Jessica Huynh 7C
Semester 1
Unit D
Grade 7 Unit D Review
Definitions
Structure:An object that provides support
Structural Strength: Refers to a structures ability to hold itself up as well as any weight
added to it.
Structural Stability:the structure’s ability to maintain its position even when it is being
acted on by a force.
Force: a push or pull that tends to cause an object to change its movement or shape.
Newton(N): a unit/ measure for force (
100g = 1 newton)
Solid Structure: A type of structure that has no air, relying solely on its mass and is the
strongest of all structures.
Frame Structure: It is a structure of arranged parts that are fastened together.
Shell Structure: Has a solid outer surface that may be rounded,flat and with a hollow
area.
Combination Structure:A type of structure that is a mix of different types of structures.
Function: A structure’s purpose or use.
Aesthetics: refers to the pleasing appearance or effect that an object has because of its
design.
Magnitude: It is the size of the force
Direction: Where the force is going
Location:Where the force is applied
Centre of gravity: The centre point in any structure where the downward force of
gravity.
Symmetry: A balanced ratio of mass on opposite sides of a line or plane or around a
centre of an axis.
Static load:Weight of a structure and the non moving load it supports otherwise known
as the dead load.
Dynamic load: An external force that moves or changes with time.
External force: A force that is applied on a structure by something else.
Mass: the amount of material in an object.
Beam bridge:It is the most common bridge and is supported at its 2 ends. It is normally a
flat beam.
Truss bridge: Is is light weigh bridge that is strong and made of trusses.
Suspension bridge: A bridge that hangs between 2 ends that hold it up.
Arch bridge; a bridge that is designed to withstand heavy loads.
Performance Requirements of a Structure:how well a structure will hold up under
maximum weight it was designed to carry out
Load:the amount of weight or external force on a structure.
Internal force:A force that acts within a structure.
Compression force:A force that acts to squeeze an object or push parts within an object
altogether.
Tension: is a force that acts to stretch or pull apart something
Shear: is a force that acts to push parts that are in contact in opposite directions.
Complementary forces:When different kinds of internal forces on a structure at the
same time.
Arch: A common shape in structures such as bridges.
Triangle: A strong rigid shape that cannot be bent.
Beam: A flat structure that is supported that each end
I beam: A beam that has a cross section in the shape of an “I”
Girders:A long structure in the form of a hollow rectangular prism.
Truss: A frame work of triangles joined together
Cantilever: A beam that is supported on only one end.
Colum: A solid structure that can stand by itself.
Structural Stress: Results when an internal or external force is applied to a structure
which can weaken it.
Structural Fatigue: Results to when a structure can no longer stand up to forces acting
on it
Structural Failure: Results when a structure is repeatedly used out of its original
function such as a collapse of a bridge, it occurs when a structure can no longer stand up
to the forces acting on it.
Brittleness: A material property that tests how easily a material can break.
Ductility: A material property that tests how a material can be made into wire.
Hardness: A material property that tests how hard is the material is.
Plasticity: A material property that tests how easily the material can shape into things.
Compression: A material property that tests how it can be compressioned without
structural failure
Tensile strength: A material property that tests how it can be stretched or pulled.
Effect on environment: An influence to also think about when using a material that tests
if the material is used safety.
Disposal of waste: An influence to also think about when using a material that tests if the
material can be recycled or reused and is there a cost to dispose of it?
Deformation: The change in a shape in a structure or any structural component.
Flexibility:the ability for the material to bend.
Joint: The place at which structural parts are joined.
Friction:A force that results when 2 surfaces to move/rub against each other.
Fixed joint: A rigid joint that prevents any movement.
Bonds: The act of joining that changes 2 surfaces by being joined so they are connected
by a material.
Moveable Joint:A fixable joint that can move
Ball socket Joints:A type of joint that has a ball shaped surface on one rounded bone that
fits into a cup mode into another bone.
Hinge Joints: are formed between two or more bones where the bones can only move
along one axis to flex or extend.
