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MODULE III
MULTIPLE ACCESS AND MODULATION TECHNIQUES

1. Multiple Access Techniques in Cellular Communication

Introduction

In a cellular communication system, a large number of users must simultaneously share a limited
amount of radio spectrum. Since radio frequencies are scarce and expensive, efficient utilization
of the available bandwidth is one of the most critical challenges in mobile communication system
design.

Multiple access techniques provide methods by which multiple users can access the same
communication medium without causing unacceptable interference to one another. These
techniques allow several mobile users to transmit and receive information simultaneously by
dividing the available resources such as frequency, time, code, or space.

The choice of multiple access technique directly affects:

• System capacity

• Spectral efficiency

• Quality of service

• Complexity of transmitter and receiver

This chapter discusses the fundamental multiple access techniques used in wireless
communication systems, namely FDMA, TDMA, CDMA, SDMA, and OFDM.

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

Basic Principle of FDMA

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) is one of the earliest and simplest multiple access
techniques. In FDMA, the total available system bandwidth is divided into a number of non-
overlapping frequency channels, and each user is assigned a unique frequency band for the
duration of the call.

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Once a user is allocated a frequency channel, that channel remains dedicated to the user until
the communication session ends, regardless of whether the user is actively transmitting data or
not.

Figure: Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) Spectrum Allocation

FDMA Operation in Cellular Systems

In an FDMA-based cellular system:

• Each cell is allocated a group of frequency channels

• Adjacent cells use different frequency groups to avoid interference

• Guard bands are introduced between channels to prevent spectral overlap

The transmitter modulates the user’s information onto the assigned carrier frequency, and the
receiver uses bandpass filtering to extract the desired signal.

Advantages and Limitations of FDMA

FDMA offers simplicity and low receiver complexity. However, it suffers from poor spectral
efficiency due to guard bands and is inefficient for bursty data transmission, as the frequency
channel remains unused during silent periods.

FDMA was widely used in first-generation (1G) analog cellular systems, such as AMPS.

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

Basic Principle of TDMA

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Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) allows multiple users to share the same frequency
channel by dividing transmission time into repetitive time slots. Each user transmits only during
its assigned time slot and remains silent during others.

Thus, users access the channel in a round-robin fashion, one after another, but at a very high
speed such that the communication appears continuous.

Figure: TDMA Frame Structure with Multiple Time Slots

TDMA Frame Structure

A TDMA system is organized into frames, each consisting of:

• Multiple time slots

• Guard time between slots to prevent overlap

• Control and synchronization information

Each user transmits a short burst of data at a higher data rate during its allocated slot.

TDMA in Digital Cellular Systems

TDMA is well suited for digital communication and supports:

• Voice compression

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• Error correction

• Encryption

TDMA was extensively used in second-generation (2G) systems, such as GSM.

Advantages and Challenges of TDMA

TDMA improves spectral efficiency compared to FDMA but requires:

• Precise synchronization

• High peak transmission power

• Complex timing control

Multipath fading can cause inter-symbol interference, making equalization necessary.

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

Fundamental Concept of CDMA

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) allows all users to transmit simultaneously over the same
frequency band and at the same time, but each user is distinguished by a unique spreading code.

In CDMA, the user’s data signal is multiplied by a high-rate pseudo-random code, spreading the
signal over a wide bandwidth. At the receiver, the desired signal is recovered by correlating the
received signal with the same spreading code.

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Figure: CDMA Transmission and Reception Principle

Processing Gain

The ratio of spread bandwidth to data bandwidth is known as processing gain, which provides
resistance to:

• Interference

• Multipath fading

• Eavesdropping

CDMA Characteristics

CDMA systems exhibit:

• Soft capacity (capacity increases gradually)

• Frequency reuse factor of 1

• Improved multipath performance using RAKE receivers

CDMA was used in IS-95 and 3G systems.

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Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)

Concept of SDMA

Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) separates users based on their spatial location. By using
directional antennas or antenna arrays, the base station can form beams that focus energy toward
specific users.

Figure: SDMA Using Beamforming

Role of Smart Antennas

SDMA relies heavily on:

• Adaptive beamforming

• Antenna arrays

• Spatial filtering

It improves system capacity by allowing multiple users to share the same frequency and time
resources if they are spatially separated.

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Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)

Basic Principle of OFDM

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is a multicarrier modulation technique

where the available bandwidth is divided into a large number of closely spaced orthogonal
subcarriers.

Each subcarrier carries a low-rate data stream, making the system robust against frequency-
selective fading.

Figure: OFDM Subcarrier Structure

Advantages of OFDM

OFDM offers:

• High spectral efficiency

• Resistance to ISI

• Simple equalization using FFT

OFDM is the foundation of LTE, Wi-Fi, and 5G systems.

