Computer Application in Business

Chapter-01: Introduction to Computer in Business

Learning Objectives:
➢ Definition of Computer
➢ Different Generations of Computer
➢ Basic Applications of Computer
➢ Types of Computer Systems
➢ Computing Trends in Business
Definition of Computer:
➢ A computer is a machine or device that performs processes, calculation, and operations based on instructions provided by a software or
hardware program. It has the ability to accept data (input), process it, and then produce outputs.
➢ Computer is a programmable electronic device design to accept data, perform prescribed mathematical and logical operations at high speed,
and display the result of these operations.
Generations of Computer (Cont’d):
1. First Generation: This was from the period of 1940 to 1955. This was when machine language was developed for the use of computers.
They used vacuum tubes for the circuity. For the purpose memory, they used magnetic drums. These machines were complicated, large, and
expensive. They were mostly reliant on batch operating systems and punch cards. As output and input devices, magnetic tape and paper
tape were implemented. For example, ENIAC, UNIVAC-1, EDVAC, and so on.
2. Second Generation: The years 1957-1963 were referred to as the “Second Generation of Computers” at the time. In second-Generation
computers, COBOL and FORTRAN are employed as assembly languages and programming languages. Here they advanced from vacuum
tubes to transistors. This made the computer smaller, faster and more energy-efficient. And they advanced from binary to assembly
languages. For instance, IBM 1620, IBM 7094, CDC 1604, CDC 3600 and so forth.
3. Third Generation: The hallmark of this period (1964-1971) was the development of the integrated circuit (IC). A single integrated circuit
(IC) is made up of many transistors which increases the power of a computer while simultaneously lowering its cost. These computers were
quicker, smaller, more reliable, and less expensive than their predecessors. High-level programming languages such as FORTRON – II to
IV, COBOL and PASCAL PL/1 were utilized. For example, the IBM-360 series, the Honeywell-6000 series, and the IBM-370/168.
4. Forth Generation: The invention of the microprocessors brought along the forth generation of computers. The years 1971-1980 were
dominated by fourth generation computers. C, C++ and Java were the programming languages utilized in this generation of computers. For
instance, the START 1000, PDP 11, CRAY-X-MP, and Apple II. This was when we started producing computers for home use.
5. Fifth Generation: These computers have been utilized since 1980 and continue to be used now. This is the present and the future of the
computer world. The defining aspect of this generation is artificial intelligence. The use of parallel processing and superconductors are
making this a reality and provide a lot of scope for the future. Fifth-generation computers use ULSI (Ultra Large-Scale Integration)
technology. These are the most recent and sophisticated computers. C, C++, Java, Net, and more programming languages are used. For
instance, IBM, Pentium, Desktop, Laptop, Notebook, Ultrabook and so on.

Basic Applications of Computer:

Computers play a role in every field of life. They are used in homes, business, educational institutions, research organizations, medical field,
government offices, entertainment, etc.
Home: Computers are used at home for several purposes like online bill payment, watching movies, or dhows at home, home tutoring, social media
access, playing games, internet access, etc. They provide communication through electronic mails. They help to avail work from home facility for
corporate employees. Computers help the student community to avail online educational support.
Medical Field: Computers are used in hospitals to maintain a database of patient’s history, diagnosis, X-rays, live monitoring of patients, etc.
Surgeons nowadays use robotic surgical devices to perform delicate operations, and conduct surgeries remotely. Virtual Reality Technologies are also
used for training purposes. It also helps to monitor the fetus inside the mother’s womb.
Entertainment: Computers help to watch movies online, play games online, act as a virtual entertainer in playing games, listening to music, etc.
MIDI instruments greatly help people in the entertainment industry in recording music with artificial instruments. Videos can be fed from computers
to full screen televisions. Photo editors are available with fabulous features.
Industry: Computers are used to perform several tasks in industries like managing inventory, designing purpose, creating virtual sample products,
interior designing, video conferencing etc. Online marketing has seen a great revolution in its ability to sell various products to inaccessible corners
like interior or rural areas. Stock markets have seen phenomenal participation from different levels of people through the use of computers.
Education: Computers are used in education sector through online classes, online examinations, referring ebooks, online tutoring, etc. They help in
increased use of audio-visual aids in the education field.
Government: In government sectors, computers are used in data processing, maintaining a database of citizens and supporting a paperless
environment. The country’s defense organizations have greatly benefitted from computers in their use for missile development, satellites, rocket
launches, etc.
Banking: In the banking sector, computers are used to store details of customers and conduct transactions, such as withdrawal and deposit of money
through ATMs. Banks have reduced manual errors and expenses to a great extent through extensive use of computers.
Business: Nowadays, computers are totally integrated into business. The main objective of business is transaction processing, which involves
transactions with supplies, employees or customers. Computers can make these transactions easy and accurate. People can analyze investments, sales,
expenses, markets and other aspects of business using computers.
Training: Many organizations use computer-based training to train their employees, to save money and improve performance. Video conferencing
through computers allows saving of time and travelling costs by being able to connect people in various locations.
Arts: Computers are extensively used in dance, photography, arts and culture. The fluid movement of dance can be shown live via animation. Photos
can be digitized using computers.
Science and Engineering: Computers with high performance are used to stimulate dynamic process in Science and Engineering. Supercomputers
have numerous applications in area of Research and Development (R&D). Topographic images can be created through computers. Scientists use
computers to plot and analyze data to have a better understanding of earthquakes.
Types of Computer Systems:
On the basis data handling capabilities, the computer is of three types
• Analogue Computer: Analogue computers are designed to process analogue data. Analogue data is continuous data that changes
continuously and cannot have discrete values. We can say that analogue computers are used where we don’t need exact values always such
as speed, temperature, pressure and current.
• Digital Computer: Digital computer is designed to perform calculations and logical operations at high speed. It accepts the raw data as
input in the form of digits or binary numbers (0 and 1) and process it with programs stored in its memory to produce the output. All modern
computers like laptops, desktops, including smart phones that we use at home or office are digital computers.
• Hybrid Computer: Hybrid computer has features of both analogue and digital computer. It is fast like an analogue computer and has
memory and accuracy like digital computers. It can process both continuous and discrete data. It accepts analogue signals and convert them
into digital before processing.
For example, a processor is used in petrol pumps that converts the measurements of fuel flow into quantity and price, they are used in airplanes,
hospitals and scientific applications.
Types of Computer Systems:
On the basis size, the computer can be: -
✓ Microcomputer: It is a general-purpose computer that is designed for individual use. It has a microprocessor as a central processing unit,
memory, storage area, input unit and output unit. Example – Desktop, Workstations, Notebook, Tablet, Smart Phone.
✓ Minicomputer: It is a midsize multiprocessing computer. It consists of two or more processors and can support 4 to 200 users at one time.
Mini frame computers are used in institutes and departments for tasks such as billing, accounting and inventory management.
✓ Mainframe Computer: Mainframe Computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously. They can support
multiple programs at the same time.
✓ Supercomputer: Supercomputers are particularly used in scientific and engineering applications such as weather forecasting, scientific
simulations and nuclear energy research.
Computing Trends in Business:
❖ Connectivity: It is the ability to connect computers and other information devices to each other by communication lines which provides:
• Telecommunication
• Teleshopping
• E-mail
• Voice mail
❖ Online Access: It refers to being connected by modem or network to other computers. Online provides users with –
• Database
• Online service and network
• Electronic Bulletin Board Systems
❖ Interactivity: It refers to the ability to respond and to affect a computer or communication device:
• Multimedia Computer
• TV/PC
• PDAs
Some common types of computers designed for individual use
• Desktop Computers
• Laptop Computersb n
• Tablets
• Smartphones
• Wearable Computers
• Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) (Though less common today)
A computer is indeed a piece of hardware that lacks intelligence on its own — it simply follows instructions from the software it runs. However,
computers are constantly evolving due to several factors, and these changes bring numerous benefits.
What Prompts These Changes:
1. Technological Advancements
2. User Needs
 3. Software Development
4. Market Competition
5. Efficiency and Sustainability
Benefits of These Changes:
1. Increased Speed and Performance
2. Greater Storage Capacity
3. Better User Experience
4. Portability and Convenience
5. Energy Efficiency
6. Enhanced Security
Chapter-2,3,4,5,6: Computer Hardware & Software
Hardware
Computer Hardware is a physical equipment that makes the computer.
Computer Hardware 05 Categories:
i. Input
ii. Output
iii. Storage
iv. Processing
v. Communication
1. Input:
The function of input hardware is to collect and convert it into a form suitable for computer processing. Type of Input Hardware:
a) Keyboard entry
b) Direct entry
List of Input Hardware: keyboard, Mouse, Microphone, Scanner, webcam, digital camera, Joystick, Barcode
2. Output:
The function of output hardware is to convert data and process to a form suitable for human activity. It provides the user with the means to view
information produced by the computer system. Type of Output Hardware:
a) Soft copy
b) Hard copy
List of Output Hardware: printer, monitor, projector, speaker.
Why and how output hardware is necessary for computer users?
Output hardware is essential for computer users because it allows them to see, hear, and interact with the results of the computer’s processes. Without
output devices, users wouldn’t be able to get the information the computer processes in a usable form.
Why output hardware is important:
1. Communication: Output devices like monitors, speakers, and printers convey the computer’s information to the user whether it’s text,
images, sound, or physical documents.
2. Decision Making: Users rely on the output to analyze data and make informed decisions. For example, a financial report on a monitor
helps managers plan budgets.
3. Efficiency: Devices like projectors and high-quality displays make presentations and collaboration easier in professional and educational
settings.
4. Entertainment and Multimedia: Speakers, monitors, and VR headsets provide entertainment through movies, games, and music.
5. Accessibility: Specialized output devices like Braille displays and screen readers help people with disabilities interact with computers.
How it is important?
• Helps Users See and Understand Information
• Enables Communication
• Supports Decision-Making
• Enhances Productivity
• Improves Entertainment and Multimedia Experience
• Increases Accessibility
3. Storage:
The function of storage hardware is to provide a means of storing software and data in a form that is relatively permanent or non-volatile that is the
data is not lost when the power is turned off and easy to retrieve when needed for processing.
List of Storage Hardware: RAM (main memory), ROM, hard drive, pen drive, compact disc, SSD, magnetic disk, floppy disk.
4. Processing:
The function of processing is to retrieve and execute instructions (means software) provided to the computer. Then, processing may consist of
performing calculations and other logical operation.
List of Processing Hardware:
• Control Processing Unit (CPU)
• Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
 • Control Unit (CU)
5. Communication:
The function of communication hardware is to facilitate the connection between the computers and between the group of connected computers.
List of Communication Hardware: Modem, Cable connection, fax-modem.
Software
Software is that operates hardware. Software consist of step by step instructions that tell the computer how to perform a task. Computer hardware is
useless without electronic instructions. Software that tell it what is do.
Software types:
1. Application Software
2. System Software – system or factory made
Application Software:
Application Software which may be custom written or packaged enables users to perform their work. Two tools of Application Software:
a) Basic Tool: help to perform general task. Ex: Word processing, Database, Calculation.
b) Advance Tool: help to perform difficult task. Ex: Graphics Design, Desktop Publication.
Features of Application Software:
• Cursor
• Scrolling
• Pull down menu
• Help menu
• Dialogue box
• Tutorial & Documentation (how to we simply)
Common type of Application Software:
• Word Processing Software: MS-Word
• Desktop Publishing Software: using micro-computer, scanner, text and graphics to produce high quality output. Ex: Aldus, Pace Maker,
Quark express.
• Electronic Spreadsheet Software: Allows users to use tables by entering data into row and columns. Arranged as a gird represent a data
with a graph. Ex: Lotus 123, MS-Excel.
• Database Management System: Consist of program for storing cross index sync retrieving and manipulating large amount of data. Ex:
Fox-pro, MS-Access, Q&A.
• Graphics Software: Adobe Photoshop, Adobe illustrator, Adobe after effects.
• Communication Software: Discord, Gmail, WhatsApp, LinkedIn, Twitter
• Project Management Software: Trello, Asana, click up, Slack
List of a few Application software that used in Business and marketing Field
SEMrush (Digital Marketing & SEO Tool)
• Features:
o Keyword research and competitor analysis.
o SEO audit and site performance tracking.
o PPC (Pay-Per-Click) campaign management.
o Content marketing and backlink analysis tools.
• Advantages:
o Comprehensive digital marketing suite with powerful SEO insights.
o Provides detailed competitor analysis and traffic analytics.
o Helps improve content strategy and online visibility.
• Disadvantages:
o Expensive for small businesses or individuals.
o Requires training to fully use its advanced features.
Google Analytics (Website Traffic Analysis)
• Features:
o Tracks website visitors and their behavior.
o Measures traffic sources, bounce rates, and conversions.
o Provides audience demographics and interests.
• Advantages:
o Free to use with powerful data insights.
o Integrates easily with other Google tools like Ads and Search Console.
o Helps businesses understand their audience and content performance.
• Disadvantages:
o Complex for beginners due to advanced data and metrics.
o Data privacy concerns and limited real-time reporting.
Canva (Design and Content Creation)
• Features:
o Pre-made templates for social media, ads, and presentations.
o Drag-and-drop design tools with easy customization.
o Collaboration options for teams.
• Advantages:
o Easy to use with professional-looking designs.
o Affordable, with a wide variety of free and premium templates.
o Great for quick marketing content creation without design experience.
• Disadvantages:
o Limited advanced design features compared to professional tools like Adobe.
o Some high-quality templates and assets require a subscription.
Microsoft Excel (Data Analysis and Business Management)
• Features:
o Advanced spreadsheet capabilities for data organization.
o Functions, formulas, and pivot tables for analysis.
o Charts and visual representation tools.
• Advantages:
o Widely used and highly versatile for data management.
o Compatible with other business tools and software.
o Strong analytical capabilities for financial and business planning.
• Disadvantages:
o Requires training for complex functions and data analysis.
o Prone to errors with large datasets if not managed carefully.
System Software
It is a factory-made instruction.
System Software runs the computers basic operation, allows the computer to run application software and allows the users to internal with the
computer.
It has 03 Parts:
a) Operating System: master system of program that manage the basic operation.
b) Utility Program: actually support, use to support enhance or expand purchase in computer systems.
c) Language translator: translate basic into machine Language (vice-versa).
Few common operating systems:
• DOS (single operation)
• Windows (Microsoft)
• UNIX (multiple task permit)
• Macintosh System Software (Apple – Single operation)
• OS/2 (IBM)
Chapter – 09: Systems Development
Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) / Developing a MIS- The formal process by which organizations build computer-based information. The
SDLC will vary a number of factor . This factor can include the size of the organization, job description, relevant experience and our educational
background in information processing concepts, tools, and techniques. The SDLC comprises 6 phases
such as-
1. Analyze Current System
2. Define New System Requirements
3. Design New System
4. Develop new systems and have users test it
5. Implement New System
Basic approaches to implement a new system-
• Direct
• Parallel
• Phased
• Pilot
6. Evaluate Performance of New System and Maintain System
Why do some systems development projects Fail?
• Inadequate User Involvement: Users must assume responsibility for making sure the analyst understands, the business applications,
requirements and policies.
• Continuation of a Project that should have been cancelled: often it’s tempting to not cancel a project because of the investment already
made. Analysts should reevaluate the project at various places to determine if it remains feasible in other words, multiple feasibility
checkpoints should be established throughout the development process.
• Lack of Systems Integration: the failure of two or more portions of the new system to fit together properly. This often results when major
portions of the systems are worked on by different groups of technical specialists who do not communicate well.
Purpose of phase-1
The main objective of phase 1 is to gain a clear understanding of the existing system and determine it’s shortcoming, to identify existing problem and
determine where the improvement can be made.
Purpose of phase-2
The analyst defines the requirements for the new system in enough detail so both computer professionals and users know exactly what the system is
going to do and how the system is going to do it.
Purpose of phase-3
Phase 3 involves 2 main objectives
• To design the new system
• To establish a sound framework of controls within which the new system should operate
Purpose of phase-4
During phase 4 , four major activities occur-
a) Acquire Software
b) Acquire Hardware
c) Train the Users
d) Test the new system
Purpose of phase-5
The implementation phase, Which gets the new system up and running, involves creating the final operating documentation and procedure,
converting files, and using the new system.
Purpose of phase-6
The end of the final stage of SDLC is marked by the preparation of a new system evaluation report. The report summarizes the extend to which the
new system meets the original objective and includes a list of enhancements to be considered for future development and implementation.
Chapter – 10: Database Management
A data management system is a computer-based system for defining, creating, manipulating, controlling,
managing and using database.
Database is a collection of integrated data organized by bytes, fields, records, and files.
Data Hierarchy: It consists of the levels of stored data.
a) Bites: 0 and 1
b) Byte: A byte is a group of 8 bits. A Character may be but is not necessarily the same as a byte.
c) Field: A field is a unit of data consisting of one or more characters. An example of a field is your name, your address, or your social
security numbers.
d) Record: A record is a collection of related fields. An example of a record would be your name and email address and social security
number.
e) File: A file is a collection of related fields. An example of a file would be your names and addresses and social security numbers.
 f) Database: A database is a collection of related files. A company database might include files on all past and current employees in all
departments. These would be various files for each employee: payroll, retirement benefits, sales quotas and achievements and so on.