Pivots Joints: A freely movable joint.
Gliding Joint:allow the bones to glide past one another in any direction along the plane
of the joint
Margin of Safety:Refers to the limits within which a structure’s safety performance is
felt to be acceptable
Climatic Conditions:What builders must take into account in the climatic related factors
that outdoor structure must face.
Terrain Conditions:Unstable soils and steep terrain may be a poor choice of a structure
therefore when constructing a structure within these areas special techniques are required.
Corrugation: The process of forming a material into wave like ridges or folds.
Lamination: gluing layers of materials together, creating a strong bond.
Cost: Things to take into account such as cost to build, operate and maintain.
Benefits: Things to take into account such as what are the benefits of having this
structure.
Safety: Things to take into account such as if there is a safety hazard.
Impact on the environment: Things to take into account such as will it harm the
environment and where will the waste materials be disposed of.
1.0
Every object that provides support is a structure. In a structure it can have one or more
parts and can even vary in sizes. When structures are built, they need to have structural
strength and stability. Structural strength refers to a structure ability to hold itself up as
well as any weight added to it. Also, structural stability refers to a structure's ability to
maintain its position even when it is being acted on by a force. A force is a push or pull
that tends to cause an object to change its movement or shape.
1.1
In a structure you can build it in 3 different structural forms and they are:
1. Solid
2. Frame
3. Shell
The Solid structure has attributes and they are:
● Formed from a solid piece of strong material
● Has little to no air space between inside, relying solely on its own mass to resist
any force that may be acted on it.
● Usually the strongest of three types of structures
● Examples: Hockey Puck, Trees, and an apple.
The frame structure has attributes and they are:
● Formed from a rigid arrangement of parts or structural components, fasten
together.
● The strength of the frame comes from how these parts are placed together.
● These structures are much lighter than solid structures because they use less
material.
● It can be arranged in 2d or 3D
The shell structure also has some attributes and they are:
● Has a solid outer surface may be rounded or flat with a hollow inner area
● Rounded outer areas are stronger due to the flat,out or hollow area disturbing the
load around the whole surface.
● Having a hollow interior allows it to be lighter than a solid structure.
● Shell structures with a solid outer surface are usually stronger than those with a
curved outer surface because the curved area distribute the load around the whole
surface.
● They are also often stronger than frame structures and are therefore commonly
used to provide protection.
Combined Structures are structures that have a combination of structural forms.
Combination structures use the best of three basic forms to advantage.
1.2
A function is a structure's purpose or use. When a structure is built knowing the main
function ( comfort, transportation, or shelter) of a structure will allow the designers to
bike it better.
Multiple Functions
Many structures are designed to serve more than one function for example an airplane
provides both movement and shelter. In 1940, a Canadian inventor Norman Breaky,
grappled with how do you paint a large wall quickly and inexpensively. People had been
using paint brushes. He developed the hand-held paint roller. To get an idea for structures
that will meet particular functions, many designers, architects and more look in the world
to find examples. People like Michael Kelly invented barbed wire in 1868 when he
wanted something with the function of a thorny bush to keep his livestock in place.
Common Function Different Design
Some structures, although they look very different from one another in their design they
can share a common function. For example, roofs have a common function the cover a
building and protect what is inside, roofs can also be different because of the climate,
tradition, and area.
1.3
Climate, Culture, tradition,
Technology, and economics are among the main reasons that structures are so varied.
The human home
Many people build homes that are portable and save/ provide protection. Houses built of
sod ( clumps of earth) were used by early people in Europe. This was also a common
structure built by pioneers in the Prairies.
The material was easy to get and didn’t cost anything it also created a relatively protects
space that can be heated by a fire. Hot climates, houses have traditionally been
constructed of sun baked brick( adobe) clay or mud. These create interiors that can be
kept cool even under the hot sun. Dwellings made of grass and bamboo have been built
for hundreds of years in many warm and humid countries. In some locations these homes
are constructed high on stilted to raise the dwelling above wet ground. Examples of these
and other types of homes . Even though these houses are different in design they have 2
essential characteristics of effective structures they are:
● They are all basically stable
● They provide shelter for people who live in them.
