Topic 3: Environmental Pollution (Air, Water, Land, Noise)

Environmental pollution is defined as the undesirable change in the physical, chemical,

or biological characteristics of our environment that can harmfully affect human life or
that of other desirable species.

3.1 Air Pollution

Air pollution is the presence of one or more contaminants in the atmosphere in such
quantities and for such duration that they cause injury to humans, plants, animals, or
property.

• Classification of Air Pollutants:

o Primary Pollutants: Harmful substances emitted directly into the air from
a source. Examples: SO₂, NO, CO, and particulate matter (PM).
o Secondary Pollutants: Formed when primary pollutants react chemically
in the atmosphere. Examples: Ozone (O₃) and Peroxyacyl Nitrates (PAN).
• Major Air Pollutants & Their Effects:
o Carbon Monoxide (CO): A colorless, odorless gas from incomplete
combustion. It reduces the blood's ability to carry oxygen.
o Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂): Produced by burning coal and oil. A major
contributor to acid rain, which damages buildings (like the Taj Mahal) and
harms aquatic life.
o Nitrogen Oxides (NOₓ): Produced from high-temperature combustion.
They contribute to smog and acid rain.
o Particulate Matter (PM): Tiny solid particles or liquid droplets. They can
cause serious respiratory issues.
• Global Air Pollution Issues:
o Acid Rain: Rainfall with a pH of less than 5.6, caused mainly by SO₂ and
NOₓ.
o Photochemical Smog: A brownish-yellow haze formed when sunlight
causes NOₓ and VOCs to react, producing O₃ and PAN.
o Ozone Layer Depletion: Caused by Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), leading
to increased UV-B radiation and the "Ozone Hole" over Antarctica.
o The Greenhouse Effect & Global Warming:The trapping of heat by
gases like CO₂, CH₄, N₂O, and CFCs, leading to a gradual increase in Earth's
temperature.

3.2 Water Pollution

Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies, generally as a result of human
activities.

• Sources & Effects:

o Point Sources: Discharge from a single identifiable source, like a factory
pipe or sewage treatment plant.
o Non-point Sources: Diffuse pollution that cannot be traced to a single
point, such as agricultural runoff containing fertilizers.
• Key Concepts:
o Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD): The amount of oxygen required by
microorganisms to break down organic waste in water. A high BOD
indicates high organic pollution and poor water quality.
o Eutrophication: The nutrient enrichment (primarily nitrogen and
phosphorus) of a water body, leading to excessive algae growth (algal
blooms), oxygen depletion, and death of aquatic life.
o Biomagnification: The increase in concentration of a persistent pollutant
(e.g., DDT or mercury) as it moves up the food chain.
• Key Terms:
o Indicator Organisms: Bacteria like E. coli are used to detect fecal
contamination in water.
o Diseases: Minamata disease, caused by mercury pollution, and fluorosis,
caused by excess fluoride in groundwater.

3.3 Land/Soil Pollution

Land pollution is the degradation of Earth's land surfaces, often caused by improper
waste disposal.

• Solid Waste Management: The process of collecting, treating, and disposing of

solid waste.
o Methods: Recycling, composting, incineration, and landfilling.
• Hazardous Waste: Waste that poses a substantial or potential threat to public
health or the environment.
o Management: The Basel Convention controls the transboundary
movement of hazardous wastes.

3.4 Noise Pollution

Noise pollution is unwanted or excessive sound that can have deleterious effects on
human health and environmental quality.
 • Measurement: Sound intensity is measured in decibels (dB).
• Effects: Prolonged exposure to high noise levels can cause hearing loss, stress,
and sleep disturbances.

Topic 4: Environmental Chemistry & Toxicology

This field studies the fate and effects of chemicals in the environment, particularly toxic
substances.

• Heavy Metals: Dense metals that are toxic at low concentrations. Key examples
from the NDDC exam include:
o Lead (Pb): A neurotoxin, mainly from automobile exhaust, that causes
neurological damage, especially in children.
o Mercury (Hg): Causes Minamata disease. It bioaccumulates, particularly in
seafood.
• Pesticides: Substances used to kill pests.
o DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane): A notorious pesticide banned
in many countries due to its persistence and biomagnification.
• Key Terms:
o Toxicology: The study of the adverse effects of chemical substances on
living organisms.
o Ecotoxicology: The study of the effects of toxic chemicals on biological
organisms, especially at the population, community, ecosystem level.

