This latest edition of Using Sources Effectively assists us in the never-easy process of

growing as writers, now in a world where reliance upon AI models threatens to thwart
students’ intellectual development. The authors remind us frequently that people who read
our writing rarely know us personally, so our character will be judged based upon which
sources we use as well as how we use them. In the process of preparing us for such
scrutiny, the authors demonstrate that accessing and evaluating sources does not have to
be drudgery. They accomplish this through clear explanations as well as offering practical
search advice, thoughtful criteria for evaluating sources, and sound guidelines to avoid
the various categories of plagiarism. Helpful sidebars and rhetorical insights add spice
to a book that takes what most students fear will be a bland topic and transforms it into
something quite readable and even engaging.
Nicholas Block, PhD, Biola University, La Mirada, California, USA

Using Sources Effectively: Strengthening Your Writing and Avoiding Plagiarism, is, by far,
one of my favorite writing textbooks. The clear explanations and writing examples support
developing scholars with pertinent, practical, and up-to-date writing guidelines. Each
chapter has clear objectives, outlines, questions, tips, tables, charts, sidebar highlights,
mini research projects, and understandable examples that demystify some of the common
challenges of writing English and using sources effectively. I am so grateful to the authors,
Harris and Curtis, for their investment of time and talent to create such an enduring resource
for university professors and their students.
June Hetzel, PhD, Faculty Emerita and Founding Dean of the School of Education,
Biola University, La Mirada, California, USA
Using Sources Effectively

The sixth edition of Using Sources Effectively targets the two most prominent problems in
current research-paper writing: the increase in unintentional plagiarism and the ineffective
use of research source material.
Designed as a textbook for both undergraduate and graduate courses, this book will help
every student who uses research in writing. It was written to give students the knowledge
and tools you can use to make your research-based writing more powerful and effective.
The book includes Mini-Research Projects at the end of each chapter to sharpen your
research and evaluation skills; a set of practical, useful rhetorical devices to help improve
the clarity and impact of your writing; instruction in close reading to help you better grasp
what an author is discussing or arguing; and strategies for organizing and positioning your
sources to strengthen your central argument. The new edition has been thoroughly updated
to cover developments in AI and ChatGPT, critical thinking, and digital developments in
relation to social media.
With updated online resources, including lecture PowerPoints, an instructor’s guide, a
quiz bank, and digital figures, as well as new “sidebar” and learning objective features in
the book, this is an essential textbook for students across a range of disciplines who need a
guide to research and writing and who are taking courses on academic writing.

Robert A. Harris (PhD, University of California, Riverside) taught English at college and
university level for more than 25 years. He has also worked in the area of instructional
design. Dr. Harris’s other books include The Plagiarism Handbook and Writing with Clarity
and Style: A Guide to Rhetorical Devices for Contemporary Writers.

Christie J. Curtis (PhD, Interim Dean, Graduate Studies Chair, Professor, Biola University,
La Mirada, California) has been teaching writing and grammar skills for more than 25 years.
She currently chairs the committees of many graduate students as they seek to complete
their theses. Dr. Curtis is the coauthor of the Grammar and Writing Series (Grades 3–8),
which includes student texts (writing and grammar), student workbooks (writing and
grammar), teacher’s guides, and online resources.
Using Sources Effectively
Strengthening Your Writing and Avoiding Plagiarism
Sixth Edition

Robert A. Harris and Christie J. Curtis

Designed cover image: Getty Images via blackred
Sixth edition published 2026
by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
and by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2026 Robert A. Harris and Christie J. Curtis
The right of Robert A. Harris and Christie J. Curtis to be identified as authors of this
work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in
any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to
infringe.
First edition published by Pyrczak Publishing 2002
Fifth edition published by Routledge 2017
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Harris, Robert A. (Robert Alan), 1950– author | Curtis, Christie J. author
Title: Using sources effectively : strengthening your writing and avoiding
plagiarism / Robert A. Harris and Christie J. Curtis.
Description: Sixth edition. | New York, NY: Routledge, 2026. | First edition
published by Pyrczak Publishing 2002. Fifth edition published by
Routledge 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2025040010 | ISBN 9781032643762 hardback |
ISBN 9781032643793 paperback | ISBN 9781032643779 ebook
Subjects: LCSH: Report writing-Handbooks, manuals, etc. |
Research-Handbooks, manuals, etc. | Plagiarism
Classification: LCC LB2369 .H316 2026
LC record available at [Link]
ISBN: 978-1-032-64376-2 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-64379-3 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-64377-9 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781032643779
Typeset in Optima
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
Access the Support Material: [Link]/9781032643793
Contents

Preface to the Sixth Edition xv

1 The Importance of Using Sources Effectively 1

1.1 Why Learn to Write Well? 2
Writing Is a Thinking Process 2
Writing Is a Learning Process 3
Writing Develops Lifelong Skills 3
1.2 Why Learn Research-Based Writing? 3
Research Makes Writing Easier 4
Research-Based Writing Allows You to Contribute
to the Great Conversation 4
1.3 Why Use Sources in Papers? 5
Research Sources Provide Context 5
Sources Strengthen Your Argument 6
Sources Add Interest to Your Paper 6
Sources Provide You With New Ideas 7
Sources Keep You Up-to-Date 7
Sources Reveal Controversies 7
Sources Help You Understand How Reasoned Argument Works 8
1.4 Why Use Sources Effectively? 8
Effective Use Instills Trust 8
Effective Use Aids Persuasion 9
Effective Use Shows Engagement 9
1.5 Why Cite Them All? 10
Cite to Help Your Reader 10
Cite to Show Respect for Fellow Knowledge Workers 10
Cite to Avoid Plagiarism 11
1.6 Are Sources the Whole Idea? 11
Your Thinking Is the Star 11
Sources Need Something to Support 11
Sources Need Interpreting 11
It’s the Great Conversation Again 12
viii Contents

Review Questions 12
A Little Rhetoric: How Much Emphasis? 13
Now You Try 14

2 Finding, Choosing, and Evaluating Sources 15

2.1 Start by Understanding the Assignment 15
What Is the Purpose of the Paper? 16
What Are the Specific Requirements for the Paper? 16
Who Is Your Audience? 17
2.2 Select the Kinds of Sources You Need 18
Choose the Kind of Information You Need 18
Take a Shortcut to Selection 18
Choose Sources of Appropriate Scholarship 18
Choose Appropriate Primary and Secondary Sources 19
Avoid Choosing a Source Only Because You Agree With It 21
Avoid Quoting Standard Dictionaries 21
2.3 Search Strategies 21
Consider the Variety of Sources 22
Keep Track of Your Searches 22
Looking Online 22
Phrase the Search Terms Effectively 23
Go Beyond the Internet 24
2.4 Using and Abusing Internet Sources 25
Search for Reliable Sites 25
Looking Deeply into the Results 25
Understand the Context of Individual Pages 25
Use the Invisible Web 26
2.5 Evaluating Sources 26
Expertise 27
Accuracy 27
Reliability 28
Review Questions 29
A Little Rhetoric: Anaphora 29
Now You Try 30

3 Preparing Your Sources 31

3.1 Collecting Sources 31
Save Your Sources 32
Get the Full, Exact Bibliographic Information the First Time 32
Save the Way Back 33
3.2 Keep Sources Organized 33
Start a Bibliography 34
3.3 Use Close Reading to Understand Your Sources 35
What Is the Purpose of the Information? 35
 Contents ix

What Is the Level of Objectivity? 35

Analyze the Argument 35
Notice the Images and Analogies 36
Check Word Meanings for Accuracy 36
So What? 37
What Is Each Source Saying? 37
3.4 Take Careful Notes 38
Use a Labeling System 38
Quote Exactly 40
Keep a Quotation File 40
Keep Copies of Each Source With Your Notes 40
3.5 Positioning Your Sources 41
Purpose Indicators 41
Relationships of Sources 42
Create an Outline of Possible Source Uses 42
3.6 Protect Yourself Against a False Charge of Plagiarism 44
Protect Your Data and Passwords 44
Do Not Lend Your Paper to Someone Else 44
Report Any Theft Immediately 44
Save All Drafts and Notes 44
Save All Sources 44
Be Proactive 45
Review Questions 45
Mini-Research Project Controversies 46
A Little Rhetoric: Conduplicatio 46

4 Quoting Effectively 47
4.1 Quoting Use and Abuse 47
When to Choose Quotation 48
Cautions About Quoting 48
Avoid the Fallacy of Vicious Abstraction 49
4.2 Introductory Strategies 50
Introduce Your Sources 51
Choose Introductory Verbs to Create Guiding Lead-In
or Signal Phrases 52
Use Introductory Sentences With a Colon 52
Use an Introductory Phrase 54
Use the Appropriate Tense in Your Introductory Phrases
for APA Style 54
Use Both Set-Off and Built-In Quotations 56
Use the Historical Present Tense for MLA-Style Papers 58
4.3 Quoting Strategies 58
Interrupt Quotations 58
Leave Out Some Words 59
Quote Phrases 61
x Contents

4.4 Punctuating Quotations 62
General Conventions 62
Ellipsis 64
Square Brackets 66
Review Questions 68
Mini-Research Project: Misattributed Quotations 69
A Little Rhetoric Analogy 69
Now You Try 70

5 Paraphrasing and Summarizing 71

5.1 Paraphrasing 71
What Is a Paraphrase? 72
Why and When to Paraphrase 72
Paraphrasing Ground Rules 74
How to Paraphrase 75
Cautions About Paraphrasing 79
5.2 Summarizing 80
What Is a Summary? 80
Why and When to Summarize 81
How to Summarize 82
Cautions About Summarizing 87
Source Limitations on Summarizing 87
5.3 Deciding Whether to Quote, Paraphrase, or Summarize 87
5.4 Beware of Thesaurusitis 89
Review Questions 90
Mini-Research Project: Comparing Summaries 90
A Little Rhetoric: Metabasis 91
Now You Try 91
Paraphrasing and Summarizing Activity 91
Chapter 5 Review: Acceptable Use or Plagiarism? 91
Potential Use 1 92
Potential Use 2 92
Potential Use 3 92
Potential Use 4 92
Potential Use 5 93
Potential Use 6 93

6 Avoiding Plagiarism 94
6.1 What Is Plagiarism? 94
A Working Definition of Plagiarism 94
Intentional Plagiarism 95
Unintentional Plagiarism 96
The Fine Print 96
Self-Recycling 97
 Contents xi