2.0
A force is a push or pull that tends to cause an object to change.
When you know that the actual effect of a force has to be in effect by these things which
are:
● Does the magnitude of a force have an effect on your ability to resist it
● Does the direction of a force have an effect on your ability to resist it?
● Does the location of a force have an effect on your ability to resist it?
2.1
The actual effect of a force on a structure depends on 3 things
● Magnitude: the size of the force
● Direction : where the force is going
● Location : where the force is applied
The unit of force is referred to as a newton (N). It is named after Sir Isaac Newton (
discovered the law of gravity)
2.2
An external force is a force that is applied on a structure by something else. Mass is the
amount of matter in an object. The greater the mass
the greater the gravitational force on that object ( it’s heavier). In space everything is
weightless. With weightlessness, the structure of the human skeleton no longer has to
carry a load. This results in the human spine stretching. The centre of gravity is a centre
point in any structure where downward force of gravity acts. The location of the centre of
gravity will determine the stability of a structure. The main method of increasing a
structure’s stability is to increase the width of the bad relative to its height. One way to do
this is to place most of the mass of the structure close to the ground. This lowers the
centre of gravity. When a structure is balanced at its centre of gravity it will stay
balanced. Symmetry is a balanced ration of mass on opposite sides of a line or plane of
around a centre of axis.
The force of gravity on the centre point on either side of the centre point is the same. For
a symmetrical structure to be stable the mass of that structure must be distributed equally
around the centre of the structure’ s base meaning the force of gravity around the centre is
also equal. A structure’s stability helps balance the forces acting on a structure. A load is
an external force on a [Link] a structure is designed the load the structure will
have to resist must be taken into account. The load has to be measured in weight.
Types of loads
A static load otherwise known as the
dead load is the weight of a structure and a non moving load it supports.
A dynamic load is an external force that moves or changes with time an example is an
earthquake. Note when you build a dynamic structure you must consider you may have
both static and dynamic loads. Therefore the structure must maintain both.
Supporting the Load
Different structures are designed to withstand different loads and different forces. Like
bridges there can be different types. Engineers use two conditions to decide which type of
bridge will best suit a situation ( ex what a bridge is crossing eg water and what kinds of
loads the bridge will be supporting.
The types of bridges are
● The beam bridge is the most common bridge used. A simple beam bridge is flat
and is supported and is supported at its 2 ends. A longer beam bridge may be
supported by additional vertical support.
● Truss Bridge is a lightweight bridge but is a strong bridge made of trusses (
triangle shape frames) along with its sides.
● A suspension bridge hangs between 2 ends that holds it up. A modern suspension
bridge has tall towers on either end that can support the main cables holding up the
bridge. The main cables are anchored in concrete at each end of the bridge.
Smaller cables support the roadway and are suspected to main cables.
● An arch bridge is designed to withstand heavy loads the dynamic load of people
and other traffic causes each piece of wood or stone in the arch to push against the
priced next to it.
Measuring A structure’s load performance
The performance requirements of a structure is how well a structure can hold up under
the maximum weight it was designed to carry out. It is important for safety,cost, and
efficiency reasons. Performance Requirements should always be expressed in maximum
weight. Bridges are usually evaluated based upon the amount of mass it can support in
comparison to its own mass. The performance of one structure can also be compared
with that of another.
2.3
An internal force is a force that acts within a structure. One part of a structure exerts on
other parts of the same structure. Internal forces can be classified by the direction in
which they act within an object. There are 3 types of internal forces and they are:
1. Compression- it is a force that acts to squeeze an object or push parts within an
object together.
2. Tension; Tension is a force that acts to stretch and pull apart something.
3. Shear; is a force that acts to push parts that are in contact with each other in
opposite directions. Structures that must resist shear include, airplanes, scissors,
and doors.