Topic 5: Energy & Natural Resources

Natural resources are materials or substances that occur in nature.

• Classification of Natural Resources:

o Biotic Resources: Obtained from the biosphere, such as forests and
animals.
o Abiotic Resources: Non-living resources, such as water, air, and minerals.
• Renewable vs. Non-Renewable Energy:
 o Renewable Energy: Resources that can be replenished naturally over a
short period. Examples: solar, wind, hydroelectric, biomass, and
geothermal energy.
o Non-Renewable Energy: Resources that exist in finite quantities and are
consumed much faster than nature can create them.
▪ Fossil Fuels: The most significant energy source worldwide. Formed
from ancient living matter. The major types are coal, oil, and natural
gas.
• Energy & Environment: The extraction and use of all energy forms have
ecological consequences. Fossil fuel combustion is the main driver of climate
change, while nuclear power generates hazardous radioactive waste.

Topic 6: Environmental Law, Policy & International Agreements

International environmental law is a body of treaties, conventions, and agreements that

govern the conduct of states on environmental matters.

• Major International Agreements & Their Focus:

o Montreal Protocol (1987): Aims to phase out the production of
substances that deplete the ozone layer, primarily CFCs.
o Kyoto Protocol (1997): An international treaty that commits state parties
to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, based on the principle of common
but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR).
o Paris Agreement (2015): A landmark agreement within the UNFCCC to
limit global warming to well below 2°C, preferably to 1.5°C, above pre-
industrial levels.
o Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES): An
international agreement to ensure that international trade in specimens of
wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival.
• Core Principles:
o Sustainable Development: Development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs (Brundtland Report).
o Polluter Pays Principle: The polluter should bear the cost of pollution
prevention and control.
Topic 7: Earth Science & Physical Environment

The physical environment consists of four major interconnected spheres.

• Earth's Spheres:
o Lithosphere: The solid, rocky outer part of the Earth.
o Hydrosphere: All the water on Earth, including oceans, lakes, rivers, and
groundwater.
o Atmosphere: The gaseous envelope surrounding the Earth.
o Biosphere: The global ecological system integrating all living beings and
their relationships.
• Soil Systems:
o Soil Profile: Vertical section of soil from the ground surface to the parent
rock, consisting of distinct horizontal layers called horizons.
o Soil Conservation: Protecting the soil from erosion and degradation to
maintain its fertility.
• Energy in the Earth System: The Earth's climate is driven by the balance
between incoming solar radiation (insolation) and outgoing terrestrial radiation.

Topic 8: Environmental Impact & Sustainable Development

This topic focuses on assessing and managing human impacts to ensure a sustainable
future.

• Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): The process of identifying, predicting,

evaluating, and mitigating the biophysical, social, and other relevant effects of a
proposed project or development.
• Sustainable Development: Rooted in the Brundtland Commission report, it's
based on the three pillars of sustainability: economic, environmental, and social.
• The Rio Earth Summit (1992): A landmark UN conference that produced
Agenda 21, a comprehensive plan of action for sustainable development, and
conventions on biodiversity and climate change.
• The Precautionary Principle: Where there are threats of serious or irreversible
damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for
postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.
TOPIC 3: ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
(Air, Water, Land, Noise)

3.1 Air Pollution

Definition

Air pollution is the introduction of harmful substances into the atmosphere, causing
damage to human health, ecosystems, and property.

Classification of Air Pollutants

Type Definition Examples

SO₂, CO, NO,

Emitted particulate matter
Primary
directly from a (PM), volatile
pollutants
source organic compounds
(VOCs)

Ozone (O₃),
Formed by
peroxyacyl nitrates
Secondary chemical
(PAN), sulfuric acid
pollutants reactions in the
(H₂SO₄), nitric acid
atmosphere
(HNO₃)

Major Air Pollutants – Sources & Effects

Health &
Main
Pollutant Environmental
Sources
Effects

Carbon monoxide Incomplete Binds to

(CO) combustion haemoglobin
 Health &
Main
Pollutant Environmental
Sources
Effects

of fossil fuels (200× stronger

(automobiles, than O₂), causes
generators) headaches,
dizziness,
asphyxiation,
death

Respiratory
Burning coal irritant, causes
and oil acid rain (H₂SO₄),
Sulfur dioxide (SO₂) (power damages
plants, buildings (e.g.,
industries) Taj Mahal), harms
vegetation