6.2 Why You Should Avoid Intentional Plagiarism 97

Intentional Plagiarism Harms Your Character 98
Follow the Golden Rule 98
Intentional Plagiarizers Cheat Themselves 98
Intentional Plagiarizers Never Know When They
Will Be Caught 99
6.3 Guidelines for Citation 99
What Needs to Be Cited? 99
Do You Ever Have to Cite Yourself? 99
What About Common Knowledge? 100
Will My Paper Be Nothing but Citations? 102
6.4 Myths and Facts About Citing 103
The Public Domain Myth 103
The World Wide Web Myth 103
The Fair Use Myth 104
The Encyclopedia Myth 104
The Paraphrased Paper Myth 104
The Friend’s Permission Myth 105
The Named Source Myth 105
The Converted Words Myth 106
The Tiny Theft Myth 106
The Background Information Myth 107
Review Questions 108
Mini-Research Project: Famous Plagiarism Cases 108
Bonus Search 108
A Little Rhetoric: Rhetorical Question 108
Now You Try 109

7 Putting It Together 110

7.1 The Simple Rule: Mark the Boundaries 110
Marking the Boundaries of Short Quotations 111
Marking the Boundaries of Long Quotations 112
Marking the Boundaries of an Unquoted Source 113
7.2 Marking the Boundaries in Problem Cases 115
How to Create a Second Boundary Marker 116
Marking the Boundaries for Non-Text Information 117
Review Questions 118
A Little Rhetoric: Hypophora 119
Now You Try 120
Chapter 7 Review: Boundary Markers 121
Source Text 121
Potential Use 1, APA Style 121
Potential Use 2, APA Style 121
Potential Use 3, MLA Style 121
xii Contents

Potential Use 4, MLA Style 121

Potential Use 5, APA Style 122

8 Effective Use 123

8.1 Introduce the Source Thoroughly 123
Establish the Credibility of the Source 124
Provide Needed Background or Context 125
Recommend the Source 126
8.2 Discuss or Apply the Source 127
The Purpose of a Source Is Not Always Self-Evident 127
Explain the Source Beginning With an Interpretive Lead-In 127
Be Reasonable About the Effect of the Source 129
Provide an Example to Clarify the Source’s Point 130
8.3 Blend in Your Sources 130
Work Your Sources Into the Discussion 130
Combine Quoting With Summarizing 131
Use One Long, Many Short for Powerful Persuasion 132
8.4 Avoid Ineffective Use 132
Beware of Long Quotations 132
Avoid Overusing One Source 133
Begin and End Each Paragraph With Your Own Words 134
Be Sure Citations Match the References 134
8.5 Working With Sources That Disagree or Conflict 135
Identify the Source of Disagree 135
Criticizing Opposing Sources 136
Avoid Criticizing a Source Unfairly 137
Review Questions 138
Matching Exercise 138
Mini-Research Project: Logical Fallacies 139
A Little Rhetoric: Procatalepsis 139
Now You Try 140
Chapter 8 Review: Effectiveness 140

9 Editing for Accuracy 142

9.1 Why Cleanup Is Crucial 142
9.2 Check Your Spelling 143
Check for Ordinary Misspellings 144
Check for Autocorrect Errors 144
Check for Confused Words 144
Use American Spelling 144
9.3 Watch Your Grammar 144
Comma Splice 145
Fused Sentence 146
Sentence Fragment 147
 Contents xiii

9.4 Watch Your Pronouns 148

Pronoun Agreement 148
Pronoun Reference 149
Indefinite Pronouns 149
Avoid the Ambiguous You 151
9.5 Check for Common Errors 152
Possessives 152
Subject-Verb Agreement 153
Dangling Modifier 153
Misplaced Modifier 154
Affect and Effect 154
Informality 155
Review Questions 156
A Little Rhetoric: Distinctio 156
Chapter 9 Review: Error Check 157

10 Jump-Starting Your Writing 158

10.1 Synthesis Writing 158
A Definition of Synthesis Writing 159
Tapestry Versus Quilt Writing 159
Tapestry Weaving and Your Reader 161
10.2 Steering Wheels 161
Parataxis and Hypotaxis 161
Transitions 163
Transitions of Logic 163
Transitions of Focus 166
Transitions of Thought 167
Keyword Repetition 167
Synonyms 168
Pronouns and Possessive Pronouns 169
Demonstrative Pronouns and Adjectives 170
10.3 Using Flow Patterns 171
Patterns With Because 171
Conditional (If-Then) Patterns 172
Concession Patterns 173
10.4 Using Patterns with Sources 174
Use Scholarly Phrasing 175
The Source Supports Your Position 175
You Agree With the Source 176
The Source Disagrees With Your Position 176
You Rebut a Source That Opposes Your View 176
You Respond to a Source That Presents an Incontrovertible
Objection 176
The Source Implies Something Without Stating It 177
xiv Contents

The Source Makes an Unstated Assumption 177

Introducing Common Knowledge 177
Introducing Conflicting Views 178
Review Questions 179
Chapter 10 Activity: Synthesis Exercise 179
Chapter 10 Activity: True or False 180
Chapter 10 Activity: More Flow Patterns 180
A Little Logic: Conditional Syllogisms 181

Index183
Preface to the Sixth Edition

Welcome to the sixth edition of Using Sources Effectively. This edition maintains its strong
focus on the practical guidelines and tools that you can use to write an effective research
paper. As the subtitle indicates, strengthening your writing is a major feature of the book.
You will also learn what you need to know to avoid plagiarism as you bring in and acknowl-
edge other scholars as participants in the development of your own ideas. In a word, then,
we hope that you will view this book not as a collection of rules to follow but as a book
of secrets for empowering your writing for the rest of your academic career and work life.
The sixth edition marks the 22nd year that this book has been serving as an essential
text in all levels of writing classes, as well as a valuable ancillary text in classes that have
researched writing requirements. Previous editions have been used in courses ranging from
first-year composition to graduate-level.

What’s New in the Sixth Edition?

This new, expanded edition of Using Sources Effectively maintains the qualities that stu-
dents and faculty have admired the most: the friendly style, clear presentation, and practi-
cal tools (such as categorized lists of transitional words, introductory verbs, and interpretive
lead-ins). This edition also features many improvements and new ideas and techniques for
making your writing better—even easier. Take a look:

• Learning objectives inform students and educators what to expect in each chapter.
• Added online resources reinforce instruction provided in each chapter.
• A comprehensive teacher’s edition assists educators in their delivery of Using Sources
Effectively material.
• The development of teaching slides for each chapter (PowerPoints) provides emphasis
on important concepts found in each chapter.
• Each chapter includes a Mini-Research Project that not only helps you improve your
search skills but also sharpens your source evaluation skills.
• Ten classical rhetorical devices give you tools to improve the clarity and impact of your
writing—and they are easy to learn and use.
• Substantial emphasis on your role in the Great Conversation encourages you to take
seriously the craft of researched writing.
• Increased emphasis on synthesis writing—weaving source use into your own thinking—
gives your writing more interest and produces a dazzlingly persuasive result.
xvi Preface to the Sixth Edition

• Improved use of graphic design elements and more white space make the book more
approachable.
• A completely new chapter, “Jump-Starting Your Writing,” provides instruction and sen-
tence patterns that will help you to develop your own techniques for incorporating
source use more easily.
• Modern Language Association citation style has been updated to that in the ninth edi-
tion (2021) of the MLA Handbook.
• American Psychological Association citation style has been updated to that in the sev-
enth edition of the APA Handbook.
• Instruction in close reading will help you understand what an author is discussing or
arguing, together with how well it is being done.
• Explanation of how to organize and position your sources for the best support of your
central idea will help you to create a focused plan for your paper.
• Additional end-of-chapter quizzes have been moved from the book to the instructor
manual so that they can be administered online.

Overview of the Book

Chapter 1: The Importance of Using Sources Effectively

This chapter discusses the benefits that you will get from bringing sources into your writing
to support your ideas. The skillful use of quotations, summaries, and paraphrases can give
your phrases both power and sparkle. Emphasis is placed on the importance of smoothly
integrating your sources, as well as the importance of relying on your critical thinking
rather than artificial intelligence.

Chapter 2: Finding, Choosing, and Evaluating Sources

This chapter helps you think about the kind of information that you need for the paper
that you will be writing. The purpose of the paper and the intended audience will shape
your research and determine your level of speech. Search strategies both on and beyond
the Web are covered, together with a set of guidelines for evaluating the sources that you
locate.

Chapter 3: Preparing Your Sources

This chapter provides some helpful advice about organizing your research and taking notes
in a way that will prevent confusion later. A good note-taking system and careful record-
ing of citations will make writing the research paper much easier. Also in this chapter is
advice about steps that you can take to avoid—or defend yourself against—a false charge
of plagiarism.

Chapter 4: Quoting Effectively

This chapter covers the Why, When, and How to quote a source. Included is a discussion
of introductory strategies that will keep your source use fresh and the importance of limit-
ing the number and length of quotations. Also emphasized are the differences in APA and
MLA style when considering lead-ins and verb tense use.
 Preface to the Sixth Edition xvii

Chapter 5: Paraphrasing and Summarizing

This chapter explores the use of paraphrasing and summarizing as alternatives to quoting.
Presented are the Why, When, and How to paraphrase and summarize. Included is infor-
mation to help you to decide when it is better to quote, paraphrase, or summarize your
source. The final section warns writers to avoid the verbal disease of thesaurusitis.

Chapter 6: Avoiding Plagiarism

This chapter provides practical instruction about what does and does not constitute pla-
giarism. This chapter defines the issues and clarifies misconceptions in order to help you
avoid plagiarism. In addition, you are warned against the inappropriate use of artificial
intelligence and its use in place of your critical thinking

Chapter 7: Putting It Together

This chapter shows you how to insert quotations elegantly and effectively into your own
writing, following the “simple rule” of marking the boundaries of each quotation to ensure
that you are never accused of plagiarism.

Chapter 8: Effective Use

This chapter goes beyond mere compliance with the rules of source use and discusses how to
use sources in a powerful and effective way. By employing some of the practical ideas here,
you will be able to write more vibrant and successful papers. In addition, you will learn how
to identify in others’ writing, and to avoid in your own writing, the use of logical fallacies.

Chapter 9: Editing for Accuracy

This chapter offers many tips and reminders about spelling, grammar, and other common
errors that can be missed unless attention is given to them. Included are several suggestions
for polishing your writing style to make it clearer and more effective. Updates on APA and
MLA styles are noted.

Chapter 10: Jump-Starting Your Writing

This chapter presents several tools to help you get a feel for how sources can interact with
your own ideas and with each other. Sample writing patterns (sometimes called templates)
are explained, together with some other useful techniques.

