Chapter-2

Basic Laws
Fundamentals of Electric circuits – Alexander and Sadiku

Prepared By:
Zarin Nushiba
Lecturer, Department of EEE, PCIU

1
Table of Contents:
Ø Ohm’s Law
Ø Resistance
Ø Conductance
Ø Nodes, Branches and Loops
Ø Kirchhoff’s Laws
Ø Series Resistors and voltage division
Ø Parallel resistors and current division
Ø Wye-Delta Transformation
Ø Mathematical Problem Solve

2
Ohm’s Law:
Ohm’s law states that the voltage v across a resistor is directly proportional to the current i flowing
through the resistor.
∴ v ∝i ………………………. (1)

Ohm defined the constant of proportionality for a resistor to be the resistance, R. Thus, Equation (1)
becomes-
v = iR …………………….. (2)

The resistance is a material property which can change if the internal or external conditions of the
element are altered, e.g., if there are changes in the temperature.

3
Resistance:
Resistance: The resistance R of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow of electric current; it is
measured in ohms (Ω).
V
R=
I

• The resistance of any material with a uniform cross-sectional area A depends on A and its length ,
in mathematical form
l
R= ρ
A

The direction of current i and the polarity of voltage v must conform with the passive sign convention.
• This implies that current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential in order for v = iR.
• If current flows from a lower potential to a higher potential, then, v = − iR.
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• The value of R can range from zero to infinity.
Resistance: (Continued)
Short circuit: A short circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching zero.

v = iR = 0

Figure-1: Short Circuit

A short circuit is usually a connecting wire assumed to be a perfect conductor. 5

Resistance: (Continued)
Open Circuit: An open circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching infinity.

v = iR = ∞

Figure-2: Open Circuit

6
Linear Vs Non-Linear Resistors:
Linear Resistor Non-linear Resistor
1. A resistor that obeys Ohm’s law is known as a 1. A nonlinear resistor does not obey Ohm’s law.
linear resistor.
2. It has a constant resistance. 2. Its resistance varies with current.
3. Its i-v graph is a straight line passing through the 3. Its i-v graph is not a straight line passing through the
origin. origin.

4. 4.

Figure-1: The i-v characteristic of a linear resistor Figure-2: The i-v characteristic of a nonlinear
resistor
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Conductance(G):
Conductance: Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric current; it is measured in
mhos (℧) or siemens (S).
1 I
G= =
R V

• The power dissipated by a resistor can be expressed in terms of R.

V2
P = vi = i R =
2
R

• The power dissipated by a resistor may also be expressed in terms of G.

i2
P = vi = V G =
2
G

8
Question-1: In the circuit shown in below, calculate the current I, the conductance G, and the power
p.

Solve:
Here,
V
Current, I =
R
30 V
or, I =
5×103 Ω
or, I = 6 mA

9
 1
Conductance, G =
R
1
or, G =
5×103Ω

or, G = 0.2 mS
Power, P = VI
or,P = 30V × 6 × 10−3 A
or,P = 180 mW
Ans:
I = 6 mA
G = 0.2 mS
P = 180 mW

10
Self Assessment:
Question-1: In the circuit shown in below, calculate the voltage V, the conductance G, and the power
p.

Question-2: A voltage source of 20 sinπt V is connected across 5KΩ resistor. Find the current
through the resistor and the power dissipated.
Question-3: A resistor absorbs an instantaneous power of 30 cos2 t mW when connected to a voltage
source v = 15 cos t V. Find I and R.

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Self Assessment: (Continued)
Question-4: A bar of silicon is 4 cm long with a circular cross section. If the resistance of the bar is
240Ω at room temperature, what is the cross-sectional radius of the bar?

Question-5:

(a) Calculate current i in the figure above when the switch is in position 1.
(b) Find the current when the switch is in position 2.

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Nodes, Branches and Loops:
Branch: A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor.
Node: A node is the point of connection between two or more branches.
Loop: A loop is any closed path in a circuit.