High- Forms acid rain

temperature (HNO₃) and
Nitrogen oxides
combustion photochemical
(NOₓ)
(vehicles, smog, respiratory
power plants) problems

Penetrates deep
Diesel
into lungs (PM₂.₅),
engines,
Particulate matter causes
construction,
(PM) cardiovascular
biomass
and respiratory
burning
diseases

Depletes
Refrigerants, stratospheric
Chlorofluorocarbons aerosol ozone layer →
(CFCs) sprays, increased UV-B
foams radiation → skin
cancer, cataracts

React with NOₓ to

Paints, form ground-level
Volatile organic
solvents, fuel ozone and smog;
compounds (VOCs)
evaporation some are
carcinogenic
Major Air Pollution Issues

3.1.1 Photochemical Smog

• Formation: NOₓ + VOCs + sunlight → O₃ + PAN + other oxidants.
• Characteristics: Brownish-yellow haze, typical of warm, sunny cities with heavy
traffic (e.g., Los Angeles, Lagos).
• Effects: Eye irritation, respiratory distress, crop damage.

3.1.2 Acid Rain

• Formation: SO₂ + H₂O → H₂SO₄; NOₓ + H₂O → HNO₃.
• pH of acid rain: Typically 4.2–4.5 (normal rain ~5.6).
• Effects:
o Leaches nutrients (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺) from soil.
o Mobilises toxic metals (Al³⁺) → kills fish.
o Corrodes limestone, marble, and metal structures.
• Case study – Taj Mahal: SO₂ emissions from the Mathura refinery cause marble
to undergo "stone leprosy" (calcium sulphate formation).

3.1.3 Ozone Layer Depletion

• Ozone layer location: Stratosphere (15–35 km altitude).
• Cause: CFCs release chlorine atoms (Cl·) which catalytically destroy O₃:
Cl· + O₃ → ClO· + O₂ ; then ClO· + O → Cl· + O₂ .
• Consequences: Increased UV-B → skin cancer, cataracts, immune suppression,
damage to phytoplankton.
• International response: Montreal Protocol (1987) – phase-out of CFCs, halons,
carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform.

3.1.4 Greenhouse Effect & Global Warming

• Greenhouse gases (GHGs): CO₂, CH₄, N₂O, CFCs, water vapour.
• Mechanism: GHGs absorb and re-radiate infrared radiation → trap heat in the
troposphere.
• Key facts:
o CO₂ accounts for ≈60% of enhanced greenhouse effect.
o CH₄ (20× more potent than CO₂ per molecule) from wetlands, rice paddies,
livestock.
• Consequences of global warming:
o Melting glaciers and polar ice → sea-level rise.
o More frequent extreme weather events (heatwaves, floods, droughts).
 o Disruption of agriculture and ecosystems.
• International response: Kyoto Protocol (1997)– binding emission reduction
targets for developed countries; Paris Agreement (2015)– goal to limit warming
to 1.5–2°C.

Air Pollution Control Technologies

Technology Application Efficiency

Electrostatic
Fly ash from coal
precipitator >99%
power plants
(ESP)

Fine particulate
Baghouse filter Up to 99.9%
removal

Cyclone Coarse particles

50–90%
separator (e.g., sawdust)

Gaseous
Wet scrubber pollutants (SO₂, 70–95%
HCl)

Automobile
Catalytic
exhaust (CO, Up to 90%
converter
NOₓ, VOCs)

3.2 Water Pollution

Definition

Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (rivers, lakes, oceans, groundwater)
by harmful substances, impairing water quality for aquatic life and human use.

Types and Sources

Source
Description Examples
Type

Single, Factory effluent,

Point
identifiable sewage treatment
source
discharge pipe plant outfall

Agricultural runoff,
Non-point Diffuse, from urban stormwater,
source broad areas atmospheric
deposition

Major Water Pollutants & Their Effects

Common
Pollutant Effects
Sources

Sewage, food High BOD →

Organic
processing, oxygen depletion
waste
paper mills → fish kills

Fertilizers, Eutrophication →
Nitrates &
detergents, algal blooms →
phosphates
sewage hypoxia

Waterborne
Human/animal
Pathogens diseases: cholera,
waste (feces)
typhoid, dysentery

Mining, Toxic to aquatic

Heavy industrial life;
metals discharge, fossil bioaccumulation
fuel burning (Hg, Pb, Cd)