Citation and Bibliography Style

The examples in the book are presented in both APA and MLA citation styles. APA style
follows the 7th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Associa-
tion (2019), and MLA style follows the ninth edition of the MLA Handbook for Writers of
Research Papers (2021).
Robert A. Harris
Tustin, California
Christie J. Curtis
Monrovia, California
1 The Importance of Using
Sources Effectively

Abstract
This chapter discusses the benefits that you will get from bringing sources into your writing
to support your ideas. The skillful use of quotations, summaries, and paraphrases can give
your phrases both power and sparkle. Emphasis is placed on the importance of smoothly
integrating your sources, as well as the importance of relying on your critical thinking
rather than artificial intelligence.

I don’t know what I think about something until I write about it. And I can’t write about some-
thing until I found out what others think about it.
—Anonymous

You hold in your hands the key to unimaginable power. Consider this: The world is con-
trolled by those who can write really well, and those people comprise fewer than 5%.
Much of the information you encounter involves written text. Books, magazines, schol-
arly journals, newspapers, blogs, tweets, laws, court verdicts, billboards advertisements,
menus, and product labels are some obvious written examples. Even speeches, TV shows,
movies, and Internet advertisements begin as written text, often based on research. The
influence of those who can write well is inestimable.
The authors of this book seek to help you write better research papers and cite your
sources accurately. Moreover, they offer tools to help you write everything better, and to
think more critically, too.

The learning objectives of Chapter 1 are as follows:

a. To explain the value of writing well

b. To understand the learning process of writing
c. To define the importance of research-based writing
d. To present the ways that sources strengthen researching
e. To justify citation as a means to avoid plagiarism and self-plagiarism
f. To cultivate thinking and analyzing skills through the use of sources

DOI: 10.4324/9781032643779-1
2 Using Sources Effectively

1.1 Why Learn to Write Well?

As a first question, let’s think about why you should put a major effort into learning to write.
You might already consider yourself a pretty good writer, and perhaps you are. However,
improving your writing—and researching—skills will prove valuable to you for the rest of
your life. Whatever profession you pursue, you almost certainly will be writing heavily for
your entire career. Regular writing needs include meeting minutes, reports, studies, survey
analyses, and hundreds of emails a day that must be responded to quickly, efficiently, and
clearly.

Writing Is a Thinking Process

It has been said that we really do not know what we think about something until we write
about it. Writing requires a deeper and more careful thought process than does speaking
or even meditating about a topic. By writing down your ideas, you clarify them to yourself
or even discover them. Writing, then, is an opportunity to strengthen your thinking ability
and to extend your mind, to gain a wider view of a subject, to find personal engagement
with the world of ideas, and even to make the unknown interesting.
You have already been reminded that the power brokers of this world are those people
who can write well. Once you learn to write well, not only will your formal, written ideas
have more impact but also, your off-the-cuff speeches, your on-the-fly YouTube videos, and
even your everyday conversations will be much more effective, focused, and yes, powerful
because you will know how to present your ideas more clearly and coherently. You might
know from personal experience that the message you intended to send is not always the
message that was received. Learning to write better, including working with the ideas you
encounter through research, will improve your clarity of thought and give you the ability
to communicate more effectively.
Knowing that working with your ideas is an important part of becoming a power broker
and better writer underscores the importance of utilizing careful thinking processes. You
want every opportunity to form your own ideas by cultivating critical thinking processes.
Using any idea that is not your own, whether written or spoken, should be cited properly
to avoid plagiarism. With the arrival of artificial intelligence (AI)-powered language mod-
els, you might be tempted to let a chatbot write your essay or other written assignment.
However, not only would this chatbot’s writing be plagiarized (unless cited) but also, you
would be robbing yourself of using your own creative powers and developing better writ-
ing techniques.

If you wanted to become a good auto mechanic, you’d study hard to learn how to do
it well. So, if you want to be a good writer, study hard to learn how.

And there is one more reason you should be eager to writing well. That’s so other people
will actually read what you write. With the millions of books, journals, and internet entries,
why should anyone want to read your stuff? If you put an effort into learning and applying
the material in this book, your writing will stand out.
 The Importance of Using Sources Effectively 3

But if you don’t care enough to work with your ideas and to learn to write well, then no
one will care what you think because no one will read what you write.

Writing Is a Learning Process

Writing is a natural, inseparable part of learning, providing clarity to thinking and solid-
ity to knowing. Writing involves the collection and organization of ideas and thoughts,
the analysis of statement and evidence, and the comparing and contrasting of conflicting
claims. All of these activities help you learn about a subject. Again, a reminder, AI lan-
guage models do not provide you the opportunity to participate in these learning activities.
The act of wide reading, whether in an area of controversy or not, will help you add
to your personal database of knowledge and your understanding of the world. When you
write a paper that synthesizes your reading, you will learn even more about your topic as
you sort out the better arguments from the weaker ones. You will also view the world with
more understanding as you gain knowledge. As the proverb says, “The more you know. The
better you can see.”

Writing Develops Lifelong Skills

The simple truth is this: As an educated person in an ever-more information-driven world,
you will be writing for the rest of your life. By developing your writing skills now, you will
acquire the competence you need to work effectively in the future. Whatever form your
writing eventually takes—whether keyboard, dictation, or a new mind-reading software
application—you will need to know how to use all the skills of writing. Thinking, analyz-
ing, organizing, reasoning, using examples, exposing fallacies—all these and many others
are the writing skills that will allow you not just to survive but to flourish. When you think
about these needed writing skills, you understand the reasons why AI is no substitute for
the creative ideas of the human mind.
Writing a research paper also gives you practice in making a subject interesting. In your
future writing career, not every topic you are handed will be of interest to you. The subject
may not even be immediately interesting to the targeted readers. It is important, then, for
you to develop the ability to make a subject interesting both to yourself and to your read-
ers. The more practice you have doing this now, the better you will become at it and the
more you will be able to enjoy writing on any topic.

1.2 Why Learn Research-Based Writing?

Learning how to incorporate research sources into a coherent argument is one of the most
amazing opportunities you will have in your educational experience. By improving your
ability to frame a research problem, locate relevant sources, work with those sources, and
write a persuasive paper based on them, you will be developing a host of kills that will
serve you well for the rest of your life. Just as swimming is said to be such good exercise
because it uses so many different muscles, research-based writing is excellent mental exer-
cise because it develops your skills not just in writing but in creativity, problem solving,
and thinking as well.
4 Using Sources Effectively

When you work with sources, you learn better how to analyze what you are reading,
how to evaluate the strength of arguments, and how to fit ideas together with other sources
that may disagree. The process of writing a paper based on research materials broadens
your understanding of how information is used and makes you more careful about accept-
ing unsupported claims.

Research Makes Writing Easier

Instead of looking at a research requirement Sidebar 1.1 What is the Great
as a complication to a writing assignment, you ­Conversation and why should
should be thankful. Research actually sim- you Care?
plifies your assignment because researching
a topic helps you define the issues surround- The Great Conversation takes place
ing it. You may or may not have realized the among those who share their ideas
causes, effects, unexpected consequences, with others, who work with the con-
failed remedies, and so on that research tributions of each other to add steps to
will uncover. Some robust searching will the advancement of the understanding
help you discover new options, refine your of the world. You become aware that
tentative thoughts, gather the evidence and the pathway to knowledge on which
arguments pro and con, and understand the you are walking has been walked
context of the topic. All of this information
on by others also, and you take the
will help you to shape your research ques-
opportunity to learn from them, react
tion; this in turn will help you focus your
research and develop a clear, suitable the- to them, agree with them, and some-
sis. Why wander in the woods in the dark times oppose them. Source A and
when some wise researcher can hand you Source B might have differing views
a powerful flashlight that will help you on or data, and you discover a grand syn-
your way? thesis that advances humanity along
the path—a grand synthesis that nei-
Research-Based Writing Allows You to ther Source A nor Source B has found
Contribute to the Great Conversation nor you by yourself could have found.
This grand synthesis is accomplished
Writing represents mental work (creative,
by the interweaving of sources. The
analytic, or persuasive) put down in a fixed
form so that others can access it at any time Great Conversation is the working
and make use of it. Many readers make use together of many minds, doing the
of others’ writing simply as a means of learn- thinking for the progress of civiliza-
ing, but many others use writing as building tion. It is your opportunity to create a
blocks for further knowledge and for their legacy that will benefit your own and
own writing and thinking. This has been true future generations. It is a demonstra-
for thousands of years. As the saying goes, tion of your ability to think critically
“We stand on the shoulder of giants.” Nearly and to justify your conclusions by
every writer makes use of the creative, ana- skillfully interweaving your sources.
lytic, or persuasive work of previous writers, And it starts here, now, by learning
building on the thinking and discoveries that how to write a research paper.
have gone before.
 The Importance of Using Sources Effectively 5

Increasingly today, moreover, many writers

are building their ideas together. Many cor- Sidebar 1.2 How do you build
porations are developing knowledge-sharing on the Shoulders of Giants?
cultures, where employees can use each
other’s ideas either by direct collaboration or Skillfully interweaving the ideas and
through the use of knowledge management findings of other writers is no easy
databases. Developing your writing skills task. Your first step is to become an
empowers you to become a significant con- active reader rather than a passive
tributor to this creating and sharing of knowl- one. You must evaluate the strengths
edge. The better writer you become, the better and weaknesses of other’s ideas and
writing partner you will be. thoughts. Then, you must take those
Indeed, one of the most common tasks of discoveries that are noteworthy
knowledge workers in the corporate world and find connections among these
is to work with source material—policy and thoughts. Finally, you must place all
procedure documents, checklists, operations
of these connections in a big vat and
manuals, repair manuals, reports, analyses,
produce a product that you can call
and the like—to produce revisions, updates,
and extensions. Other documents need inter- your own yet relies on the creative
pretation and response. It is safe to say that work of others. This process requires
you are highly likely to be working with you to develop your creative writ-
words throughout your career. ing processes and your expertise in
weaving others’ thoughts together
1.3 Why Use Sources in Papers? until they a platform on which you
can stand.
Understanding the purpose of using sources
in papers should encourage you to take the
task seriously and to write better papers. Stu-
dents who believe that sources serve no purpose other than to decorate or lengthen a paper
are more likely to insert long quotations without taking much care to build them into the
overall flow of ideas. The result of such a practice is, at best, padding and, at worst, a dis-
jointed collage. It’s the difference between the synthesis of source material and the mere
presence of source material. Sources serve a number of important functions in a paper,
both as part of, and in addition to, the requirement that the paper be based on research.
Let’s look at some of these purposes.

