers | ISO≠OSI
Ch04 — Guided=leash | Unguided=bird | Fibre uses TIR (Total Internal Reflection)
Ch04 — Fibre modes: Zigzag→Spiral→Straight (most→least distortion)
Ch04 — Propagation: Ground<2MHz | Sky 2-30MHz | LoS>30MHz
Ch04 — Radio=omni,walls OK | Microwave=uni,no walls | Infrared=room only,no outdoors
Good luck in your exams! You've got this! 🎯

Page 28 of 28 | TICT 2222 | Simple English Study Notes