Smothers aquatic
Oil spills, urban
Oil & organisms;
runoff,
grease carcinogenic
refineries
compounds

Pesticides, Endocrine
Synthetic industrial disruption,
chemicals solvents, bioaccumulation
plastics (DDT, PCBs)
 Common
Pollutant Effects
Sources

Lowers dissolved
Power plant
Thermal oxygen; alters
cooling water
pollution aquatic
discharge
ecosystems

Key Concepts in Water Pollution

3.2.1 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

• Definition: The amount of dissolved oxygen (in mg/L) consumed by
microorganisms over 5 days at 20°C to decompose organic matter.
• Significance: High BOD = high organic pollution. BOD of raw sewage ≈ 200–600
mg/L; clean river water ≈ 1–2 mg/L.
• Nigerian standard: Treated effluent BOD ≤ 30 mg/L for discharge into surface
waters.

3.2.2 Eutrophication
• Process: Excess N & P → rapid algal growth → algal bloom → algal death →
bacterial decomposition consumes oxygen → hypoxia/anoxia → death of fish and
other aerobic life.
• Sources: Agricultural runoff (fertilizers), sewage (detergents, human waste).
• Prevention: Reduce phosphate in detergents; use buffer strips; control fertiliser
application.

3.2.3 Bioaccumulation & Biomagnification

• Bioaccumulation: Build-up of a pollutant in an organism’s tissues over time.
• Biomagnification: Increase in pollutant concentration at successively higher
trophic levels.
• Classic example – DDT:
Water (0.000003 ppm) → phytoplankton (0.04 ppm) → zooplankton (0.16 ppm) →
small fish (0.5 ppm) → large fish (2 ppm) → fish-eating birds (25 ppm) → eggshell
thinning, reproductive failure.
• Mercury (Minamata disease): Industrial discharge of methylmercury →
contaminated fish → human poisoning → neurological damage, birth defects.

Water Pollution Case Studies

Case Study Location Pollutant Impact

Minamata Japan, Severe neurological

Methylmercury
disease 1950s-60s damage, deaths

Bhopal gas Methyl Thousands killed; long-term

India, 1984
tragedy isocyanate (MIC) groundwater contamination

Destruction of mangroves,
Niger Delta oil Nigeria
Crude oil fisheries; drinking water
spills (ongoing)
contamination

Lake Erie USA/Canada, Massive algal blooms,

Phosphates
eutrophication 1960s-70s "dead zone"

Water Treatment & Pollution Control

Treatment
Process Removes
Stage

Suspended
Sedimentation,
Primary solids, oil &
skimming
grease

Biological oxidation
Organic matter
Secondary (activated sludge,
(BOD)
trickling filters)

Filtration,
disinfection Pathogens, N,
Tertiary (chlorine, ozone, P, refractory
UV), nutrient organics
removal

3.3 Land/Soil Pollution

Definition
Land pollution is the degradation of the earth’s surface caused by improper disposal of
solid waste, industrial activities, and agricultural practices.

Sources of Land Pollution

Source Description Examples

Food waste,
Municipal Household
plastics, paper,
solid waste garbage
glass, metals

Heavy metals,
Industrial Factory
chemicals, ash,
waste by-products
sludge

Toxic, corrosive, Pesticides,

Hazardous flammable, solvents,
waste reactive batteries,
substances medical waste

Pesticides,
Agricultural Farming
fertilisers,
waste residues
animal manure

Overburden,
Heavy metals,
Mining waste tailings, acid
sulphuric acid
mine drainage

Solid Waste Management Hierarchy

1. Reduce – Minimise waste generation.

2. Reuse – Use items multiple times.
3. Recycle – Convert waste into new products.
4. Compost – Biodegrade organic waste.
5. Incineration with energy recovery – Burn waste to generate electricity.
6. Landfilling – Sanitary landfill (with liner, leachate collection, methane capture).

Hazardous Waste Management

• Basel Convention (1989): International treaty to control transboundary

movements of hazardous wastes and their disposal.
 • Methods: Chemical treatment, stabilisation/solidification, incineration, secure
landfilling.

3.4 Noise Pollution

Definition

Noise pollution is unwanted or excessive sound that disrupts human or animal life.

Measurement

• Unit: decibel (dB) – logarithmic scale.