Research Sources Provide Context

Suppose you walk up to two strangers and ask them, “What do you put on your strawber-
ries?” One them says, “Sugar,” and the other says, “Cow manure.” How are you to under-
stand this discrepancy? If you think for a moment, you will see that context is crucial to
interpretation—a proper understanding of events and thought processes requires knowl-
edge of the surrounding information environment. In this case, one of the strangers puts
sugar on the strawberries on the breakfast table, while the other puts cow manure on the
strawberries (to fertilize them) in the patch out behind the house.
Similarly, when a scholarly paper describes, analyzes, reports, or argues some point, it
does not do so in a vacuum. The topic has almost certainly been treated before, experiments
6 Using Sources Effectively

may have been conducted, and other interpretations may have already been made. A first
function of the use of sources, then, is to provide background information. An overview,
the historical context (which may influence meaning as much as the context of the straw-
berry comments earlier), a starting point such as the definition of key concepts—these can
all be provided by making use of appropriate sources. In many scholarly projects, a review
of the literature is a required first part to provide a history of progress in the field, informa-
tion relating to the topic, a technical context, or other background for the new material to
be presented.

Sources Strengthen Your Argument

One of the myths surrounding research-based writing seems to be that citing sources is a
necessary evil, an unfortunate concession required by the rules of composition for giving
away credit for ideas. In fact, quite the contrary is true. Using and citing sources actually
strengthens your writing in the eyes of your reader because it demonstrates that you have
performed research and have integrated the findings and ideas of others into your own
argument.
First, quoting or referring to sources and then discussing them demonstrates that you
are aware of the other writers’ positions on the topic. You are not writing in an intellectual
vacuum or off the top of your head, but you have considered the ideas of others in the
formulation of your own thinking. Next, using sources demonstrates that your ideas have
support. Writers whose ideas parallel your argument add major timber to the intellectual
house you are building for your reader. Corroboration of thinking or argument, additional
facts or evidence from a third party, and the information of experts all provide powerful
support to your position. Finally, using and citing sources demonstrates that you can think
and argue along with scholars and other professionals and that you are able to interact with
the ideas connected to your subject. Your paper’s sources, then, far from being a negative,
provide positive evidence for your reader about your researching, writing, and thinking
ability as well as your resourcefulness.

The sources in a research paper are like the actors in a movie. All of them work
together in an orderly way, each one contributing to the overall meaning.

Sources Add Interest to Your Paper

As you do your research, you will discover that sources provide much more than factual
information or good analysis. Sources often contain stories, personal experiences, unique
data, experimental results, tables, graphs, or other items that will add greatly to the interest
of your paper. One reason to quote rather than summarize or paraphrase a source is that,
many times, the author of the source text has an interesting, colorful, or compelling way of
writing. A particular sentence or even a phrase may give just the direct and clear expres-
sion of an idea that you need. Even if the source’s words are not quotable, you might make
the information interesting through an appropriate summary or paraphrase.
 The Importance of Using Sources Effectively 7

Sources Provide You With New Ideas

Our minds need the fertilizer of new ideas if we are to be consistently productive in our
intellectual lives. Another critical use of sources, then, is that they enrich your mind with
new ideas, give you “food for thought,” and allow you to compare several different ways
of thinking about an issue. Even if all of the research you find generally agrees with the
position you are taking (and that is not likely), you will still be able to refine your own
thinking by discovering the various ways of conceptualizing a given idea. More likely, you
will encounter ideas and arguments you have never thought of before, providing you with
the opportunity to extend your thinking. You may ultimately alter or even reject the origi-
nal idea you located in your research because sources have suggested a new direction or
new interpretation that is more useful in your argument. (If you should ever develop a love
for classical writers such as Plato and Aristotle, you will discover that they are famous not
because they are right about everything but because, when they are wrong, they are wrong
in very interesting and provocative ways. They make us think.)

Sources Keep You Up-to-Date

Imagine that you are an ornithologist in seventeenth-century England. You and your fellow
bird enthusiasts delight in swans. All of them are so lovely with their white feathers. Too bad
that there are no black swans, but everyone throughout Europe agrees, based on empirical
observation, that all swans are white. It’s been known for a long time. It’s settled science.
And then in 1697, black swans are discovered outside of Europe, in Australia. Aren’t you
glad you keep up-to-date with the ornithology news?
All this is just to say that, as the world of knowledge advances, current thinking is modi-
fied or even replaced by new discoveries, new experiments, and new studies. Especially
in the social sciences, new studies often refine, extend, or even challenge what previous
studies had found. Researching your topic and locating timely, current information will
help you keep up-to-date in the subject and will, therefore, provide you with the needed
knowledge for accurate thinking and understanding. It will also give you the latest findings
from which to argue the central idea (thesis) of your research paper.

Sources Reveal Controversies

You know the saying, “There are two sides to every argument,” meaning that every position
has its pros and cons. Even this saying has two sides to it. One side claims that the saying is
correct. The other side claims that it is not correct because there are almost never only two
sides to a given position: Most areas of controversy have several different sides. A benefit of
research and the use of results is to expose the areas of controversy. By pointing out ideas
that conflict with your position and by responding reasonable to those who disagree with
your argument, you demonstrate, first, that you are aware of the opposition and that there is
a reasonable response to it, and second, that your conclusions are based on a full contem-
plation of all the evidence, not just on that which agrees with the case you are presenting.
Imagine reading a paper about a controversial issue that completely ignores some strong
opposing arguments you have heard elsewhere. What do you think of the paper and its
8 Using Sources Effectively

writer? Is the writer simply unaware of the other arguments and hence has based the paper
on partial knowledge? Or is the writer aware of them but has decided not to mention them
because there is no adequate response? In blunt terms, the writer appears to be either igno-
rant or dishonest.
See Chapter 8 for information about how to incorporate conflicting sources into your
papers.

Sources Help You Understand How Reasoned Argument Works

The more you work with sources for your research papers, the more information literate
you will become. Information literacy is usually defined as the ability to locate, evaluate,
and use information appropriately. But the term goes beyond these practices to include an
awareness of how information itself works. Specifically, you will discover how a credible
argument is assembled, what kind of evidence needs to be brought to bear, how generali-
zations are formed from experimental samples, and so forth. You will also learn about the
role of assumptions, interpretations, and even biases in arguments. (For example, the first
time you locate two books each claiming to prove beyond a doubt exactly the opposite
conclusion about a controversial subject, you begin to understand much about the world
of books and arguments.) Many issues are still unsettled and in flux, and your research will
help you become mindful of this.

1.4 Why Use Sources Effectively?

Those who study communication theory will tell you that there is much more going on in
a research paper or article than the mere conveying of information or mounting of an argu-
ment. The way you handle information, how and when you quote, the use you make of a
quotation or reference—all these tell your reader not only about your capacity for engag-
ing information but also about your character. If you want to be believed, it is, therefore,
crucial that you write in a way that instills confidence in what you have to say.

Effective Use Instills Trust

Before someone rises to deliver a speech, another person is almost always there to give an
introduction. This has been true from the time of the ancient rhetoricians up until today.
The introducer commonly provides the speaker’s background, which includes such infor-
mation as academic credentials and the source of the speaker’s authority or experience
relevant to the topic of the speech. In ancient times, this was referred to as providing the
speaker’s ethos, or character. In a word, the introducer gives reasons why the audience
should trust the speaker.
There is a similar practice in publishing where a book includes a preface or a foreword,
often by a notable person, recommending the book to the reader. Moreover, the book
jacket includes quotations from reviews favorable to the book. The result is that respected
sources help to credential the author—to provide a trustworthy ethos.

If you treat your sources like strangers, they won’t work very hard for you. If you treat
them like friends, they will be loyal and help make your paper great.
 The Importance of Using Sources Effectively 9

When you write a scholarly article or research paper, you do not have the advantage of
another person providing you with a character reference. How you present your material,
then, provides the only evidence your reader has about how trustworthy, competent, and
fair you are. Not only writing instructors but virtually all careful readers can sense when
sources have been carelessly grabbed and dumped into a paper with little thought or
analysis. The most authoritative source with the most powerful argument can be substan-
tially diminished by careless or ineffective use. On the other hand, if you are careful, fair,
and accurate in the way you use sources, your reader is likely to conclude that you are a
reliable interpreter and thinker. When your readers trust you, they are much more likely to
accept your argument.
A final point about effective use comes down to authority. Because your reader does
not know you or how reliable you are, you need to show that your argument is supported
by authorities. If your research paper topic focuses on treatments for cancer, your source
selection will be much more effective if you use information from highly regarded sources,
such as the International Agency for Research on Cancer, affiliated with the World Health
Organization or the National Cancer Institute, affiliated with the National Institutes for
Health, rather than someone’s personal Web site of unknown trustworthiness.

Effective Use Aids Persuasion

The information age is an age of information distrust. We live in an era where misinforma-
tion (incorrect, partial, or slanted information) is rampant, and disinformation (information
known to be false but presented in order to deceive) seems to be everywhere. Factoids,
urban legends, and advertising hyperbole wander constantly through our information uni-
verse. A first issue in creating a persuasive argument, then, is to show that you have exter-
nal evidence and arguments for your central claim. It’s not just you saying this. Your readers
can believe you because of the support offered by your sources.
And your sources can be believed because you have chosen them well. Therefore,
discernment—separating the information sheep from the information goats—is another
critical part of the research process. Never just grab a source and shove it into your paper.
Evaluate each candidate source (see Chapter 2), and select only the best.
But you need to go further still to achieve the most effective use. If you are to mount a
credible claim or believable analysis, you must demonstrate your ability to handle your
information sources carefully and accurately. You must show that you possess adequate
information-processing skills to interpret, filter, and apply credible sources effectively. In
order to take your ideas seriously, your reader must come to believe that you are neither
gullible nor sloppy in the way that you use information. If you do these things, your argu-
ment has the best possibility for persuading your readers.

Effective Use Shows Engagement

Using sources effectively—choosing highly relevant quotations, introducing them clearly,
and discussing them appropriately—recalls a thoughtful engagement with them after some
analysis and judgment. Effective use helps to show that you have performed more than
a cursory reading and a perfunctory interaction with the source. Showing that you have
taken the time to understand and work with your sources, that you have taken your sources
seriously, encourages your reader to take you seriously as well.
10 Using Sources Effectively

Remember that your instructor has spent years reading papers that hastily and sometimes
thoughtlessly include quotations and references that seem to be taken out of context or do
not quite fit into the student’s argument or that seem to be misconstrued. It is all the more
important, therefore, to show by your analysis and discussion of each source that you that
thought things through.