Data Management Concept

The DBMS approach to storing and retrieving data in computer usable form has evolved to allow users to easily retrieving and update data that is in
more that one file. To better explain the DBMS approach and it’s significance , we will first describe the traditional system it evolved from-the file
management system.
File Management Systems
The term file management system was coined to describe the traditional to managing business data and information. However, file management
system did not provide the user with an easy to group records within a file or to establish relationships among the records in different files.

The most serious problems of file management system are-

• Data Redundancy
• Updating files and Data integrety
• Lack of program and data independence
Types of Files:
1. Program File: It is part of software package and contains of software instructions. It published by (.exe) A program file is a file that contains
executable code or instructions for a computer program. It is used by an operating system to run specific tasks or operations. Program files are
typically in formats like .exe, .bat, .app, or .sh, depending on the operating system, and contain the compiled code or scripts that the computer can
execute.

2. Data File: that content data.

A data file is a file that stores data in a structured or unstructured format, used by a program or system to save, retrieve, and manage information. It
typically contains raw data such as text, numbers, or binary data and can be used for processing, storage, or transmission.
a) Master: content permanent record that update periodically, standard information.
b) Transaction: content temporary file. We may make changes.
Dirrefences of data files and program files
Aspect Data File Program File
Purpose Stores raw data used by programs during execution. Contains executable code or instructions for tasks.

Content Contains data like text, numbers, images, etc. Contains compiled code or scripts for execution
Usage Accessed and modified by programs to process Executed by the operating system to run a program.
data.