• Human hearing threshold: 0 dB.
• Pain threshold: ≈120 dB.

Sources & Noise Levels

Noise
Source Level Effect
(dB)

Whisper 20–30 Faint

Normal
50–60 Comfortable
conversation

Heavy traffic 70–85 Annoying

Hearing damage (≥8

Pneumatic drill 100
hours)

Rock concert / Immediate pain,

120+
jet engine rapid hearing loss

Health Effects of Noise Pollution

 • Hearing loss (permanent or temporary).
• Cardiovascular effects (hypertension, increased heart rate).
• Sleep disturbance → fatigue, reduced cognitive function.
• Psychological stress, irritability, reduced work performance.

Noise Control Measures

• At source: Quieter machinery, silencers, mufflers.

• Along path: Sound barriers (walls, berms), double-glazed windows, vegetation
belts.
• At receiver: Earplugs, earmuffs, limiting exposure time.

TOPIC 4: ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY

& TOXICOLOGY

4.1 Environmental Chemistry – Core Concepts

Chemical Reactions in the Environment

Process Description Example

Formation of
Photochemical Reaction driven
ozone and
reaction by sunlight
PAN in smog

SO₂ → SO₃ →
Loss of
Oxidation H₂SO₄ (acid
electrons
rain)

Breakdown of
Reaction with
Hydrolysis some
water
pesticides
Process Description Example

Decomposition
Breakdown by
Biodegradation of organic
microorganisms
waste (BOD)

4.2 Heavy Metal Toxicity

Heavy metals are metallic elements with high density (>5 g/cm³) that are toxic even at
low concentrations.

Notable
Metal Sources Health Effect
Incident

Neurotoxin (children: IQ
Leaded petrol (still used
loss, behavioural issues);
Lead (Pb) in some countries), –
adults: hypertension, kidney
paint, batteries
damage

Gold mining, coal Minamata disease:

Mercury Minamata
combustion, industrial neurological damage, birth
(Hg) Bay, Japan
discharge defects

Cadmium Fertilizer (phosphate), Itai-itai disease: bone pain,

Japan
(Cd) batteries, electroplating kidney damage

Groundwater (natural), Skin lesions, cancer (lung, Bangladesh,

Arsenic (As)
pesticides bladder, skin) West Bengal

Chromium
Electroplating, tanning Lung cancer, skin ulcers –
(Cr-VI)

4.3 Pesticide Toxicology

Organochlorines (e.g., DDT)

• Properties: Persistent, lipophilic, biomagnify.

• Effects: Eggshell thinning in birds (e.g., bald eagle, peregrine falcon); endocrine
disruption; probable carcinogen.
 • Banned in most countries (Stockholm Convention).

Organophosphates & Carbamates

• Properties: Less persistent, more acutely toxic.

• Mechanism: Inhibit acetylcholinesterase → nervous system overstimulation.
• Examples: Malathion, parathion, carbaryl.
• Use: Still used in agriculture; protective equipment required.

4.4 Key Toxicological Terms

Term Definition

The degree to which a substance

Toxicity
can harm an organism.

The dose (mg/kg body weight) that

LD₅₀ kills 50% of a test population –
lower LD₅₀ = higher toxicity.

Adverse effects from long-term,

Chronic toxicity
low-level exposure.

Adverse effects from a single,

Acute toxicity
short-term, high-dose exposure.

The fraction of a pollutant that is

Bioavailability
absorbed and can cause harm.

Carcinogen A substance that causes cancer.

A substance that causes birth

Teratogen
defects.

Endocrine A chemical that interferes with

disruptor hormone systems.
TOPIC 5: ENERGY & NATURAL
RESOURCES

5.1 Classification of Natural Resources

Classification Definition Examples

Replenished Solar, wind,

naturally at a hydro,
Renewable
rate comparable biomass,
to use geothermal

Finite;
Coal, oil,
consumed
Non-renewable natural gas,
faster than
uranium
formation

Virtually Solar, wind,

Inexhaustible
unlimited tidal

5.2 Fossil Fuels – Formation & Types

Fossil fuels are formed from the remains of ancient plants and animals subjected to heat
and pressure over millions of years.

Coal

Carbon Energy
Type Uses
content content

Peat <60% Low Not widely used

Lignite 60–70% Low Power generation

Bituminous 70–85% High Power generation, steel making

 Carbon Energy
Type Uses
content content

Domestic heating, specialised

Anthracite 85–97% Very high
industrial

Petroleum (Crude Oil)

• Composition: Hydrocarbons (C₅ to C₅₀), sulphur, nitrogen, metals.