1.5 Why Cite Them All?

As you will read again in coming chapters, you must cite the source of each idea or item
of information you use, whether you quote, paraphrase, summarize, or merely refer to it.
There are several good reasons for this rule.

Cite to Help Your Reader

Remember that you have an audience, your reader. The primary reason for citing each
use of an external source or idea is to provide a path for your readers to follow in the
event that they are interested in further reading. Imagine your reader encountering
one of your quotations or a summary of a study and thinking, “That’s really interest-
ing. I’d like to read the whole article.” Your citation makes exactly that possible. You
are providing a courtesy to your reader. Alternatively, instead of interest, you may have
inspired indignation in your reader: “How can Jones make that claim?” your reader
may demand. Your citation allows your reader to locate the article or book and read the
claim in its context.
For most of your academic papers, your instructor will be your immediate, if not your
only, reader. Citations perform the same courtesy here. If your instructor becomes inter-
ested (or indignant) after reading about one of your sources, the citation points directly
to the source. A look at some of your sources will also help your instructor determine
how effectively and how accurately you are using research material. Your instructor’s com-
ments, based on this determination, will help you write better in the future. In these cases,
citing sources helps you, too.

Cite to Show Respect for Fellow Knowledge Workers

At this point in your life, you may not be thinking of yourself as a knowledge worker, either
present or future. Yet that is just what you are likely to be. The industrial age has passed,
and we now live in an information age, where processing information and creating knowl-
edge out of it are major tasks of most educated workers. Just as you would not want others
to take and use your ideas or writing without crediting you, you should not take the ideas
or writing of others without crediting them. It is a matter of respect.
As mentioned earlier, more and more knowledge is being created through collabora-
tion with others. A key to the willingness of others to collaborate is the feeling that their
intellectual property (their words and ideas) will be duly respected and credited. In a cor-
porate environment, where creativity and originality are highly valued, both you and your
collaborators will want to work on joint writing projects where each contributor can trust
the others to give credit willingly and clearly to the others’ ideas. In circumstances where
coworkers believe their ideas will be stolen, they will be unlikely to share them.
 The Importance of Using Sources Effectively 11

Cite to Avoid Plagiarism

A fundamental requirement of academic work is that you clearly distinguish your words and
ideas from those of the sources you use. Citation provides the basic mechanism of distinction.
A substantial amount of plagiarism is committed unintentionally, simply because the writer
did not know the rules or forms of citation. Yet the penalty for such behavior is often severe
because plagiarism is considered one of the most serious forms of academic dishonesty.
Therefore, out of self-interest and self-protection, you want to be sure to cite your sources.
(Plagiarism and the requirements for citation to avoid it are discussed in detail in Chapter 6.)

1.6 Are Sources the Whole Idea?

At least a few students approach research paper assignments with the belief that their own
ideas do not count. They think a research paper is to be filled with sources elegantly—and
sometimes not so elegantly—strung together. These students seem to fear they will be
graded down if even one of their own thoughts gets in the way of the sources. This idea is
wrong, incorrect, and not true.

Your Thinking Is the Star

You will recall from earlier that sources were said to support your thinking. Think of your
research paper as a major motion picture. Your thinking, perhaps your central idea, is
the star, while the sources you use are the supporting cast. The most important part of a
research paper is not the sources themselves but what you do with them. You should use
sources to support your own line of argument, your own conclusions, your own ideas. This
is your paper we are talking about, not an extended summary of other papers. You are not
writing Bartlett’s Familiar Quotations: That has already been done.
Another way of thinking about your use of sources is to say that just as you should honor
the thinking of others by citing their ideas, so you should also honor your own thinking
by presenting it clearly and supporting it with research. The sources you cite give solidity,
credibility, and nuance to your presentation, but at the end of the day, even though we like
your friends, we’ve come to hear you talk.

Sources Need Something to Support

To accept that your ideas are the star in a research paper is to throw down a gauntlet of
challenge to yourself: You must produce the star—the ideas. That is, as you research and
write, you must supply not only the central idea you wish to advance but also the analysis,
synthesis, fresh insights, interpretations, conclusions, reasons, examples, and other infor-
mation that drive your central idea forward and that are supported by your research. When
you bring in a source, it should have a clear role in adding weight and credibility to your
line of thinking or argument.

Sources Need Interpreting

Henry Ford is credited with having said, “Thinking is the hardest work that there is, which
is why so few people do it.” If he is correct, that may explain why so many research papers
12 Using Sources Effectively

handed in to instructors contain little more than a series of thoughtlessly pasted-together

quotations. Do not let your papers descend to this level. Take the time to explain the
source, to show how it fits into your discussion, and why it was important to bring it into
your paper. Otherwise, you will lose most of the benefits of writing a research paper while
reducing your workload only slightly.
When you think of yourself in the role of the writer of a research paper, do not picture
yourself as an antiquarian collector of old quotations fit to be put on display but as a detec-
tive, a solver of a puzzle, making sense out of many different elements of information. So
much information, so many viewpoints, all this raw data in need of explanation—all the
materials you locate in your research need more than just organizing; they also require
sorting out and applying to a central conclusion. Much thinking and much writing must
come in connection with the use of your sources as you explain the meaning, implica-
tions, and effect of each one. Forget the staplers (those who would merely staple together
an assortment of source materials); you are the weaver of a beautiful and sensible tapestry.
You must ultimately tell the story that the sources have helped you to discover.

It’s the Great Conversation Again

At the beginning of the chapter, I said that learning to write well would put you on the
doorstep of power, holding the key. Participating in the Great Conversation by working
with the ideas of others will help you attain something even better. You can play a role in
the advancement of civilization.
The Great Conversation means that you use your sources to go beyond them. Instead
of merely collecting a bunch of sources and then summarizing or paraphrasing them and
calling the result a research paper, you synthesize the ideas from disparate sources and pre-
sent a new idea, conclusion, theory, interpretation—something about which none of your
sources by themselves considered. Source A might disagree with source B, who in turn
disagrees with source C. By thinking about this controversy, you might discover a solution,
a compromise, or a new approach. If you strive to use your researched writing to make a
significant contribution, you just might change the course of history.

Review Questions
To see how well you understand this chapter, attempt to answer each of the following ques-
tions without referring to the text. (Write down your answers to make checking easier.) Then
check your answers with the text. If you missed something important, add it to your answer.

1. What advantages are provided by learning how to write well?

2. What are the benefits that sources provide to a researcher?
3. Explain how the use of sources strengthens your writing.
4. Discuss the reasons for citing sources.
5. What is meant by the statement, “Your thinking is the star”?

Questions for Thought and Discussion

See Teacher’s Edition and Online Version.
 The Importance of Using Sources Effectively 13

Mini-Research Projects: How Much Information?

Perform a Web search on one or more of the topics later. For each topic you search, answer
the following questions:

A. Note the variation in the answers. What accounts for this variation? (Hints: What is the
date of each page in the results list? Which factors, such as language or countries, affect
the result? How do the definitions of information differ? What is the estimate based on?)
B. Which source did you finally decide to use for the answer? Why did you choose that
source over the others?
1. How many scholarly journals are published now?
2. What is the total estimated number of scholarly articles ever published?
3. How much information is generated each year?
4. What is the estimated quantum of information in existence today?

A Little Rhetoric: How Much Emphasis?

One of the easy secrets to better writing is knowing that some parts of a sentence are empha-
sized more than other parts. The most emphasis in a sentence is placed on the end, the final
word or short phrase; next is the beginning; and the least emphasis is placed on the middle.

Example [Link].1
Note how the emphasis on “the end” changes.

A. The greatest emphasis in a sentence is at the end. [most emphatic]

B. The end of a sentence gets the greatest emphasis. [second most emphatic]
C. The greatest emphasis is at the end of a sentence. [least emphatic]

Example [Link].2
Note how the emphasis changes, depending on what is placed at the beginning and the end:

A. Doe (2016) acknowledged at last that the experiment was poorly designed.
B. At last, Doe (2016) acknowledged that the experiment was poorly designed.
C. Doe (2016) acknowledged at last the poor design of the experiment.
D. Doe (2016) acknowledged the poor design of the experiment at last.

Words or phrases set off by commas also gain emphasis. (A comma is sometimes thought
of as a flag that says, “Slow down and pause briefly,” with the following that we pay more
attention to the words near the comma.) Compare the following:

Example [Link].3
Note the change in emphasis of “at last.”

A. Doe (2016) acknowledged at last that the experiment was poorly designed.
B. Doe (2016) acknowledged, at last, that the experiment was poorly designed.
14 Using Sources Effectively

Example [Link]. 4
A. The actor supposedly performed is own stunts.
B. The actor, supposedly, performed his own stunts.

Now You Try

Write three sentences, moving a key word or phrase to the beginning, middle, and end.
Comment on the resulting changes in emphasis.
Self-Assessments: See Online and Teacher’s Guide
2 Finding, Choosing, and Evaluating Sources

Abstract
This chapter helps you think about the kind of information that you need for the paper
that you will be writing. The purpose of the paper and the intended audience will shape
your research and determine your level of speech. Search strategies both on and beyond
the Web are covered, together with a set of guidelines for evaluating the sources that you
locate.

What he said is true. But what he did not say makes it a lie.
—Proverb

Both the enormous quantity of information now available and its wide range of quality
make the task of choosing sources wisely more important than ever. This chapter offers
some guidelines and ideas for helping to choose useful and high-quality sources.

The learning objectives of Chapter 2 are as follows:

a. To understand the purpose of the assignments

b. To select the appropriate sources
c. To utilize effective search strategies
d. To use Internet sources properly
e. To evaluate sources for their credibility

2.1 Start by Understanding the Assignment

Before you grab a topic and rush off to the library or computer to look up something about
it, read your paper assignment carefully, and if necessary, discuss it with your instructor.
If you have a choice of topics, get your choice approved before you get deep into it. (You
should do some preliminary research to determine if the topic is suitable for fulfilling the
research assignment.) If your topic is assigned, think about the approach that you want to
take, and make sure the approach conforms to the assignment. The following considera-
tions will help you in your thought process as you plan, research, and write.

DOI: 10.4324/9781032643779-2
16 Using Sources Effectively

What Is the Purpose of the Paper?