Fundamentals of Database Management System

DBMSs need large storage capacity, usually supplied by magnetic tape, hard disk packs, CD-ROM, and mass storage systems. DBMS software
usually includes a query language, a report writer, utilities, a data dictionary, and a transaction log.
Why is database Management system important for business?
A Database Management System (DBMS) is crucial for businesses because it helps them efficiently store, organize, manage, and access large
amounts of data. Here’s why it’s important for business operations:
a) Data Organization and Accessibility:
b) Improved Decision-Making:
c) Data Security:
d) Data Integrity and Accuracy
e) Scalability and Growth
f) Efficient Data Management and Backup
g) Improved Collaboration
h) Cost-Effective
i) Compliance and Reporting
How does a database management pose a threat to a business ?
A Database Management System (DBMS) offers benefits but also poses risks. Security vulnerabilities can expose sensitive data to hackers, and
system failures may result in data loss or corruption. Managing a DBMS can be costly and complex, especially for small businesses. Performance
issues, such as slow access or crashes, can disrupt operations. Non-compliance with regulations can lead to legal penalties, while inconsistent data
can cause inefficiencies. Insider threats and over-reliance on the DBMS without contingency plans can further complicate business operations. To
minimize risks, businesses must ensure strong security, regular backups, and proper system maintenance.
Types of Database Organization:
1. Hierarchical Database Management System
In a hierarchical database, fields or records are arranged in related groups resembling a family tree, with child records subordinate to parent records.
A parent may have more than one child, but a child always has only one parent. To find a particular record, you have to start at the top with a parent
and trace down the chart to child.

Hierarchical DBMSs work well when the data elements have an intrinsic one-to-many relationship, as might happen with a reservation system. The
difficulty is that the structures must be defined in advance and is quite rigid. There may be only one parent per child and no relationships among the
child records.
2. Network Database Management System
A network database is similar to a hierarchical DBMS, but each child record can have more than one parent record. Thus, a child record may be
reached through more than one parent. This arrangement is more flexible than the hierarchical one. However, it limits to the number of links that can
be made among records.
 3. Relational Database Management System
The most flexible type of organization, the relational database, relates, or connects, data in different files through the use of a key field, or common
data element. In this arrangement there are no access paths down through a hierarchy, instead data elements are stored in different tables made up of
rows and columns.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Database Management System

Advantages:
a) Minimize Data Redundancy
b) Easy file updating and maximization of Data Integrating
c) Data independence and simplification of program maintenance
d) Increase user Productivity
e) Increase Security
f) Standardization of Data Definition
Disadvantages or Limitations:
a) DBMS is complex extensive planning and a substantial amount of technical expertise are needed to implement and maintain a system.
b) The costs associated with development and operation management can be substantial
c) Security Trade
Chapter – 11: Information Management System
Information System: What they are, How they work
Computer based information system comprises six parts: Hardware, Software, Data/Information, Procedures, Communications, and people.
The type of information system found in companies vary according to the nature and structure of the business. All information systems help
organizations process data into the information they need.
What is Management information system ?
A MIS comprises computer based processing and manual procedures that provides useful, complete and timely information to management. These
information must support management decision making in a rapidly changing business environment.
It has 03 Levels:
a) Top – Strategic level (decision: unstructured)
b) Middle – Technical level (decision: semi-structured)
c) Lower – operation level (decision: structured)
Role of Management Information System
1. Accounting & Finance
2. Production
3. Marketing & Sales
4. HRM
5. Information Services
6. Research & Development
How does management make decisions?
1. Problem recognition & identification
2. Identification & Evaluation of Alternatives
3. Alternative Selection
4. Action
5. Follow-up
What kind of information does management need to make decisions?
a) Sources of Data:
➢ Internally Generated Data
➢ Data provided by higher or lower levels of management
➢ Externally Generated Data
b) Features or Characteristics of Data:
➢ Correct
➢ Complete
➢ Current
➢ Conscious
➢ Clear
➢ Cost effective
➢ Time sensitive
➢ Meaningful & useful
Final Types of Information System:
1) Transaction processing system (TPS)
Supporting day to day business operating activities or transactions is usually the first and the most important objective of an
information system. A computer based transaction processing system (TPS) focuses on the operating level of a business and
deals mostly with data from internal resources .
2) Management Information System (MIS) – (work in middle level)
Management Information System (MIS) also called information reporting system, provide middle management with reports that
summarize and categorize information derived from all the company databases.
3) Decision Support System – (work in lower + External level)
Decision Support System (DSS) a set of special computer programs establishes a sophisticated system to provide tools to assist
managers in analyzing information from the two lower management levels and outside the company.
Chapter – 13: Ethics, Privacy & Security
Computer and Privacy
Users of information technology must weigh standards of behavior and conduct in several areas. One important area relates to ethics and
personal privacy. Information about people that is stored in databases must be protected from misuse, and electronic “spying” must be
controlled.
One definition of ethics is that it is a set of moral values or principles that govern the conduct of an individual or a group. People in most countries
agree that they are entitled to the right of privacy—the right of people not to reveal information about themselves, the right to keep personal
information, such as credit ratings and medical histories, from getting into the wrong hands. The right of privacy from an electronic “invasion” into
the realm of personal data has become a serious ethical issue.
1. How do you feel about personal information being spread without your consent? What if a great deal of information about your shopping
habits and your income—collected without your consent—were made available to any small or large business that wanted it? Until they
dropped the project in 1990, Lotus Development Corporation and Equifax were preparing to do just that.
On highways and bridges in some states—Texas, Louisiana, and Oklahoma, for example—toll-collecting systems read special tags affixed to cars.
When a car passes through a toll plaza, a machine records the tag’s ID number and then, at the end of the month, bills the driver for tolls. The states
say that the system cuts down on traffic and smog. But privacy advocates say the system could also give state government a powerful new tool to
monitor its citizens; it will know when they’re gone and which way they’ve traveled. What if you discovered that your employer was using your
medical records to make decisions about placement, promotion, and firing? A survey done in the United States in 1988 found that half of the Fortune
500 companies were using employee medical records to make these decisions.
2. How do you feel about the spread of inaccurate information? Mistakes made in one computer file may find their way into other computer
files. For example, many people find that their credit records contain errors. And even if you get the mistake corrected in one file, it may not
be corrected in other files.
Robert Ellis Smith, a U.S. lawyer, was worried enough about inaccuracy in the collection and dissemination of personal information to do something
about it. In the early 1970s, as the use of computers became widespread, he worried that government and businesses could know too much about an
individual’s life and lifestyle. And what they knew quickly became a commodity for marketers. Smith said: “What I soon discovered was that there
was often not any need for the information that was being collected, or respect for its accuracy.” Smith has success¬ fully been party to a suit against
TRW, a major U.S. credit-reporting company. The result of the suit is to make it easier for consumers to correct errors in their credit reports. TRW has
agreed to set up toll-free numbers for consumers to call with credit report questions. It will also make its reports easier to read and create a set of
strict new rules for handling consumer complaints about credit report errors. However, credit-reporting companies also do background investigations
on individuals for potential employers. Their reports are sometimes incorrect, and the result is that, for no valid reason, the applicant is not hired. To
prevent this, consumer groups advocate the following: —Improved accuracy: Credit bureaus should take responsibility for correcting mistakes, no
matter where the data came from, and they should inform other credit reporters of errors.
Intellectual Property Rights
Ethics in the Information Age also concerns intellectual property rights, especially software and network piracy, plagiarism, and ownership
of images and sounds.
Information technology has presented legislators and lawyers—and you—with some new ethical matters regarding rights to intellectual property.
Intellectual property consists of the products of the human mind, tangible or intangible. There are three methods of protecting intellectual property.
They are patents, trade secrets, copyrights.
Copyright: A copyright is a body of law that prohibits copying of intellectual property without the permission of the copyright holder. The law
protects books, articles, pamphlets, music, art, drawings, movies, and other expressions of ideas. It also protects computer software. A copyright
protects the expression of an idea but not the idea itself. Thus, others may copy your idea for, say, a new shoot-em-up video game but not your
particular variant of it. Copyright protection is automatic and lasts a minimum of 50 years; you do not have to register your idea with the government
in order to receive protection.
Piracy: Piracy is theft or unauthorized distribution or use. A type of piracy is to appropriate a computer design or program. This is the piracy that
Apple Computer claimed in a suit against Microsoft and Hewlett-Packard, saying that items in its interface, such as icons and windows, had been
copied.