• Refining: Distillation into fractions – gasoline, kerosene, diesel, fuel oil, bitumen.
• Environmental issues: Oil spills, CO₂ emissions, VOCs from refineries.

Natural Gas

• Composition: Mainly methane (CH₄), with smaller amounts of ethane, propane.

• Uses: Electricity generation, heating, cooking.
• Advantages: Cleanest fossil fuel (less CO₂ per energy unit, negligible
particulates).

5.3 Renewable Energy Sources

Source Mechanism Advantages Challenges

Photovoltaic cells
Abundant, silent, low
Solar convert sunlight to Intermittent, initial cost
maintenance
electricity

Turbines convert Low operating cost, Noise, bird mortality,

Wind
kinetic energy no emissions visual impact

Flowing water spins Reliable, long Ecosystem disruption

Hydro
turbines lifespan (dams), sedimentation

Burning organic
Carbon-neutral if Air pollution, land use
Biomass material (wood,
sustainably managed competition
crops, waste)

Heat from earth’s Very high capacity Location-specific, risk of

Geothermal
core factor subsurface pollution
5.4 Environmental Impacts of Energy Production
Source Main Impacts

Air pollution (SO₂, NOₓ, PM, Hg); CO₂

Coal emissions; mining habitat destruction; ash
disposal

Oil spills (marine & terrestrial); air

Oil
pollution; CO₂ emissions

Natural Methane leakage (potent GHG); water

gas contamination from fracking

Radioactive waste disposal; accident risk

Nuclear
(Chernobyl, Fukushima)

Solar & Land use; construction impacts;

wind end-of-life disposal (PV panels, blades)

TOPIC 6: ENVIRONMENTAL LAW, POLICY

& INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS

6.1 Major International Environmental Agreements

Agreement Year Focus

Ramsar Wetlands
1971
Convention conservation

Trade in
CITES 1973
endangered species

Vienna
Framework for
Convention 1985
ozone protection
(for Ozone)
Agreement Year Focus

1987
Phase-out of
(amended
Montreal ozone-depleting
1990, 1992,
Protocol substances (CFCs,
1997, 1999,
halons, etc.)
2016)

Transboundary
Basel
1989 movement of
Convention
hazardous waste

UN
Framework
Framework for
Convention on
1992 addressing climate
Climate
change
Change
(UNFCCC)

Conservation of
Convention on
biodiversity,
Biological
1992 sustainable use, fair
Diversity
sharing of genetic
(CBD)
resources

Binding GHG
Kyoto emission reduction
1997
Protocol targets for
developed countries

Elimination or
Stockholm restriction of
2001
Convention persistent organic
pollutants (POPs)

Control mercury
Minamata
2013 emissions and
Convention
releases

Limit global
Paris warming to well
2015
Agreement below 2°C (ideally
1.5°C)
6.2 Core Environmental Principles
Principle Meaning

Meets present needs without

Sustainable compromising future
development generations (Brundtland
Report, 1987).

The party responsible for

Polluter pays pollution should bear the costs
of remediation and prevention.

Where there is a threat of

serious or irreversible harm,
Precautionary lack of full scientific certainty
principle is not a reason to delay
cost-effective prevention
measures.

All countries share the

responsibility to protect the
Common but environment, but developed
differentiated countries should take the lead
responsibilities because they have contributed
(CBDR) more to global environmental
problems and have greater
resources.

Future generations have a right

Intergenerational
to a healthy environment and
equity
inherited natural resources.

6.3 Nigerian Environmental Legislation & Institutions

Key Laws

Law Year Purpose

National Established
2007
Environmental NESREA to
Law Year Purpose

Standards and enforce

Regulations environmental
Enforcement standards,
Agency regulations, and
(NESREA) Act rules.

Mandates EIA for

Environmental all major projects
Impact likely to have
1992
Assessment (EIA) significant
Act environmental
effects.

Prohibits the
dumping of
Harmful Waste harmful wastes in
(Special Criminal 1988 Nigerian territory
Provisions) Act (response to the
Koko toxic waste
incident).

Regulates oil
1956 pipelines and
Oil Pipelines Act
(amended) compensation for
damage.