Branches: 5
Nodes: 3
Loops : 3

Figure-3: Nodes, Branches and Loops

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Question-2: Determine the number of branches, nodes and loops in the circuit shown below:

Solve:
Here,

Branches: 4
Nodes: 3
Loops: 2

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Self Assessment: (Continued)
Question-6: Determine the number of branches, nodes and loops in the circuit shown below:

Question-7: Determine the number of branches, nodes and loops in the circuit shown below:

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Kirchhoff’s Laws:
• Kirchhoff’s first law “KCL” is based on the law of conservation of charge, which requires that the
algebraic sum of charges within a system cannot change.
• Kirchhoff’s second law “KVL” is based on the principle of conservation of energy.

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Kirchhoff’s Laws: (Continued)
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a node (or a closed
boundary) is zero.
Mathematically, KCL implies that-
𝑁

in = 0
𝑛=1

where N is the number of branches connected to the node and in is the nth current entering (or
leaving) the node.
By this law, currents entering a node may be regarded as positive, while currents leaving the node
may be taken as negative or vice versa. The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of
the currents leaving the node.
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Kirchhoff’s Laws: (Continued)

Figure-4: Currents at a node illustrating KCL.

Let us consider, currents i1, i3 , and i4 are entering the node, while currents i2 and i5 are leaving it.
By rearranging the terms, we get
i1 + i3 + i4 = i2 + i5

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Kirchhoff’s Laws: (Continued)
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed path (or
loop) is zero.

Vm = 0
m=1

where M is the number of voltages in the loop (or the number of branches in the loop) and Vm is the
m-th voltage.

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Kirchhoff’s Laws: (Continued)

Figure-5: A single-loop circuit illustrating KVL

Let us consider the following circuit having the polarities across all the elements and the current
direction is also given. Thus, according to the passive sign convention, we get,

−V1 + V2 + V3 −V4 + V5 = 0
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Kirchhoff’s Laws: (Continued)
or,V2 + V3 + V5 = V1 + V4
Which maybe interpreted as-
Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage rises

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Question-3: For the circuit shown below, find voltages V1 and V2.

Solve:

Step-1: Assume arbitrary current direction

Step-2: Apply Ohm’s Law
Step-3: Apply KVL.

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Let us assume that current i flows through the loop as shown in the figure below:

Applying Ohm’s Law,

V1 = 2i ………………………….. (1)
V2 = −3i ……………….……….. (2)
Applying KVL around the loop gives,
−20 + V1 −V2 = 0
or,−20 + 2i−(−3i) = 0
or,−20 + 5i = 0 23
 or,i = 4A
Now from equation (1) and (2), we get,

V1 = 2i = 2 × 4 = 8V
V2 = −3i = −3 × 4 = −12V

Ans: V1 = 8V and V2 = −12V

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Self Assessment: (Continued)
Question-8: Find voltages V1 and V2 in the figure given below:

Ans: 16V, -8V

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Question-4: For the circuit shown below, find voltage V0 and current i.

Solve:
Applying Ohm’s Law across 6-Ω resistor, we get,
V0 = −6i …………………….. (1)

Applying KVL to the loop, we get,

−12 + 4i + 2V0 −4−V0 = 0

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or,−12 + 4i + 2(−6i)−4−(−6i) = 0
or,−16 + 4i−12i + 6i = 0
or,−2i = 16
or,i = −8 A

Now from equation-1 , we get,

V0 = −6 × −8 V
or, V0 = 48 V

Ans: 48 V and -8A

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Question-5: For the circuit shown below, find voltage V0 and current i0.

Solve:
Applying KCL to node a, we get,
0.5i0 + 3 = i0
or,i0 = 6A
Now,
V0 = 4i0 = 4 × 6V = 24V
Ans: 24 V and 6A.

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Self Assessment: (Continued)
Question-9: For the circuit shown below, find voltages Vx and V0.

Ans: 20V , -10V

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Self Assessment: (Continued)
Question-10: For the circuit shown below, find voltage V0 and current i0.

Ans: 12V , 6A.