Piracy are 02 types

a) Software piracy – Software piracy is the unauthorized copying of copyrighted software. One way is to copy a program from one diskette to
another. Another is to download a program from a network and make a copy of it.
b) Network Piracy – Network piracy is using electronic networks to distribute unauthorized copyrighted materials in digitized form. Record
companies, for example, have protested the practice of computer users’ sending unauthorized copies of digital recordings over the Internet.
Plagiarism: Plagiarism is the expropriation of another writer’s text, findings, or interpretations and presentation of it as one’s own. Information
technology puts a new face on plagiarism in two ways. On the one hand, it offers plagiarists new opportunities to go far afield for unauthorized
copying. On the other hand, the technology offers new ways to catch people who steal another people’s material.
Ownership of images and sounds: Scanners, digital cameras, digital samplers, and computers make it possible to alter images and sounds to be
almost anything you want. What does this mean for the original copyright holders? An unauthorized sound snippet of James Brown’s famous howl
can be electronically transformed by digital sampling into the background music for dozens of rap recordings.6 Images can be appropriated by
scanning them into a computer system, then altered or placed in a new context.
Threats to computers and communication Systems:
Information technology can be disabled by a number of occurrences. It may be harmed by people, procedural, and software errors; by
electromechanical problems; and by “dirty data.” It may be threatened by natural hazards and by civil strife and terrorism. Criminal acts perpetrated
against computers include theft of hardware, software, time and services, and information; and crimes of malice and destruction. Computers may be
harmed by viruses. Computers can also be used as instruments of crime. Criminals may be employees, outside users, hackers, crackers, and
professional criminals.
There will probably always be a need for paper towels or the equivalent. That is because there will always be household accidents and mistakes—
spills, messes, leaky pipes. Similarly, accidents and other disasters will probably disable computer and communications systems from time to time, as
they have in the past. What steps should we take to minimize them, and how should we deal with them when they do happen?
Here we discuss the following threats to computers and communications systems:
▪ Errors and accidents
▪ Natural and other hazards
▪ Crimes against information technology
▪ Crimes using information technology
▪ Viruses
Errors and Accidents
Robot sent to disarm bomb goes wild in san Francisco, read the headline.16 Evidently, a hazardous-duty police robot started spinning out of control
when officers tried to get it to grasp a pipe bomb. Fortunately, it was shut off before any damage could be done. Most computer glitches are not so
spectacular, although they can be almost as important. In general, errors and accidents in computer systems may be classified as people errors,
procedural errors, software errors, electromechanical problems, and “dirty data” problems.
People errors: The passage argues that computer failures aren't always technical malfunctions, but can also stem from human
error and mismanagement. Here are the two main points:
Human indifference or bad management: The example of Brian McConnell highlights how an organization's procedures can hinder user
experience. The automated phone system, designed by people, made it difficult to reach a human representative.
Procedural Errors: The NASDAQ shutdown showcases how seemingly minor human mistakes can have large consequences. Technicians, trying to
improve the system, overloaded it by adding features too quickly.
In essence, the passage emphasizes that a computer system relies heavily on the people who run it. Even the most advanced technology can be
brought down by human shortcomings.
Software errors: We are forever hearing about “software glitches” or “soft¬ ware bugs.” A software bug is an error
in a program that causes it to malfunction. An example of a somewhat small error is the one a school employee in Newark, New Jersey, made in
coding the school system’s master scheduling program. When 1,000 students and 90 teachers showed up for the start of school at Central High
School, half the students had incomplete or no schedules for classes. Some classrooms had no teachers while others had four instead of one.
An example of a large number of software errors is the set of errors behind the delay in launching the automatic baggage system for the new Denver
International Airport. Consisting of 4,000 computer-guided baggage carts and 22 miles of tracks, the system was supposed to be able to shuttle
60,000 bags an hour around the airport. However, in its first test, carts crashed into each other, others went off the rails, and others didn’t appear
when summoned.20 Especially with complex software, there are always bugs, even after the system has been thoroughly tested and “debugged.”
However, there comes a point in the software development process where debugging must end. That is, the probability of the bugs disrupting the
system is considered to be so low that it is not worth searching further for them.