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2. Receiver Structures and Diversity Techniques

Introduction

In wireless communication systems, the receiver plays a crucial role in recovering the transmitted
information from a signal that has been severely distorted by noise, interference, and fading.
Unlike wired channels, the wireless channel introduces random amplitude and phase variations
due to multipath propagation. These variations can cause deep fades, resulting in significant
performance degradation if not properly mitigated.

Receiver structures and diversity techniques are employed to combat fading and improve signal
reliability. Diversity techniques exploit the fact that multiple independently faded replicas of the
same signal can be combined at the receiver to improve the overall signal quality. This chapter
discusses the fundamental receiver structures used in mobile communication systems and
introduces key diversity reception techniques such as selection combining, maximal ratio
combining (MRC), and the RAKE receiver.

Receiver Structure in Wireless Communication Systems

General Receiver Model

A typical wireless receiver consists of several functional blocks designed to process the received
signal and recover the transmitted data. The received signal at the antenna is a combination of:

• Desired signal

• Interference from other users

• Thermal noise

The basic receiver structure includes:

• RF front-end

• Down-conversion and filtering

• Demodulation

• Detection and decoding

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Figure: Block Diagram of a Wireless Receiver

RF Front-End

The RF front-end includes the antenna, low-noise amplifier (LNA), bandpass filters, and mixers.
The LNA amplifies the weak received signal while adding minimal noise. The mixer down-converts
the RF signal to an intermediate frequency or baseband.

Baseband Processing

After down-conversion, the signal undergoes baseband processing, which includes filtering,
synchronization, channel estimation, and equalization. This stage prepares the signal for
demodulation and decoding.

Need for Diversity Techniques

Fading and Its Impact

In a fading channel, the received signal strength may drop to very low levels, causing a high
probability of bit errors. Since fading is random, it is unlikely that all independently faded signal
replicas will simultaneously experience deep fades.

Diversity techniques exploit this fact by providing multiple versions of the signal that fade
independently.

Types of Diversity

Diversity can be achieved in various domains:

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• Time diversity

• Frequency diversity

• Spatial diversity (antenna diversity)

• Polarization diversity

Among these, spatial diversity is the most widely used in mobile receivers.

Selection Combining (SC)

Principle of Selection Combining

In selection combining, the receiver continuously monitors the signal strength of all diversity
branches and selects the branch with the highest instantaneous signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) for
detection.

Only one branch is used at any time, making selection combining the simplest diversity technique.

Figure: Selection Combining Diversity Receiver

Performance Characteristics

Selection combining provides diversity gain but does not fully exploit all available signal energy.
Its performance improves with the number of diversity branches but is inferior to more advanced
combining techniques.

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Maximal Ratio Combining (MRC)

Principle of Maximal Ratio Combining

Maximal Ratio Combining (MRC) is an optimal diversity combining technique that combines all
available signal replicas in such a way that the output SNR is maximized.

Each diversity branch is:

• Co-phased to align the signal components

• Weighted proportional to its SNR

The combined signal is the weighted sum of all branches.

Figure: Maximal Ratio Combining Receiver

Mathematical Representation

Advantages of MRC

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MRC provides the maximum possible diversity gain and significantly improves link reliability.
However, it requires accurate channel estimation and higher receiver complexity.

RAKE Receiver

Multipath Diversity in CDMA Systems

In wideband CDMA systems, multipath components are resolvable due to large signal bandwidth.
Instead of treating multipath as interference, CDMA systems exploit it using the RAKE receiver.

Structure of RAKE Receiver

A RAKE receiver consists of multiple correlator branches, known as fingers, each synchronized to
a different multipath component. Each finger despreads and demodulates one multipath replica.

The outputs of all fingers are then combined, typically using MRC.

Figure: RAKE Receiver Structure with Multiple Fingers

Advantages of RAKE Receiver

The RAKE receiver:

• Exploits multipath diversity

• Improves SNR

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• Reduces fading effects

It is a key component in CDMA-based systems such as IS-95 and UMTS.

Equalization in Wireless Receivers

Need for Equalization

In frequency-selective fading channels, delayed multipath components cause inter-symbol

interference (ISI). Equalization is used to mitigate ISI and restore the transmitted signal.

Linear Equalizers

Zero-Forcing Equalizer (ZFE)

The Zero-Forcing Equalizer attempts to completely eliminate ISI by inverting the channel
frequency response.

While effective in removing ISI, ZFE can significantly amplify noise in deep fades.