Complementary Forces are when different kinds of internal forces act on a structure at the
same time.
2.4
The Ancient Wonders of Earth are:
2500BC - the Pyramids of Giza
560BC- The Hanging Gardens of Babylon.
430BC- the Statue of Zeus
350BC- The Temple of Artemis
297BC The Pharos of Alexandra
290BC- The Colossus of Rhodes.
In the case of shapes, the triangle is a very strong rigid shape that cannot be bent.
Rectangles can squares can be easily bent and circles can compress and buckle outwards
when applied by force. Structural components like an arch is a common shape for
structures such as bridges. The arch can support a large load because the force of the
load is carried down through the arch to the foundation this spreads out the load. Beams
are common components in a wide range of structures. A simple dream is a flat structure
that is supported at each end. A I beam is a beam in a cross section in the shape of an I.
Girders are also long structures in the form of a hollow rectangular prism. A truss also
has the framework of beams joined together. A cantilever is a beam that is only supported
at one end when weight is placed on the beam the beam bends in an N-shape to resist the
load. Lastly in this section a column is a solid structure that can stand by itself.
Structural Stress,Fatigue,And Failure
Structural Stress is the results when internal and external force are applied to a structure
which can weaken it. Structural Fatigue on the other hand, is the results can no longer
stand up to forces acting on it by usually an abnormal use in a structure and an also
permanently change in the structure. Structural failure is the results when a structure is
repeatedly used out of its original function. Structural failure such as a collapse in a
bridge occurs when a structure can no longer stand up to the forces acting on it. Failure
can also take the form of buckling, shearing,separating of components and deformation.
To avoid failure a structure needs:
● Strength of a structure- defined by the load at which it fails
● Stiffness of a structure- ability to withstand changing shapes under a load.
Building for a Structural Stability
Designing a structure that is stable distributes the load evenly and helps reduce internal
forces such as tension, compression, and shear.
3.0-3.1
In the past, people constructed shelters out of materials they could find, including animals
skins, mud and sticks.
Classifying Material properties
Some properties of materials are
● Brittleness- how easily that material can break
● Ductility- how easily can the material be made into a wire.
● Hardness- how hard is the material
● Plasticity- how easy is it for the material to be shipped
● Resistance to hear
● Resistance to water
● Compression- can it be compressed without structural failure
● Tensile strength- can it be stretched or pulled
Economic Properties May Also influence of a Particular Material
Some economic properties may influence a model.
● Aesthetics (appearance , texture, etc)
● Consumer demand- is it rare
● Availability
● Cost
● Effect on the environment- can the material be used safely
● Disposal of waste ( can the material be recycled or reused and is there a cost to
dispose of it?)
Forces and Materials
Materials must be able to withstand forces acting on it.
Deformation is the change in shape in a structure or any structural component. The
material is unable to resist the load acting on it. When too much deformation has
occurred, the structure has the possibility for failure.
Flexibility is the ability of a material to be bent under the force without breaking.
Change in shape under a given load without breaking. The change in shape under a given
load without breaking.
3.2
The place at which structural parts are joined is called a joint. Some examples are a
cabinet, arms in glasses and even hinges on a door.
Friction is a force that results when 2 surfaces move/ rub against each other. The force of
friction depends on the roughness or smoothness of 2 surfaces that are in contact with one
another.
Joints that rely on friction
Nails, Screws, Rivets, tack and staples have friction between the metal and material that
allows for it to be held together. Screws, tack and stapled have an advantage because they
are easily removable. Frictional forces are greater between rough surfaces. Which of the
fasteners would have that least and most friction.
Interlocking pieces
Friction has 2 surfaces rubbing against each other, there fore by increasing that area you
are increasing the friction and structure will be securely held together
Mass
Friction between the base of an item and the surface below it will keep them in place. An
example is blocks forming the Pyramid of Giza.
Glue tape cement welds
Bonds are 2 surfaces together some produce a chemical change therefore changing the
surface and harden to make it a solid mass.