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Question-6: Find currents and voltages in the circuit shown below:

Solve:

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Applying Ohm’s law,
V1 = 8i1 …............................... (1)
V2 = 3i2 …............................... (2)
V3 = 6i3 …............................... (3)

Now, applying KCL at node-a,

i1 = i2 + i3 …............................... (4)

Again, applying KVL in loop-1, we get,

−30 + V1 + V2 = 0
or, −30 + 8i1 + 3i2 = 0
30−3i2
or, i1 = …............................... (5)
8

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Again, applying KVL in loop-2, we get,
−V2 + V3 = 0
or, V2 = V3
or, 3i2 = 6i3
1
or, i3 = i2 …............................... (6)
2
Now substituting equations (5) and (6) into equation (4), we get,

30−3i2 i
= i2 + 2
8 2

30−3i2 2i2 + i2
or, =
8 2

30−3i2 3i2
or, =
8 2 33
or, 2 × 30−3i2 = 24i2
or, 60−6i2 = 24i2
or, 30i2 = 60
or, i2 = 2A

Now, from equation-6 ,we get,

1 2
i3 = i2 = = 1A
2 2

Now, from equation-4 ,we get,

i1 = i2 + i3
or, i1 = 2 + 1
or, i1 = 3A

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Now, from equations-(1), (2) and (3) ,we get,
V1 = 8 × 3 = 24V
V2 = 3 × 2 = 6V
V3 = 6 × 1 = 6V

Ans:
V1 = 24V
V2 = 6V
V3 = 6V
i1 = 3A
i2 = 2A
i3 = 1A

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Self Assessment: (Continued)
Question-11: Find currents and voltages in the circuit shown below:

Ans: V1 = 6V, V2 = 4V, V3 = 10V, i1 = 3A, i2 = 500 mA, i3 = 2.5A

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Series Resistors and voltage division:
• Current remains same
• Voltage drop is different across each resistor.
• Only one connecting point.
• Equivalent resistance of a series circuit:
Rs = R1 + R2 + R3 ……….. + Rn
• Voltage across each resistor:

V × R1
V1 =
R1 + R2
Figure-6: Series Circuit

V × R2
V2 =
R1 + R2
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Parallel Resistors and current division:
• Voltage remains same
• Current flow is different across each resistor.
• Two connecting points.
• Equivalent resistance of a parallel circuit:
1 1
= + 1 + 1 ……….. + 1
Rp R1 R2 R3 Rn
• Current across each resistor:

I × R2 Figure-7: Parallel Circuit

I1 =
R1 + R2

I × R1
I2 =
R1 + R2
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 Parallel Resistors and current division:
(Continued)
• If the circuit has more than 2 resistors in parallel, then current divider rule would be:

R2 II R3
I1 = ×I
R1 + R2 II R3

R1 II R3
I2 = ×I
R2 + R1 II R3

R1 II R2
I3 = ×I
R3 + R1 II R2 Figure-8: Parallel Circuit with 3 resistors

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Question-7: Find Req in the circuit shown below:

Solve:
Here, 5Ω and 1Ω resistors are in series, thus
Rs1 = 5 + 1 = 6Ω

Now, 6Ω and 3Ω are in parallel, thus

−1 −1
R p1 = 6 −1
+3 = 2Ω

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Again, 2 Ω and Rp1 resistors are in series, thus,
Rs2 = 2 + 2 = 4Ω

Now, Rs1 and Rs2 are in parallel, thus,

−1 −1
R p2 = 6 −1
+4 = 2.4Ω

Now, Rp2, 4Ω and 8Ω are in series, thus,

Rs3 = 2.4 + 4 + 8 = 14.4 Ω

Ans: 14.4Ω

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Self Assessment: (Continued)
Question-12: Find Req in the circuit shown below:

Ans: 10Ω

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Question-8: Find Rab in the circuit shown below:

Solve:
Here, 5Ω and 1Ω resistors are in series, thus
Rs1 = 5 + 1 = 6Ω

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Now, 3Ω and 6Ω resistors are in parallel as they are connected between nodes b and c, thus
−1
Rp1 = 6−1 + 3−1 = 2Ω