Why, exactly, are you writing this paper (other than the fact that it has been assigned)?
Think about some of these questions:

• Are you going to write a review, a summary, an analysis, a persuasive argument? A review
or summary will be more focused on responding to the work of others, while an analy-
sis or persuasive argument will contain much more about your own ideas. A review or
summary will engage a limited number of works (or even one), often chosen for their
important content as a whole. An argument might make use of ideas drawn from many
works.
• Is the paper going to focus on reasoned argument or factual evidence (or both)? That
is, should the discussion be more philosophical, drawing on logic and reasoning more
than research, or will it need substantial amounts of supporting data from research and
experimentation?
• Will you do a broad survey or engage in an intense examination of a small detail? For
example, are you going to examine the changing views toward authority over time in a
nation-state, or will you be explicating a sonnet?

How you answer these questions will determine for which sources you look. Your instruc-
tor will probably help you with these questions by providing some assignment guidelines,
but you might want to clarify your purpose further to avoid unnecessary searching. Ask
yourself, “Just what is it that I want to do in this paper, and what kinds of sources will help
me?” In addition, write out some notes that will guide your research.

What Are the Specific Requirements for the Paper?

Many instructors require papers to include specific ingredients (if I may use that term). The
idea behind such requirements is to show you the variety of sources that can be used in
researching any subject. An example assignment might include something such as this:

The research paper must include the use and effective incorporation of information
drawn from the following:

• Two printed books, published within the last ten years;

• Two scholarly journal articles (from printed or online journals);
• One personal interview, survey, or experiment;
• Two credible Internet sources; and
• One graph, chart, photograph, or other visual source.

Other requirements might specify the length of the paper (often in the minimum and maxi-
mum number of words), the approach to the topic (review, argument, pro, and con, syn-
thesis), and intermediate due dates (for a plan, a bibliography, a draft, and so on). Read
and understand these requirements before you start. Never assume that your instructor
wants a “generic research paper” or that you can read your instructor’s mind about the
requirements.
 Finding, Choosing, and Evaluating Sources 17

Who Is Your Audience?

Sidebar 2.1 Care About Your
The question, “Who is my audience, and what
Audience
does my audience expect?” is one of the most
crucial and most often neglected questions Knowing to whom you are writing
any writer faces. Do not be tempted to dis-
determines the voice that you adopt.
miss the question because it seems obvious
For your peers, friends and dorm-
that your instructor is the audience. There are
several potential audiences for an academic mates, a casual voice is appropriate.
research paper: For the general, educated audience,
an informal voice can be used. How-
• Your instructor, of course ever, for your instructor and other
• Your peers (fellow classmates) professionals in the subject area, you
• Your friends and dormmates should utilize an academic voice.
• A general, educated audience interest in
the subject
• Other professions in the subject area

With regard to this last possibility, when you write upper division or graduate papers at a
college or university, it is usually understood that you are preparing yourself for the Great
Conversation—communicating with the other professionals and experts in your chosen
field. So, they are at least, in theory, part of your audience. This audience will expect
excellence—careful thinking, thorough research, and apt use of the research.

• Will you need to include some general

information about the topic to provide Sidebar 2.2 Diction
background or context?
• Will your audience understand the techni- Your audience will determine your
cal jargon that accompanies the subject? choice of words as you communicate
• How will a general audience’s preconcep- your ideas to your readers. This choice
tions, knowledge, and lack of knowledge is known as diction. The lowest level
affect the sequence and approach you of diction is vulgar—language which is
will need to take in order to be clear and obscene and indecent. The next level
convincing? is informal language. This level is more
In a word, then, first think about what you conversational and casual; it includes
want the final product to look like before you colloquial expressions and other
take the first steps in creating it. A powerful playful use of words. Most likely, the
idea in problem-solving theory is to imagine language that you will use is formal.
that you have already solved the problem and Formal language can be characterized
then ask yourself what happened that enabled as dignified, aloof, and impersonal.
the solution to occur. Similarly, you might The final level is pedantic. Users of
imagine having already written an excel- this level aim to impress others with
lent paper—that perhaps has won a class or their complex and unfamiliar words.
campus-wide award or even been accepted
18 Using Sources Effectively

for publication—and then ask yourself how you worked on it and what you put into it that
helped bring about such success.

2.2 Select the Kinds of Sources You Need

The saying, “All sources look alike on a computer screen,” cautions us to be careful to
consider the wide range of materials available—both in kind and in quality—and to select
those that best suit the task at hand. Resist the temptation to use just any sources that you
locate; take some time to think about the kinds of information you need and how well
those needs are met by the sources you locate.

Choose the Kind of Information You Need

For building a solid research paper, you will
need facts, of course, but you will also want Sidebar 2.3 Selection Shortcuts
expert interpretation of some of those facts,
together with professional judgments about 1. Read the abstract. Most scholarly
the importance of the information you are dis- articles have an abstract at the
cussing. You may want reasoned arguments, beginning, summarizing the find-
creative ideas, personal examples, accounts of ings or describing the main focus
events, experiments, philosophical commen- of the article. Reading the abstract
tary, and so forth. Many sources contain more will, therefore, let you know fairly
than one of these kinds of information, while quickly if the article will be useful
others focus largely on one or two. If you keep for your topic.
in mind what you are seeking, you will be 2. Read the section headers.
able to select sources more quickly and more Section headers will often reveal
effectively from among the items you locate. which parts of the article will be
the most crucial to your paper.
Take a Shortcut to Selection For example, If the findings of the
You do not necessarily need to read an entire study are the most important to
book or article before you can determine you, then a section titled, “Descrip-
whether or not it will be useful. By reading tion of the Data Set” or “Alternate
the abstract, section headers, and the first sen- Questionnaires Not Used” could
tence of each paragraph, you can reduce the be skipped.
time needed to select your paper’s sources. 3. Read the first sentence of each
paragraph. Many scholars are
Choose Sources of Appropriate Scholarship accustomed to placing their topic
Whether printed or online, publications exist sentences at the beginning of each
along a range or at various levels of schol- paragraph, so by reading the para-
arliness. The concept of scholarliness refers graph opening sentences, you can
to the level of expertise, learning, and evi- get a quick summary of each para-
dence brought to bear on a subject as well as graph. Sentences of special inter-
the intended audience and even the nature of est signal you to read the entire
the information itself. After all, the purpose paragraph.
of some information is to entertain—to tell a
 Finding, Choosing, and Evaluating Sources 19

Table 2.1 Types of Information and Variety of Scholarliness in Sources

Examples of sources of information: audio recording, blog, dataset, data table, drawing, experiment,
film, graph, interview, magazine, newspaper, online book, e-book, online journal, photograph,
podcast, printed book, printed journal, radio broadcast, speech or lecture, TV program, video,
Web site, or article
Professional Substantive Popular Sensational
Written by academics, Written by staff writer Written by staff Written by staff
scientists, or experts. or expert writer of freelance writer or freelance
journalist journalist
Audience is other Audience is the well- Audience is general Audience is less
academics or those educated public reader well educated
trained in the field
Purpose is to share Purpose is to inform Purpose is to entertain Purpose is to
findings or present and entertain and inform entertain
theories: to inform
Discussion is often Discussion is more Discussion is general Discussion is
highly specific and general, easier to and simplified ­sensational and
sophisticated understand simplistic
Bibliography of Some sources are Sources are often not Sources are not
sources is always cited cited cited
included
Article has been peer- Article has been Article has been Article has been
reviewed or refereed approved by an approved by an approved by an
by other scholars in editorial board editorial board or editor
the field editor

good story—rather than to get the facts right. Generally speaking, the more scholarly a
work, the more care is taken with accuracy and completeness.
The scholarliness of sources can be described as follows: Professional sources are written
by academics to audiences who are not trained in that particular field; substantive articles
are written by staff experts to audiences who are educated; popular articles are written by
staff writers or freelance journalists to general readers; and finally, sensational articles are
written by staff writers or freelance journalists to less educated audiences. Generally, for
much of your research, it is good to restrict yourself to sources of a professional or substan-
tive variety. Most course professors require sources that are peer-reviewed. However, there
are instances in which inclusion of useful material from popular magazines is permitted. Yet
you should keep in mind that as sources become more focused on entertainment, the less
they provide reliable informational material. See Table 2.1 for more detailed descriptions.

Choose Appropriate Primary and Secondary Sources

A primary source is an original source of information. In other words, a primary source is
a firsthand account, the fundamental source from which all the secondary sources derive
their information. Examples of primary sources include the following:

• a historical document, such as the Declaration of Independence

• an experimenter’s report, such as Stanley Milgram’s Obedience to Authority
20 Using Sources Effectively

• a literary work, such as Samuel Johnson’s Rasselas

• the official report from an NTSB aviation crash investigation
• an interview
• transcripts of court testimony
• a photograph or print from the Library of Congress
• Data from the U.S. government’s FedStats

A secondary source makes use of primary sources by summarizing, interpreting, ana-

lyzing, criticizing, evaluating, or otherwise working with them. Examples of secondary
sources include encyclopedia articles that rely on a number of primary sources to con-
struct a historical narrative, a work of literary criticism, and works that popularize newly
reported discoveries or newly presented ideas. Many of the sources that you find during
your research will be secondary sources because the Great Conversation continues as one
scholar responds to another or updates what is thought or known about a primary source.
Depending on the subject, the class level, the instructor, and a number of other factors,
you may be using more of one kind of source than the other. Many instructors view the
research paper as the construction of a secondary source, analyzing and commenting on
a set of primary sources. In a literature course, you might use secondary sources to sup-
port your interpretation of a literary work (the primary source) as you create a secondary
source of your own. In a history course, you might use both primary sources (laws, letters,
diaries, works written during the period under study) and secondary sources (interpreta-
tive works by modern historians to construct a paper). In the social and behavioral sci-
ences, you might use primary sources (reports of empirical or original studies) and create
some primary source material yourself by conducting your own experiment, observation,
or interview.

You can be a primary source! If you conduct an interview, perform an experiment,

write a blog, create artwork, or code a software app, you have created a primary
source. If it’s relevant to your paper, use it.