Prohibits gas
flaring; requiires
1979
Associated Gas re-injection or
(amended
Re-injection Act utilisation of
2021)
associated natural
gas.

Establishes
National Oil Spill NOSDRA to
Detection and coordinate oil
2006
Response Agency spill response and
(NOSDRA) Act monitor
remediation.

Key Institutions
 • Federal Ministry of Environment: Policy formulation, coordination.
• NESREA: Enforcement of environmental regulations, permits, and compliance
monitoring.
• NOSDRA: Oil spill detection, response, and assessment.
• National Agency for Science and Engineering Infrastructure
(NASENI): Environmental technology development.
• Niger Delta Development Commission (NDDC): Mandated for sustainable
development of the Niger Delta, including environmental remediation.

TOPIC 7: EARTH SCIENCE & PHYSICAL

ENVIRONMENT

7.1 Earth’s Spheres

Main
Sphere Description
Components

N₂ (78%), O₂
Gaseous
Atmosphere (21%), Ar (0.9%),
envelope
CO₂, water vapour

Oceans (97.5%),
freshwater (2.5% –
All water on
Hydrosphere glaciers,
Earth
groundwater,
lakes, rivers)

Crust, upper
Solid outer
Lithosphere mantle; rocks,
shell
minerals, soil

Living All ecosystems,

organisms & from deep ocean
Biosphere
their vents to mountain
environments tops
7.2 Atmospheric Layers
Altitude
Layer Key Features
(km)

Weather occurs;
temperature decreases
with height
Troposphere 0–12
(6.5°C/km); contains
~80% of atmospheric
mass.

Contains ozone layer

(absorbs UV);
Stratosphere 12–50
temperature increases
with height.

Coldest layer (−90°C);

Mesosphere 50–85
meteors burn up here.

Auroras occur;
Thermosphere 85–600 temperature rises (up
to 1,500°C).

Transition to outer
Exosphere >600 space; very thin
atmosphere.

7.3 Weather & Climate

Term Definition

Short-term atmospheric conditions

Weather (temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind)
at a specific place and time.

Long-term average (typically 30 years) of

Climate
weather patterns in a region.

Climate Factors
 • Latitude – Solar energy input decreases from equator to poles.
• Altitude – Temperature decreases ~6.5°C per 1,000 m.
• Ocean currents – Warm/cold currents modify coastal climate.
• Distance from sea (continentality) – Coastal areas have milder, maritime
climate; inland areas have more extreme temperatures.
• Prevailing winds – Bring moisture from oceans.

7.4 Soil Systems

Soil Formation (Pedogenesis)

• Parent material – Rock type.

• Climate – Temperature and moisture influence weathering rate.
• Topography – Slope affects drainage and erosion.
• Organisms – Plants, animals, microbes add organic matter.
• Time – Soils develop over hundreds to thousands of years.

Soil Horizons (from top to bottom)

Horizon Description

Fresh and partially decomposed

O (Organic)
organic matter (leaf litter).

Dark, rich in humus; high biological

A (Topsoil)
activity; most fertile.

Leached layer; removal of clay,

E (Eluviation)
iron, aluminium.

Accumulation of leached minerals

B (Subsoil)
(clay, iron, Al).

C (Parent Weathered rock; little organic

material) matter.

R (Bedrock) Solid unweathered rock.

Major Soil Types (Global & Nigeria)

 Location in
Soil Type Characteristics
Nigeria

Moderately Parts of savanna

Alfisols
leached, fertile zone

Humid forest
Highly leached, zones,
Ultisols
low fertility, acidic southeastern
Nigeria

Old, deeply
Not dominant in
Oxisols weathered, rich in
Nigeria
Fe/Al oxides

Swelling clay soils

Northeastern
Vertisols (cracking when
Nigeria
dry)

Young, little
Coastal sands,
Entisols horizon
alluvial plains
development

Inceptisols Weakly developed Various regions

Soil Conservation Practices

• Contour ploughing
• Terracing
• Strip cropping
• Cover cropping
• Agroforestry
• Windbreaks (shelterbelts)

7.5 Hydrological Cycle (Water Cycle)

Key Processes
Process Description

Liquid water → water vapour

Evaporation
(from oceans, lakes, soil).

Transpiration Water vapor released by plants.

Combined evaporation +
Evapotranspiration
transpiration.

Water vapour → liquid/solid

Condensation
(clouds, fog).