Electromechanical problems: Mechanical systems, such as printers, and electrical systems, such as circuit boards, don’t always work. They may be
faultily constructed, get dirty or overheated, wear out, or become dam aged in some other way. Power failures (brownouts and blackouts) can shut a
system down. Power surges can burn out equipment. Whatever the reason, whether electromechanical failure or another problem, computer
downtime is expensive. A survey of about 450 information system executives picked from Fortune 1,000 companies found that companies on average
suffer nine 4-hour computer-system failures a year. Each failure cost the company an average of $330,000. Because of them, companies were unable
to deliver a service, complete production, earn fees, or retrieve data. Moreover, employees lost productivity because of idle time.
“Dirty data” problems: When keyboarding a research paper, you undoubtedly make a few typing errors (which, hopefully, you clean up). Typos are
also a fact of life for all the data-entry people around the world who feed a continual stream of raw data into computer systems. A lot of problems are
caused by this kind of “dirty data." Dirty data is data that is incomplete, outdated, or otherwise inaccurate. A good reason for having a look at your
records— credit, medical, school—is so you can make any corrections to them before they cause you complications.
Natural and Other Hazards
Some disasters do not merely lead to temporary system downtime, they can wreck the entire system. Examples are natural hazards, and civil strife
and terrorism.
Natural hazards: Whatever is harmful to property is harmful to computers and communications systems. This certainly includes natural disasters:
fires, floods, earthquakes, tornadoes, hurricanes, blizzards, and the like. If they inflict damage over a wide area, as did Florida’s 1992 Hurricane
Andrew, natural hazards can disable all the electronic systems we take for granted. Without power and communications connections, automatic teller
machines, credit-card verifiers, and bank computers are useless.
Civil strife and terrorism: We may take comfort in the fact that wars and insurrections seem to take place in other parts of the world. Yet we are not
immune to civil unrest, such as the so-called Rodney King riots that wracked Los Angeles in 1992. Nor are we immune, apparently, to acts of
terrorism, such as the February 1993 bombing of New York’s World Trade Center. In the latter case, companies found themselves frantically moving
equipment to new offices and reestablishing their computer networks.
Crimes Against Computers and Communications
An information-technology crime can be of two types. It can be an illegal act perpetrated against computers or telecommunications. Or it can be the
use of computers or telecommunications to accomplish an illegal act. Here we discuss the first type.
Crimes against information technology include theft of hardware, of software, of computer time, of cable or telephone services, of information. Other
illegal acts are crimes of malice and destruction. Some examples are as follows:
Theft of hardware: Stealing of hardware can range from shoplifting an accessory in a computer store to removing a laptop or cellular phone from
someone’s car. Professional criminals may steal shipments of microprocessor chips off a loading dock or even pry cash machines out of shopping-
center walls. A particularly interesting case was the theft in December 1990 of a laptop computer from the car of a British officer. It happened to
contain U.S. General Norman Schwarzkopf’s preliminary military plans for the invasion of Iraq. Fortunately, the war plans were not compromised by
the event. Theft of computers has become a major problem on many campuses. Often the thieves, who may be professionals, don’t take the peripheral
devices, only the system unit.
Theft of software: Software theft isn't just about stealing physical disks (diskettes). The more common form is copying software illegally. Software
companies fight this by searching for pirated software online and suing to shut it down. They also target companies that buy one copy and install it on
many computers. People can report software theft to the Software Publishers Association (SPA).
The summary mentions a specific case of students using the internet to enable software sharing. Another method of theft is counterfeiting popular
software, often done in specific countries. This practice is so widespread that in some areas, over 90% of software might be stolen.
Theft of time and services: The theft of computer time is more common than you might think. Probably the biggest use of it is people using their
employer s computer time to play games. Some people also run sideline businesses. heft of cable and telephone services has increased over the years.
Cable TV Montgomery reported it lost $12 million a year to pirates using illegal set-top converter boxes. Under federal law, a viewer with an illegal
decoder box can face up to 6 months in jail and a $1,000 fine.
Theft of information: In 1992, “information thieves” were caught infiltrating the files of the Social Security Administration, stealing confidential
personal records, and selling the information.30 Thieves have also broken into computers of the major credit bureaus and stolen credit information.
They have then used the information to charge purchases or have resold it to other people. On college campuses, thieves have snooped on or stolen
private information such as grades.
Crimes of malice and destruction: Sometimes criminals are more interested in abusing or vandalizing computers and telecommunications systems
than in profiting from them. For example, a student at a Wisconsin campus deliberately and repeatedly shut down a university computer system,
destroying final projects for dozens of students. A judge sentenced him to a year’s probation, and he left the campus.31 In 1988 a student at an upstate
New York university unleashed a program that jammed several thousand computers across the country. In 1989 a young man going under the name
fiber Optic took offense at some remarks made by a journalist. He retaliated by downloading the journalist’s credit history and displaying it online
for all. Phiber Optik was one of ring of “hackers”—a subject we take up shortly.
Viruses
Viruses are a form of high-tech maliciousness. Computer viruses are “deviant” programs that can cause destruction to computers that contract them.
They are passed in two ways. The first way is via an infected diskette, such as one you get from a friend or a repair person, although it might also be
a sales demo disk or even a shrink-wrapped commercial disk. The second way is via a network, such as files downloaded from an electronic bulletin
board or as e-mail. Viruses may take several forms. The two principal ones are the boot sector virus and file viruses, but there are others.
Boot-sector virus: The boot sector is that part of the system software containing most of the instructions for booting, or powering up, the system.
The boot sector virus replaces these boot instructions with some of its own. Once the system is turned on, the virus is loaded into main memory
before the operating system. From there it is in a position to infect other files. Any diskette that is used in the drive of the computer then becomes
infected. When that disk is moved to another computer, the contagion continues.
File virus: File viruses attach themselves to executable files those that actually begin a program. When the program is run, the vims starts working,
trying to get into main memory and infecting other files. Worm: The worm spreads by replicating itself. It travels through networks to different
computer systems, then makes many copies of itself, wasting vast amounts of computer time.
Logic bomb: Logic bombs, or simply bombs, differ from other viruses in that they are set to go off at a certain date and time. A disgruntled
programmer for a defense contractor created a bomb in a program that was supposed to go off two months after he left. Designed to erase an
inventory tracking system, the bomb was discovered only by chance.
Trojan horse: The Trojan horse covertly places illegal, destructive instructions in the middle of a legitimate program, such as a computer game.
Once you run the program, the Trojan horse goes to work, doing its damage while you are blissfully unaware.
Polymorphic virus: A polymorphic virus, of which there are several kinds, can mutate and change form just as human viruses can. These are
especially troublesome because they can change their profile, making existing antiviral technology ineffective.
Virus mutation engines: A virus mutation engine allows programmers to actually create polymorphic viruses. One, called Virus Creation
Laboratory, has a user interface with pull-down menus, making it easy for’ even novices to create their own viruses.
Antivirus software scans a computer’s hard disk, diskettes, and main memory to detect viruses and, sometimes, to destroy them.
Computer Criminal:
What kind of people are perpetrating most of the information-technology crime? Over 80% may be employees, and the rest are outside users, hackers
and crackers, and professional criminals.
Employees: “Employees are the ones with the skill, the knowledge, and the access to do bad things,” says Donn
Parker, an expert on computer security at SRI International in Menlo Park, California. “They’re the ones, for example, who can most easily plant a
logic bomb. Dishonest or disgruntled employees, he says, pose “a far greater problem than most people realize.” He increasing use of laptops off the
premises, away from the eyes of supervisors, concerns some security experts. They worry that dishonest employees or outsiders can more easily
intercept communications or steal company trade secrets. Workers may use information technology for personal profit or steal hardware or
information to sell. They may also use it to seek revenge for real or imagined wrongs, such as being passed over for promotion. Sometimes they may
use the technology simply to demonstrate to themselves that they have power over people. This may have been the case with a Georgia printing-
company employee convicted of sabotaging the firm’s computer system. As his mysteriously disappeared and the system randomly crashed, other
workers became so frustrated and enraged that they quit.
Outside users: Suppliers and clients may also gain access to a company’s information technology and use it to commit crimes. With both, this
becomes more a possibility as electronic connections become more commonplace.
Hackers and crackers: Hackers are people who gain unauthorized access to computer or telecommunications systems for the challenge or even the
principle of it. For example, Eric Corley, publisher of a magazine called 2600 The Hackers’ Quarterly, believes that hackers are merely engaging in
“healthy exploration.” In fact, by breaking into corporate computer systems and revealing their flaws, he says, they perform a favor and a public
service. Such unauthorized entries show the corporations the leaks in their security systems. Crackers also gain unauthorized access to information
technology but do so for malicious purposes. Crackers attempt to break into computers and deliberately obtain information for financial gain, shut
down hardware, pirate software, or destroy data. The tolerance for “benign explorers”—hackers—has waned. Most communications systems
administrators view any kind of unauthorized access as a threat, and they pursue the offenders vigorously. Educators try to point out to students that
universities can’t provide an education for everybody if hacking continues.43 The most flagrant cases of hacking are met with federal prosecution. A
famous instance involved five young New York-area men calling themselves the Masters of Deception who had bro¬ ken into numerous information
systems. Professional criminals: Members of organized crime rings don’t just steal information technology. They also use it the way that legal
businesses do—as a business tool, but for illegal purposes. For instance, databases can be used to keep track of illegal gambling debts and stolen
goods. Drug dealers have used pagers as a link to [Link], scanners, and printers can be used to forge checks, immigration papers,
passports, and driver’s licenses. Telecommunications can be used to transfer funds illegally.
Security: Safeguarding Computers and Communications
Information technology requires vigilance in security. Four areas of concern are identification and access, encryption, protection of software
and data, and disaster-recovery planning.
Security is a system of safeguards for protecting information technology against disasters, systems failure, and unauthorized access that can result in
damage or loss. We consider four components of security:
• Identification and access
• Encryption
• Protection of software and data
• Disaster-recovery planning
Identification and Access
Are you who you say you are? The computer wants to know. There are three ways a computer system can verify that you have legitimate right of
access. Some security systems use a mix of these techniques. The systems try to authenticate your identity by determining (1) what you have, (2)
what you know, or (3) who you are.
• What you have—cards, keys, signatures, badges: Credit cards, debit cards, and cash-machine cards all have magnetic strips or built-in
computer chips that identify you to the machine. Many require you to display your signature, which someone may compare as you write
your signature. Computer rooms are always kept locked, requiring a key. Many people also keep a lock on their personal computers. A
computer room may also be guarded by security officers who must see an authorized signature or a badge with your photograph before
letting you in. Of course, credit cards, keys, and badges can be lost or stolen. Signatures can be forged. Badges can be counterfeited.
• What you know—PINs, passwords, and digital signatures: To gain access to your bank account through an automatic teller machine
(ATM), you key in your PIN. A PIN, or personal identification number, is the security number known only to you that is required to
access the system. Tele¬ phone credit cards also use a PIN. If you can either an ATM or a phone card, never carry the PIN written down
elsewhere in your wallet. A password is a special word, code, or symbol that is required to access a computer system. Passwords are one of
the weakest security links, says AT&T security expert Steven Bellovin. Passwords can be guessed, forgotten, or stolen. To reduce a
stranger’s guessing, Bellovin recommends never choosing a real word or variations of your name or birthdate or those of your friends or
family. Instead you should mix letters, numbers, and punctuation marks in an oddball sequence of no fewer than eight characters.49 Skilled
hackers may break into national computer networks and detect passwords as they are being used. Or they pose on the telephone as
computer technicians to cajole passwords out of employees. They may even find access codes in discarded technical manuals in trash
bins.50 A new technology is the digital signature; which security experts hope will lead to a world of paperless commerce.
A digital signature is a string of characters and numbers that a user signs to an electronic document being sent by his or her computer. The
receiving computer performs mathematical operations on the alphanumeric string to verify its validity.
• Who you are—physical traits: Some forms of identification can’t be easily faked—such as your physical traits. Biometrics tries to use these
in secu¬ rity devices. Biometrics is the science of measuring individual body characteristics. For example, before a number of University of
Georgia students can use the all-you-can-eat plan at the campus cafeteria, they must have their hands read. As one writer describes the
system, “a camera automatically compares the shape of a student’s hand with an image of the same hand pulled from the magnetic strip of
an ID card. If the patterns match, the cafeteria turnstile automatically clicks open. If not, the would-be moocher eats elsewhere.
Encryption
Encryption, or enciphering, is the altering of data so that it is not usable unless the changes are undone. In other words, the data is transformed so as
to be unreadable to anyone without a secret decryption key, usually a mathematical algorithm.