When you have a choice, the use of primary sources is usually superior because you are
dealing directly with the original work or evidence rather than seeing it through the lens of
another interpreter. For this reason, relying on general encyclopedias for sources is often
frowned upon because the articles in them are secondary sources or are themselves based
on secondary sources. (Using an encyclopedia to get an overview, background informa-
tion, ideas for the direction that you want to take, or the consensus of current thought is an
excellent idea. However, your research should then go far beyond that.)
One caution is in order, however. The mere fact that a source is primary or original
rather than secondary does not automatically grant it immunity from evaluation. Eyewit-
ness accounts might be biased, original experiments might be flawed, and a historical
photograph might be misleading (even though it has not been Photoshopped.) Just as an
eye opener, you might search a newspaper database or the general Web using the exact
phrase “study was flawed” and examine the results.
 Finding, Choosing, and Evaluating Sources 21

Avoid Choosing a Source Only Because You

Agree With It Sidebar 2.4 Ask a Librarian
If the sources that you use are to add strength An excellent way to get help in locat-
to your writing, they must be robustly credible, ing and selecting good sources is to
well reasoned, and fair. You may find sources
talk to a reference librarian. Librarians
that support the direction of your argument
have expertise in searching for and
but that are unworthy of use because they
lack the qualities that will gain your reader’s evaluating information, and they are
confidence. When you refer to a source, you also familiar with the library’s collec-
are saying something about the source (that tion of materials, the subject guides,
the source holds value) and about yourself online databases, and more. A sug-
(that your judgment has approved its use in gestion, such as, “You might check
a formal presentation). In other words, a little Special Collections for that,” or “If you
of each source that you use rubs off on you can’t find that Web page anymore,
and your authorial reputation. If you use good check the Wayback Machine at the
sources, your reader will think better of you, Internet Archive,” can be a priceless
seeing you as smart, educated, and discerning. timesaver and resource. And there’s
no better way to get pointed in the
Avoid Quoting Standard Dictionaries right direction than to discuss your
One sure way to cause almost any instructor research with someone who knows
or educated reader to question your creden- information sources inside and out.
tials is to begin your paper with the following: A chat with a reference librarian will
“According to Webster’s dictionary, the word also help you narrow down an overly
_______ means . . .” broad or unfocused topic.
There are a number of reasons for not quot-
ing a dictionary.

• Readers have their own dictionaries.

• Most dictionary definitions are not precise enough to be helpful.
• Dictionary definitions are descriptive and not prescriptive.
• You can write a better definition.
• Scholarly definitions are superior.
• Quoting a dictionary is a red flag.
• Ask each of these questions in turn.

The aforementioned reasons confirm that quoting a dictionary actually will weaken your
paper, not strengthen it.

2.3 Search Strategies
When starting a research project, there is sometimes a temptation to sit down at a com-
puter, bring up your favorite search tool, and type in the first word or phrase that occurs to
you. Let’s take a few minutes to look at a better way of finding relevant and high-quality
sources.
22 Using Sources Effectively

Consider the Variety of Sources

The first task before you begin any research on your topic is to consider what a source
is, where sources may be located, and which sources are likely to provide you with the
answers or information that you want. Let us ask each of these questions in turn.
First, what is an information source? A source can indeed be a Web page you found by
googling your search topic, but there are many other kinds of sources. As Table 2.1 indi-
cates, not all sources are available electronically. Some are physical, such as books on a
library shelf, and some are even alive and human, as in a lecturer or interviewee. A source
can be any person or thing that supplies you with information.
Next, where are sources located? Because information is so readily available in the
twenty-first century, you may be tempted to “find it online” and ignore any source that
cannot be found through a computer search. However, as Table 2.1 indicates, sources can
be found in a number of places. Depending on the nature of your topic, you might want
to make use of library card catalogs, library stacks, bookstores, museums, art galleries,
lectures, phone interviews, or photographic or video archives.
Which sources are likely to provide you with the answers or information that you want?
Before you begin your research, take at least a few minutes to write a description of the
kind of information for which you are looking. Then ask yourself, where is this information
found? Some sources, such as refereed journal articles, will provide expert information and
the analysis of experiments. Other sources, such as Weblogs (blogs) will provide raw data
for analysis and commentary. Even old and out-of-date books can be useful if you are look-
ing for information about the spirit of the era or a particular era’s concerns and attitudes.
Now that you are ready to go forth and find some sources, consider this hard-won rule
from the research trenches: KEEP TRACK OF YOUR SEARCHES.

Keep Track of Your Searches

You have probably heard that irritating saying, “There’s never time to do it right the first
time, but there’s always time to do it over.” In order to avoid quoting this to yourself because
you have to repeat a search that you did not record, keep careful track of the searches that
you perform, together with the results. Setting up a tracking log in a spreadsheet or even a
word processing document will make organizing things very easy.
Items to include in your log are these:

• project name (your subject or working title)

• date (when you searched a database)
• database name
• search phrase (the words you searched on, including any Boolean operators)
• results (What was the result, and what did you do?)
• notes (names of articles saved, plans for another search, etc.)

Looking Online
The computer has certainly made researching easier with the availability of many online
databases containing articles from peer-reviewed or refereed journals, not to mention the
 Finding, Choosing, and Evaluating Sources 23

enormous amount of information available on the general World Wide Web. However,
an important caution about searching online must be raised. When you click on a link in
the search results and a Web site or document appears on your screen, you must take a
moment to evaluate at what you are looking. An article filled with half-truths, misunder-
standings, and exaggerations can look the same as—or even better than—an article from
a well-respected encyclopedia or scholarly journal. A sophisticated-looking Web site can
create the simulation of authority when, in fact, it has little or none. That old proverb about
not judging a book by its cover has new use in its updated form:

Do not judge an information source by its design.

Phrase the Search Terms Effectively

Whenever you use an electronic database—library card catalog, professional database,
such as ProQuest, or a search tool for the Web itself—how you phrase your search will
have a dramatic effect on the results you get. Follow the advice here to create the best pos-
sible search strings:

• Know how the search tool works. Most search tools have a Help page that describes
how to perform a simple search and an advanced search. For online databases, it is
critical that you identify whether the search tool is applying terms such as the title, the
author, the abstract, or the full text of the article. Taking some time to read the search
tool’s Help page is always worthwhile.
• Find out which Boolean operators the tool uses. For advanced searchers, you will want
to create search strings of somewhat more sophistication than a single word or phrase.
Search phrases are constructed by combining search terms with Boolean operators.
Table 2.2 shows the most common of these operators and the effect that they have on
a search result. Note that some search tools use other operators. Google, for example,
parses the plus sign (+) before a word to mean that the word must be included some-
where on the page in order for the result to be generated.
• Boolean tip: As Table 2.2 shows, the AND operator restricts or narrows the search,
while the OR operator expands or widens the search. Be careful not to get these
backwards.

Table 2.2 Boolean Operators

Operator Example Returns Results With
AND depression AND dopamine both terms, none with only one of the terms
OR Splenda OR sucralose either term or both terms
NOT Washington NOT George Washington except those with George
NEAR flu NEAR vaccine the terms within a set number of words of each other
ADJ word ADJ root the terms adjacent (next to each other) in either order
24 Using Sources Effectively

• Remember to include the word variants. The exact word form or phrase might not
appear in article that otherwise could be useful, although a form of the word or phrase
might. Many search tools make this easier by allowing wildcard searches, where a wild-
card symbol stands in for one or more other letters. Two commonly used wildcards are
the asterisk (*) and question mark (?). For example, with a wildcard, a search gold plat*
will return pages with such phrases as gold plated, gold plating, and gold plate on them.
Other words variants that can be used in your search include fused words (e.g., email,
e-mail) and alternative spellings (e.g., British and American variations [humour, humor]).
• Do not forget synonyms. A synonym is a word with a meaning similar to (not necessar-
ily exactly the same as) another word. For example, illegal and unlawful are synonyms
and could be used when searching for sources related to the topic “The Illegal Use of
Consumer Lasers.” The author could have used either illegal use or unlawful use, so both
terms should be explored. A synonym dictionary is helpful if you want to find alternate
search terms. Once you have located a few sources, you will find more synonyms that
can be used to expand your search. Of course, formal synonyms (insane, mentally ill)
should be preferred over informal ones (crazy).
• Try related terms. Related terms are words connected to a subject but not synonymous
with each other. For example, if you are searching for information about autism spec-
trum disorder (ASD), you might search on the related term ASD.
• Explore the Ladder of Generalization. Words exist along a continuum of specific to gen-
eral. The more specific, the smaller the group of things covered by the word. For exam-
ple, if you search the term weather, you will return far more hits than if you search the
more specific term rain. If you are getting too many hits with your search terms, move
down the ladder of generalization and use more specific terms. Or, if you are getting too
few hits, move up the ladder to more general terms.

Go Beyond the Internet

Even though you may be tempted to get all your research information from a Web search,
you should expand your efforts. Although the Web does contain billions of pages of infor-
mation, much of it valuable, it still represents a limited source. You will get a much better
and more professional picture of your subject by including non-Web sources, especially
books and scholarly articles, in your research. You will also develop much better research-
ing skills.
You can perform some beyond-the-Web searching from your computer. Ask a reference
librarian which electronic databases are available to you. These databases, such as Pro-
Quest, InfoTrac, EBSCO Host, and JSTOR, feature full-text articles from printed journals.
Many public libraries also have some of these databases available to patrons, often acces-
sible from home.
The full text of thousands of books is also available online from various sources (perform
a Web search on the phrase “full text books” to find some of these sites). Even though
these older books that are out of copyright, they include such classics as The Federal-
ist Papers, Adam Smith’s The Wealth of Nations, Charles Dickens’s Great Expectations,
Auguste Comte’s A General View of Positivism, and many others still useful and pertinent
to various research projects.
 Finding, Choosing, and Evaluating Sources 25

2.4 Using and Abusing Internet Sources

The Internet is an amazing source of information, ranging in quality and credibility from
excellent to horrific. When you sit down to search the Web, the first thing to remember is
that not all information is created equal. Your goal is not merely to find some pages that
include your search terms but to find accurate and reliable information from reputable
sources. Cut-and-run searching, where a student grabs whatever comes up on the first
page of results, usually produces poor-quality papers. It also teaches students little about
the research process.

Search for Reliable Sites

As you will see later in Section 2.5, one of the indicators of the quality of information is the
source. We tend to believe those who have knowledge and experience in a subject over
those who are expressing the opinion of the day. It is reasonable, then, that organizations
specializing in a subject are likely to have better information than a Web page posted by an
individual. To begin your topic search, rather than typing in a search phrase and seeing what
pages come up, start by looking for sites (that is, organizations) related to your topic. A prof-
itable way to do this is to use your favorite search tool, such as Google or Ask or Yahoo, to
type in your topic followed by one of these words: institute, association, forum, foundation,
institution. For example, if you will be writing about peace and conflict in the Middle East,
typing in middle east institute will return a number of organizations dealing with the Mid-
dle East. Try your search topic with each of the other words to locate more organizations.