Similarly, 12Ω and 4Ω resistors are in parallel as they are connected between nodes b and d, thus
−1 −1
Rp2 = 12 −1
+4 = 3Ω

Thus, the circuit becomes,

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Now, 3Ω and 6Ω resistors are in parallel, thus,
−1 −1
R p3 = 6 −1
+3 = 2Ω

Again, 1Ω and 2Ω resistors are in series, thus,

Rs2 = 2 + 1 = 3Ω

Again, 3Ω and 2Ω resistors are in parallel, thus,

−1
Rp3 = 2−1 + 3−1 = 1.2Ω

Again, 10Ω and 1.2Ω resistors are in series, thus,

Rs2 = 1.2 + 10 = 11.2Ω

Ans: 11.2Ω

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Self Assessment: (Continued)
Question-13: Find Rab in the circuit shown below:

Ans: 19 Ω

46
Self Assessment: (Continued)
Question-14: Find Rab in the circuit shown below:

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Self Assessment: (Continued)
Question-15: Find i1to i5 in the circuit shown below:

48
Self Assessment: (Continued)
Question-16: Find V0 and i0 in the circuit shown below:

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Self Assessment: (Continued)
Question-17: Find V0 and i in the circuit shown below:

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Self Assessment: (Continued)
Question-18: Find Req and i0 in the circuit shown below:

51
Self Assessment: (Continued)
Question-19: Find Req in the circuits shown below:

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Self Assessment: (Continued)
Question-20: Find I and Req in the circuits shown below:

53
Self Assessment: (Continued)
Question-21: Reduce each of the circuits in the figures below to a single resistor at terminals a-b:

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Self Assessment: (Continued)
Question-22: Reduce each of the circuits in the figures below to a single resistor at terminals a-b:

(a) (b)

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Equivalent Conductance:
Series conductance:
1 1 1 1 1
= + + ……….. +
Gs G1 G2 G3 Gn

Parallel conductance:
GP = G1 + G2 + G3 ……….. + Gn

56
Question-9: Find the equivalent conductance Geq in the circuit shown below:

Solve:
Here, 12S and 8S are in parallel, thus,
GP1 = 12 + 8 = 20S

Now, GP1 and 5S are in series, thus,

−1
GS = 20−1 + 5−1 = 4S

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Again, GS and 6S are in parallel, thus,
GP2 = 6 + 4 = 10S

Ans: 10S

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Self Assessment: (Continued)
Question-23: Find the equivalent conductance Geq in the circuit shown below:

Ans: 4S

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Question-10: Find i0 and v0 in the circuit shown below. Also find the power dissipated across the 3Ω
resistor.

Solve:
Here, 6Ω and 3Ω resistors are in parallel and 4Ω resistor is in series with them. Thus, the equivalent
resistance,
Req = 4 + 6 II 3 = 6Ω

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 12
Now, the total current, i = = 2A
6
6 4
So, the current, i0 = ×2 = A
6+3 3
4
And the voltage, v0 = i0 × 3 = × 3 = 4V
3
4 16
Now, the power dissipated across the 3Ω resistor, P3Ω = v0 i0 = 4 × = = 5.33W
3 3

61
Self Assessment: (Continued)
Question-24: Find v1 and v2 in the circuit shown below. Also calculate i1 and i2 and the power
dissipated in the 12Ω and 40 Ω resistors.

62
Question-11: For the circuit shown below, determine:
(a) the voltage v0
(b) The power supplied by the current source
(c) The power absorbed by each resistor

Solve:
Here, 6kΩ and 12kΩ resistors are in series Thus, the equivalent resistance,
Req = 6 + 12 = 18kΩ

Now, using current divider rule, we get the currents

18
i1 = × 30mA = 20mA
9 + 18
9
i2 = × 30mA = 10mA
9 + 18
63
(a) The voltage,
v0 = i1 × 9kΩ = 20mA × 9kΩ = 180V