It is 03 types
a. Private key encryption
b. Public Private key encryption
c. Signature key encryption
Protection of Software and Data
Organizations go to tremendous lengths to protect their programs and data. As might be expected, this includes educating employees about making
backup disks, protecting against viruses, and so on. Other security procedures include the following:
Control of access: Access to online files is restricted only to those who have a legitimate right to access—because they need them to do their jobs.
Many organizations have a transaction log W p. 360] that notes all accesses or attempted accesses to data.
Audit controls: Many networks have audit controls, which track which programs and servers were used, which files
opened, and so on. This creates an audit trail, a record of how a transaction was handled from input through processing
and output.
People controls: Because people are the greatest threat to a computer system, security precautions begin with screening of job applicants. That is,
resumes are checked to see if people did what they said they did. Another control is to separate employee functions, so that people are not allowed to
wander freely into areas not essential to their jobs. Manual and automated controls input controls, processing controls, and output controls are used to
check that data is handled accurately and completely during the processing cycle. Printouts, printer ribbons, and other waste that may yield passwords
and trade secrets to outsiders is disposed of through shredders or locked trash barrels.
Disaster-Recovery Plans
A disaster-recovery plan is a method of restoring information processing operations that have been halted by destruction or accident. A disaster-
recovery plan is more than a big fire-drill. It includes a list of all business functions and the hardware, software, data, and people to support those
functions. It includes arrangements for alternate locations, either hot sites or cold sites. A hot site is a fully equipped computer center, with everything
needed to resume functions. A cold site is a building or other suitable environment in which a company can install its own computer system.
 Chapter – 14: Purchasing & Maintaining a Computer System