Precipitation Rain, snow, sleet, hail.

Infiltration Water enters soil.

Water flows over land into

Runoff
rivers, lakes, oceans.

Slow movement of water

Groundwater flow
through aquifers.

Water Budget Equation

P = ET + R + ΔS
where P = precipitation, ET = evapotranspiration, R = runoff, ΔS = change in storage.

TOPIC 8: ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT &

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

8.1 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

Definition
EIA is a systematic process to identify, predict, evaluate, and mitigate the biophysical,
social, and other relevant effects of a proposed project before major decisions are made.

EIA Process (Typical Steps)

1. Screening – Determine whether a project requires a full EIA.

2. Scoping – Identify key issues, alternatives, and boundaries.
3. Baseline study – Describe existing environmental conditions.
4. Impact prediction – Assess magnitude, extent, duration, and significance of
impacts (positive and negative).
5. Mitigation – Propose measures to avoid, reduce, remedy, or compensate for
adverse impacts.
6. Environmental Management Plan (EMP) – Detailed plan for implementing
mitigation, monitoring, and reporting.
7. Public participation – Consult stakeholders, NGOs, and the affected community.
8. EIA report – Document for decision-maker.
9. Decision – Approval, conditional approval, or rejection.
10. Monitoring & audit – Ensure compliance with EMP during construction and
operation.

Categories of Impacts

• Direct / indirect
• Short-term / long-term
• Reversible / irreversible
• Cumulative (combined effects of multiple projects)

8.2 Sustainable Development

Classic Definition (Brundtland Commission, 1987)

“Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”

Three Pillars of Sustainability

Pillar Focus

Protecting natural resources,

Environmental reducing pollution, conserving
biodiversity.

Equity, community well-being,

Social cultural preservation, access to
education & health.

Long-term profitability, resource

Economic efficiency, fair wages, sustainable
growth.

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) – Key Environmental Targets

Environmental
SDG Title
Focus

Water quality, water use

Clean Water and
6 efficiency, ecosystem
Sanitation
protection.

Affordable and Renewable energy,

7
Clean Energy energy efficiency.

Air quality, waste

Sustainable Cities
11 management, green
and Communities
spaces.

Responsible
Reduce waste,
12 Consumption and
sustainable resource use.
Production

Mitigation, adaptation,
13 Climate Action
resilience.

Marine pollution, ocean

14 Life Below Water acidification,
overfishing.
 Environmental
SDG Title
Focus

Deforestation,
15 Life on Land desertification,
biodiversity loss.

8.3 Agenda 21 (Rio Earth Summit, 1992)

• Definition: A non-binding action plan of the UN for sustainable development at
global, national, and local levels.
• Structure: 40 chapters organised into 4 sections:
1. Social and economic dimensions.
2. Conservation and management of resources.
3. Strengthening the role of major groups (women, youth, indigenous
peoples, NGOs, etc.).
4. Means of implementation (finance, technology, education).
• Local Agenda 21: Implementation at municipal level.

8.4 The Precautionary Principle

Core Statement (Rio Declaration, Principle 15)

“Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty
shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent
environmental degradation.”

Application Examples

• Ban on certain pesticides (e.g., DDT before full evidence of eggshell thinning was
complete).
• Restrictions on endocrine-disrupting chemicals (e.g., BPA in baby bottles).
• Moratorium on genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in some countries.
8.5 Case Study – Niger Delta Environmental Challenges
& Sustainable Development

Key Issues

• Oil pollution: Thousands of oil spills (operational failures, sabotage) →

contaminated soil, groundwater, mangroves, and fishing grounds.
• Gas flaring: Releases CO₂, CH₄, SO₂, particulate matter → respiratory illness, acid
rain, vegetation damage.
• Mangrove deforestation: Loss of nursery grounds for fish; reduced coastal
protection from storms; loss of carbon sink.
• Water scarcity & contamination: Surface water and groundwater polluted with
hydrocarbons, heavy metals.

Sustainable Solutions (Examples)

• Community-based oil spill response and monitoring (e.g., HSE training).

• Mangrove restoration projects involving local communities.
• Investment in associated gas gathering and utilisation (LNG, gas-to-power) to
reduce flaring.
• Environmental remediation standardsenforced by NOSDRA and NESREA.
• Promotion of renewable energy (solar mini-grids, wind) for off-grid
communities.