(b) The power supplied by the current source,

P = v0 i0 = 180 × 30 × 10−3 = 5.4W

(c) The powers absorbed by each resistors,

P12kΩ = i22R = (10mA)2 × 12kΩ = 1.2W
P6kΩ = i22R = (10mA)2 × 6kΩ = 0.6W
P9kΩ = i21R = (20mA)2 × 9kΩ = 3.6W

Total power absorbed= 1.2+0.6+3.6=5.4W

64
Self Assessment: (Continued)
Question-25: For the circuit shown below, find:
(a) v1 and v2
(b) The power dissipated in the 3kΩ and 20kΩ resistors, and
(c) The power supplied by the current source

Ans: (a) 45V, 60V (b) 675mW, 180mW (c) 1.8W

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Wye-Delta Transformations:
• Circuits that contains resistors which are neither series nor parallel, these can’t be using solved
using the conventional methods. To solve these kind of circuits, wye-delta transformation is used.

• These networks occur by themselves or as part of a larger network. They are used in three-phase
networks, electrical filters, and matching networks.

66
Wye-Delta Transformations: (Continued)
Wye or T Network:

Figure-9(a): Wye (Y) network Figure-9(a): Tee (T) network

67
Wye-Delta Transformations: (Continued)
Delta or Pi Network:

Figure-10(a): Delta (Δ) network Figure-10(b): Pi (π) network

68
Wye-Delta Transformations: (Continued)
Conversion:

Figure-11: Superposition of Y and networks as an aid in transforming one to the other.

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Wye-Delta Transformations: (Continued)
Delta to wye Conversion:
Rb Rc
R1 =
Ra + Rb + Rc

Ra Rc
R2 =
Ra + Rb + Rc

Ra Rb
R3 =
Ra + Rb + Rc

70
Wye-Delta Transformations: (Continued)
Wye to delta Conversion:

R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Ra =
R1

R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Rb =
R2

R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
Rc =
R3

71
Question-12: Convert the delta network in the following figure to an equivalent Y network.
Solve:
Here,
Ra + Rb + Rc = 25 + 10 + 15 = 50Ω

Rb Rc 10 × 25
R1 = = = 5Ω
Ra + Rb + Rc 50

Ra Rc 15 × 25
R2 = = = 7.5Ω
Ra + Rb + Rc 50

Ra Rb 15 × 10
R3 = = = 3Ω
Ra + Rb + Rc 50

72
The equivalent Y network is shown below:

Figure-12: (a) Original Network (b) Equivalent network

73
Self Assessment: (Continued)
Question-26: Convert the wye network in the following figure to an equivalent delta network.

Ans: Ra = 140 Ω, Rb = 70 Ω, Rc = 35 Ω

74
Question-13: Find Rab and current i for the circuit given below:

Solve:

Let’s convert the Y network comprising the 10 Ω, 20 Ω and 5 Ω resistors, we may select
R1 = 10 Ω
R2 = 20 Ω
R3 = 5 Ω

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Now, applying wye to delta conversion, we get,

R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1 = 10.20 + 20.5 + 5.10 = 350 Ω

R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1 350
Ra = = = 35 Ω
R1 10

R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1 350
Rb = = = 17.5 Ω
R2 20

R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1 350
Rc = = = 70 Ω
R3 20

76
The equivalent circuit is:

Now, in the equivalent circuit shown above,

12.5 Ω and 17.5 Ω are in parallel. Thus,
RP1 = 12.5 II 17.5 = 7.292 Ω
Again, 15 Ω and 35 Ω are in parallel. Thus,
RP2 = 15 II 35 = 10.5 Ω

77
Again, 70 Ω and 35 Ω are in parallel. Thus,
RP2 = 70 II 30 = 21 Ω
Thus, the circuit becomes-

Now,
Rab = (7.292 + 10.5) II 21 = 9.632 Ω

VS 120
i= = = 12.458A
Rab 9.632

Ans: 9.632 Ω and 12.458A.

78
Self Assessment: (Continued)
Question-27: Find Rab and current i for the circuit given below:

Ans: 40 Ω and 6A.

79