Purchasing a System: what to consider?

1. What Software and Hardware will you need ?
Once your applications software requirements have been determined, choose the compatible hardware
models and systems software that will allow you to use your applications software efficiently and expand
your system if necessary.
2. PC Clones: A good Bet – Yes, usually some important questions appear before making a purchase you will end up with a compatible
system for a good price.
i. Is the microcomputer accompanied by proper and adequate documentation?
ii. Is the ROM chip a known PC compatible?
iii. Are the characteristics of the motherboard similar to those of the pc motherboard?
iv. Is the system covered by a warranty?
v. If the system fails after the warranty period will parts be available?
3. Where to go?
The following three factors should greatly influence where you purchase a microcomputer.
i. The company’s reputation
ii. The price
iii. The warranty agreement
4. The Other Practical Considerations
These are all great tips for choosing a computer! Here's a breakdown of each point:
1. Budgeting: This is crucial. Don't get carried away by fancy features you won't use. Decide how
much you can comfortably spend beforehand.
2. Software Requirements: Match your hardware to your software needs. Check the software
documentation for minimum RAM, processor, and other specifications to ensure smooth
operation.
3. Portability: Do you need a laptop for mobility or a desktop for a fixed location? Consider your
usage patterns.
4. Upgradability: Choose a computer with open architecture (space for expansion cards) or plenty
of ports to allow for future upgrades.
5. Compatibility: Ensure your new system is compatible with existing software or hardware you or
your colleagues use to avoid compatibility issues.
6. One-Stop Shopping: Consider buying the entire computer setup (computer, peripherals) from one
store for easier troubleshooting and support.
Maintaining a System
Factors to monitor in order to properly maintain a computer system include temperature, length of time the computer is left on, power surges and
supply, and dust and pollutants.
A microcomputer system presents a sizable investment from a few hundred to a few thousand dollars. Even so, many users don’t take care of this
investment, which leads to system abuse and failures. Most microcomputer problems can be prevented by regular maintenance. Maintaining a system
properly on an ongoing basis is easy, and will pay for itself many times over by reducing hardware malfunctions and data loss and increasing the life
of your computer. In this section you will learn how to maintain your microcomputer system by following some simple procedures and words of
advice.
1. Temperature:
Computer systems should be kept in an environment with as constant a temperature as possible. In cold climates, where office temperatures
are controlled by an automatic thermostat causing warmer temperatures during the day and much cooler temperatures at night,
microcomputers tend to have the most system failures. The ideal room temperature for microcomputers ranges from 60 to 90 degrees
Fahrenheit when the system is on and from 50 to 110 degrees when the system is off. But maintaining a constant temperature in an
environment is more important than the number of degrees.
2. Turning the computer on-off
3. Plugging in the system
You're absolutely right about the importance of proper power management for your computer. Here's a breakdown of the key points:
• Power strips: They are handy for consolidating multiple devices into a single wall outlet.
• Surge protection: Look for a power strip with surge protection to safeguard your computer from voltage spikes caused by
equipment like coffee makers, laser printers, and copy machines. These spikes can damage your computer.
• Separate circuit (ideal): If possible, it's ideal to have your computer on a separate circuit from other appliances to avoid
potential interference.
• Sharing a circuit: If you must share a circuit, turn on the peripheral equipment (printer, etc.) before starting your computer.
• Circuit overload: Be mindful of the total power draw of your devices and ensure the circuit can handle the load without
overloading.
 By following these tips, you can help ensure a stable power supply for your computer and minimize the risk of damage from voltage
spikes.
4. Dust and Pollutants
5. Other Practical Pollutants
hocks and vibrations are bad for computer disk drives. Therefore, you should also keep the following
considerations in mind:
• Never place an impact printer on the same surface as the computer.
• Don’t drop or throw objects onto the surface on which the computer is located.
• If you place your system unit on the floor to free up desk space, make sure it’s not in a place where you will
accidentally kick it or people will bump into it.
• Don’t move a laptop or notebook computer when the hard disk drive is working.
Ergonomics: Health Issues
Ergonomics, the science of human-comfort engineering, concerns itself with preventing some common computer related health problems, such as
eye, back, and neck strain; repetitive strain injury (RSI) and annoying noise and stress.
1. Physical Health:
a) Avoid eyestrain and headache
b) Avoid back and neck pain
c) Avoid effects of electromagnetic fields
d) Avoid repetitive strain injury (RSI)
2. Mental Health:
a) Avoid noise
b) Avoid stress from electronic supervision
The Environmentally Aware Computer User
Many options exist for the computer user to avoid waste and contribute to recycling.
a) Recycled used printer toner cartridges
b) Recycled batteries
c) Recycle hardware
d) Use a plain-paper fax machine
e) Refill ink-jet printer cartridges and re-ink dot-matrix and daisy wheel printer ribbons
f) Buy CD-ROM, recycled works instead of traditional bound reference books like encyclopedias, atlases, etc
g) Buy a computer that has a sleep mode
h) Consider buying a green printer
i) Try to buy a computer made of recyclable plastic
j) Try to buy green computer products with the seal of approval from the computer users for social responsibility
k) Don’t trash absolute software

Prepared By,

Fahim Foysal

Department of Marketing

15 batch