Fixed Joints
A fixed joint is a joint that prevents any movement for example nailing, cementing, and
glueing
Moveable Joints
Moveable Joints are Joints that are flexible and moveable for example; hinges on a door,
pint Joints, body parts and more.
Choosing the appropriate joint depends on the material of the components how the
structure is used and where it is located.
3.3
Each of the components in a human body is a unique material with special properties
suited to the friction of that part.
Bones, ligaments, and Cartilage of the frame structure:
Bones: hard/ rigid forming a structural frame which can support and protect the other
parts of the body these form a structural frame that supports and protects your body.
Ligaments: flexible connective tissue which allow for movement. This also connects
bones to other bones.
Cartilage: Reduces friction providing smooth surfaces for movement ( found at the ends
of bones)
Muscles and Tendons: 656 muscles in your body allow you skeletal frame to move. Is
semi solid fibrous tissue contracts or relaxes muscles and tendons and located throughout
your body
Tendons: these attaches muscles to the bones and can hold even when a bone breaks.
Joints: the joints in your body are specialized for various functions( all of these allow
movement).
Specialized Functions
Ball Socket joints are in your shoulders and hips for permit movement in many
directions. Elbows and knees function with hinge joints. Pivot joints are in your spine and
wrists. Gliding joints are also in your wrists too. The joints that don’t allow movement all
are in the bones of your skull.
Skin is the human shell
Skin is tough and flexible material it waterproofs your body, protects it from bacteria, and
even helps regulate your body’s temperature through ways such as perspiration and
shivering.
Material of a tree’s structure
A tree trunk is a structure composed of several layers of different materials and they are:
● 5th Bark ( outside)
● 4th Woody layer(has phloem)
● 3thrd vascular Cambium
● 2nd Sapwood
● 1st HeartWood
4.0-4.1
All structures are created to satisfy human needs and to also make sure that all structures
are all safe. Many environmental factors can affect the stability of a structure, designing
for safety is a constant challenge. A margin of safety means the limits within which a
structure’s safety performance is felt to be acceptable. Testing for structural safety is to
determine if a structure is safe the best way to determine this is to test it to the extremes.
Monitoring for Structural safety is to look at how frequently the structure will fail and
why experts keep track of how well the structure performs.
Accounting for environmental factors
Climatic Conditions are things that builders must take into account the climatic related
factories that outdoor structures must face. For example Permafrost ( a solid layer of soil
during the winter, however upper portions melt in the summer making the ground spongy,
therefore, a solid foundation is needed.)
Terrain conditions are when unstable soils and steep terrain may be a port choice for a
structure, these areas need special techniques that are required to build. Areas that are low
lying often suffer flooding or pounding from storm waters. On steep mountain slides,
hill slopes, and cliffs mass movement of snow, rock and mud is a common hazard. Lastly
Earthquake risk. An earthquake risk is a risk that is watched and it is when structures
built within these areas must be able to resist external and internal forces that act on them
during the shifting of the earth's plates.
4.2
From the results of tests,new designs, and materials may be applied.
One way to solve structural problems is to combine materials and components in a new
way therefore allowing you to take advantage of the best charcuterie tics of each area.
Corrugation is process forming a material into wave like ridges or fold. Lamination on
the other hand is gluing layers of materials together creating a strong bond. If a stronger
material is not available, the components can sometimes be arranged in stronger
arrangement. Changing methods of fastening this can work by changing nails into screws.
New materials might also be a way of strengthening materials for example using Kevlar
for tires.
4.3
Any structure must meet a variety of human needs NOT just if it will do the job. Things
that we must take into account are:
● Cost - how much will the structure cost to build,operate, and maintain? Can we
afford it ?
● Benefits- some benefits of having this structure are? Who will enjoy these
benefits.
● Safety- is there a safety hazard? Who and what could be affected by these risks.
● The Impacts to the environment- what steps might be taken to prevent
environmental harm? How will waste materials related to the structure be disposed
of?