Adaptive Linear Equalizers

Adaptive equalizers automatically adjust their coefficients based on channel conditions using
algorithms such as:

• Least Mean Squares (LMS)

• Recursive Least Squares (RLS)

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Figure: Adaptive Linear Equalizer Structure

Decision Feedback Equalizer (DFE)

Principle of DFE

The Decision Feedback Equalizer (DFE) uses previously detected symbols to cancel post-cursor
ISI. It consists of:

• Feedforward filter

• Feedback filter

DFE avoids noise enhancement associated with ZFE.

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Figure: Decision Feedback Equalizer Structure

Performance of DFE

DFE provides superior performance in channels with severe ISI but may suffer from error
propagation if incorrect decisions are fed back.

3. Transmit Diversity and Spread Spectrum Techniques

Introduction

Wireless communication systems suffer from signal degradation due to multipath fading,
shadowing, and interference. While receiver diversity techniques can significantly improve
performance, practical constraints such as size, cost, and power consumption often limit the
number of antennas that can be used at the receiver, especially in mobile terminals.

Transmit diversity provides an effective alternative by using multiple antennas at the transmitter
to combat fading without increasing receiver complexity. In parallel, spread spectrum techniques
offer robust communication by spreading the signal over a wide bandwidth, providing resistance
to interference, multipath fading, and unauthorized access.

This chapter introduces the fundamental concepts of transmit diversity, with particular emphasis
on the Alamouti transmit diversity scheme, followed by an introduction to spread spectrum
communication techniques.

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Transmit Diversity

Concept of Transmit Diversity

Transmit diversity exploits the use of multiple transmitting antennas to create multiple
independently faded signal paths between the transmitter and receiver. By properly coding and
transmitting signals from different antennas, the receiver can benefit from diversity gains even
when it has a single antenna.

Unlike receive diversity, transmit diversity does not require additional RF chains at the receiver,
making it particularly attractive for downlink transmission in cellular systems.

Space-Time Coding

Transmit diversity is often implemented using space-time coding, where symbols are encoded
across:

• Space (multiple antennas)

• Time (multiple symbol periods)

Space-time codes are designed to provide diversity gain without sacrificing bandwidth efficiency.

Alamouti Transmit Diversity Scheme

Overview of the Alamouti Scheme

The Alamouti scheme is a simple yet powerful space-time block coding technique that provides
full transmit diversity using two transmit antennas and one receive antenna. It is notable for its:

• Simple encoding and decoding

• Orthogonality property

• No need for channel knowledge at the transmitter

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Figure: Alamouti Transmit Diversity Transmission and Receiver Structure

Alamouti Encoding Process

Let two complex symbols S1 and S2 be transmitted over two consecutive symbol periods.

This encoding ensures orthogonality between transmitted signals.

Alamouti Receiver Operation

At the receiver, signals received over two time slots are combined using simple linear processing.
Assuming flat fading and constant channel over two symbol periods, the receiver can separate
and detect S1 and S2 independently.

Advantages of Alamouti Scheme

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The Alamouti scheme:

• Achieves full diversity order

• Requires low receiver complexity

• Is robust to fading

It has been widely adopted in standards such as LTE and WiMAX.

Introduction to Spread Spectrum Techniques

Concept of Spread Spectrum

Spread spectrum communication involves spreading the transmitted signal over a bandwidth
much wider than the minimum required. This spreading is achieved using a pseudo-random code
sequence known to both transmitter and receiver.

At the receiver, the signal is despreading using the same code, recovering the original narrowband
signal.

Figure: Spread Spectrum Transmission and Reception

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Motivation for Spread Spectrum

Spread spectrum techniques provide:

• Resistance to interference and jamming

• Improved performance in multipath environments

• Enhanced privacy and security

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

Principle of DSSS

In Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum, the data signal is multiplied by a high-rate pseudo-noise
(PN) sequence, spreading the signal in the frequency domain.

The spreading factor, also called processing gain, is defined as:

DSSS Characteristics

DSSS signals:

• Appear as noise to unintended receivers

• Are resistant to narrowband interference

• Can be separated using code correlation

DSSS is the foundation of CDMA systems.

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Figure: Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

Principle of FHSS

In Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum, the carrier frequency hops among different frequency
bands according to a pseudo-random hopping pattern.

The hopping can be:

• Slow frequency hopping

• Fast frequency hopping

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Figure: Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum

Advantages of FHSS

FHSS provides:

• Robustness to interference

• Resistance to multipath fading

• Low probability of interception

FHSS is used in military and Bluetooth systems.

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Comparison of DSSS and FHSS

Both DSSS and FHSS spread the signal over a wide bandwidth, but differ in implementation and
performance. DSSS spreads in frequency continuously, while FHSS spreads in time through
hopping.

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