Looking Deeply into the Results

It is true that the major search engines are constantly tweaking their secret methods of
ranking pages so that the best pages appear earliest in the results. However, unlike direc-
tories, search engines use computer-based formulas to do the ranking, so many times, the
pages that you want will be well after the first 10 to 20 displayed by the search tool. Good
advice is to (1) craft your search phrase carefully, (2) use more than one phrase, and (3)
take the time to look at the first 100 to 200 hits for each query. (Looking at 200 hits might
seem excessive, but it does not take as long as you might think.) You can set some of the
search engines to return 50 to 100 hits on each page, making scrolling through a large
number much more efficient.

Understand the Context of Individual Pages

When you perform a general Web search, do not just grab a page that looks good and use
it in your paper. Take some time to discover the context of the page. Try backing up your
browser one directory at a time by cutting off each previous directory to see from what
larger site the page comes. (Note: If you have a Google toolbar installed in your browser,
you can click the Web Up button to go back one folder with each click.)
It may be useful to look at the root Web site of the information, also. On the home page
of the root site, you will often find an About link that will give you some information about
the site and its purpose. This link may be helpful as you judge the site’s quality.
26 Using Sources Effectively

Remember, too, that blog postings range in

quality from the word of experts to groundless Sidebar 2.5 Follow the Links
rantings to intentional falsehoods designed
for good or ill (e.g., stock price manipula- Use quality information to find other
tion) to plagiarized pieces of writings of oth- quality information. When you locate
ers. Be very careful to assess the quality of a site or article that you find valuable
such sources before you make use of them. and credible, visit the links from there
This caution includes all forms of artificial to the other information. Not all links
intelligence. are credible recommendations, of
course, but if a site that you find valu-
Use the Invisible Web able includes a recommended link,
then there is a good possibility for
A substantial amount of information posted
finding more useful and reliable infor-
on the Web is not indexed by the search
engines. To get to this information, on the mation related to your topic.
invisible or deep Web, you must go directly
to the various sites that host the information.
The extra effort needed to access this information is rewarded by the fact that this informa-
tion is usually high in quality.
To get access to this restricted information, perform a typical Web browser search on the
following terms:

• “invisible web”
• “deep web”
• “invisible web databases”
• “how to search the invisible web”
• “hidden web”
• “locate invisible web databases”
• “deep web research databases”

Why is most of the Internet hidden behind security? Many sites want users to join (often
free) before accessing their content. The reasons vary:

• The site might have a “no robots” command on its pages, preventing search engines
from indexing them.
• The site might be hidden behind a password setup, so you will need to join first. The
good news is that many of these sites are free.
• The site maintains a huge database and its owners do not want to show their information
to just anyone.

2.5 Evaluating Sources
Implied earlier is the idea that sources should be examined for quality before using them.
As more and more information becomes available, the range in quality—from treasure
to trash—seems to be growing wider. It is increasingly important, then, to apply some
 Finding, Choosing, and Evaluating Sources 27

effective criterial to the evaluation of each potential source that you encounter. Here is one
set, known as the EAR test, for Expertise, Accuracy, and Reliability.

Expertise
The first check of a source should relate to the author’s credentials. Is the author an author-
ity in the area, an expert, through education, experience, or both? If not, is the author at
least well informed about the area and aware of all the relevant issues? If there is a corpo-
rate author, is the organization widely respected or an authority? Does the way the author
handles the subject indicate a knowledgeable, reasonable, and careful thinker? Often, an
institutional affiliation will indicate an expert source. For example, a page on the Web site
of a chemical manufacturer describing how to mix ingredients to make shampoo should
be highly authoritative.

The expertise test: Is there evidence that the source knows the subject?

Accuracy
The next check of a source should relate to accuracy, which includes two parts. First is
the currency of the information. Is the information up-to-date? In some areas (e.g., tech-
nology, business), information becomes outdated rapidly. In other areas (e.g., some his-
torical work and literary scholarship), the information remains accurate for long periods.
Outdated information can be worse than no information because it can be misleading.
Check the date of the source and the date of the information in the source to be sure that
the information is recent enough for your needs. For example, there was once a concern
that LCD televisions could not respond to fast motion quickly enough, resulting in smear-
ing. Reviews of LCD TVs reflected this concern. Today, after many generations of LCD TVs,
that concern has long been resolved as much faster refresh rates have eliminated smearing.
However, some of the older reviews are still online, presenting outdated information.
The second part of accuracy relates to correctness: Are the facts right, are the essential
details present, is the presentation unbiased, and is the whole picture presented? Be careful
of sources that describe everything in sweeping generalizations and that lack details.

The accuracy test: Is the information correct today?

A note on biased sources: There are many areas of controversy, not just in politics, reli-
gion, and philosophy but in science and social science as well, where at least some of
your sources will be somewhat or even highly biased. You can use biased sources, as long
as you are aware of the bias and seek out opposing viewpoints (which may be biased as
well). However, sources that argue for a controversial position while ignoring conflicting
evidence or arguments should be used cautiously because failure to acknowledge and
respond to opposing viewpoints can imply a less than honest argument.
28 Using Sources Effectively

Reliability
The reliability test begins with a look at the source’s documentation (e.g., bibliography) to
see whether the information is well supported. Some sources will have little documenta-
tion because the material is a reasoned argument or a report on an original study or empiri-
cal investigation. Usually, though, there will be at least some indication of what other
books and articles were utilized by the authors and what recommendations that they have
for further reading.

Critical Tip
Do not automatically believe something just because:

• You have heard it often

• It has been around a long time
• It is new
• One study says it is true

Another part of the reliability test concerns how well the information in the source corre-
lates with information in other sources. Corroboration—one source supporting or agreeing
with another—is one way to test the credibility of information. The belief is that in matters
of fact or data-based conclusions, a source that agrees with other sources is more likely to
be correct than a source that does not agree. A good practice, then, is to triangulate your
sources: Find three sources that agree on important information. This test is not infallible,
for the three sources could all be wrong and the fourth, conflicting source, could be cor-
rect. Nevertheless, the test is generally a good guideline.

The reliability test: Is the Information supported by other sources?

Evaluating your sources can be challenging.

However, as I mentioned in the first chapter Sidebar 2.6 E-A-R Test
(Section 1.2), working with sources improves
your ability to “analyze what you are read- E =
The expertise test: Is there evi-
ing.” In other words, the more research and dence that the source knows the
writing that you do, the better that you will subject?
become at evaluating the source material that A=T  he accuracy test: Is the informa-
you find. You will develop what some have tion correct today?
called a “Baloney Detector,” an almost intui- R = The reliability test: Is the informa-
tive sense that will allow you to sniff out the tion supported by other sources?
less reliable sources from the more reliable.
So do not confine yourself to the evaluation
process outlined here. Devise your own system.
 Finding, Choosing, and Evaluating Sources 29

Review Questions
To see how well that you understand this chapter, attempt to answer each of the following
questions without referring to the text. (Write down your answers to make checking easier.)
Then check your answers with the text. If you missed something important, add that infor-
mation to your answer.

1. What is the Ladder of Generalization? Give some examples to clarify.

2. In addition to facts, what other kinds of information will be useful to include in a
research paper?
3. Distinguish between primary and secondary sources. Give examples.
4. How does quoting a standard dictionary definition weaken a paper?
5. What are some techniques for locating high-quality information on the Internet?
6. Explain the importance of evaluating sources.

Questions for Thought and Discussion

See Teacher’s Edition and Online Version.

Mini-Research Projects: Source Evaluation Models

You might call these projects “Use the Web to Test the Web,” although they go beyond that.
This chapter provided you with a brief rubric for evaluating the sources that you locate. For
this project, you will find some other source evaluation strategies.

1. Perform a Google or Bing search on “source evaluation,” and examine at least half a
dozen models. Choose one to evaluate. What are its strengths, and what areas could be
improved?
2. Choose three examples from your search earlier, and create your own source evalu-
ation strategy by blending the best ideas from each of the three examples. Be sure to
include a reference, crediting the three sources. Now test your new strategy on one of
your sources.
3. Perform a Google or Bing search on “source evaluation worksheet,” and examine the
top ten or so briefly. Choose three for closer examination. Then choose two to fill out.
Using one of your sources as the test case, write a brief (50–100 words) review of the
worksheet, describing the usefulness.
4. From the ten or so worksheets at which you looked, create your own evaluation work-
sheet. Test it on one of your sources.

A Little Rhetoric: Anaphora

Anaphora (pronounced un-NAF-or-u) is a simple but effective device used for emphasis.
The device involves repeating the same word or words at the beginning of several sen-
tences or phrases. The repeated words draw attention to themselves, and that makes for a
memorable thought.
30 Using Sources Effectively

Example 2.1R.1
A. The effort to switch the public from energy-wasting incandescent light bulbs to the
highly efficient LED bulbs has so far not used the best strategy: incentivize the manu-
facturers with tax credits, incentivize businesses with tax deductions, and incentivize
consumers by subsidizing bulb costs.
B. Throughout the second chapter, Doe (2014) continues to propose that fees on all forms
of identification be eliminated. He wants free driver’s licenses, free passports, and free
senior ID cards.
C. According to Doe (2015), the so-called “train to nowhere” is a poor idea because, as he
claims, no one lives there, no one wants to ride it, and even if they did, no one could
afford the ticket.
D. Countering Doe, however, Abruster (2016) asserts that the project is worthwhile because,
as he says, we desperately need employment opportunities in the area, we desperately
need economic developmet in the region, and we desperately need an optimistic vision
for the state.

Anaphora can be use with effect to hammer away demanding questions that begin with the
same who, why, how, when, what, or where.

Example 2.1R.2
A. Zithrop (2015) demands to know why such a glaring error slipped by, why it has only
now been remedied, and why the remedy costs so much.
B. We now know what happened, but some questions remain: Who ordered the transfer
of funds? Who carried out the transaction itself? And who failed to notice the unusual
activity?
C. But what comes next? What should we expect? Or what should we take as our own
responsibility?

Now You Try

1. Create an example of anaphora using a key word to emphasize an idea of your own.
2. Create an anaphora that reflects the ideas of a source.
3. Create an example of anaphora using “artificial intelligence” as your key word. Articu-
late questions that begin with your choice of who, how, when, what, or where.
4. Create two additional examples of anaphora that use your choice of who, how, when,
what, or where.
3 Preparing Your Sources

Abstract
This chapter provides some helpful advice about organizing your research and taking
notes in a way that will prevent confusion later. A good note-taking system and careful
recording of citations will make writing the research paper much easier. Also in this chap-
ter is advice about steps that you can take to avoid—or defend yourself against—a false
charge of plagiarism.

You can’t make the soup until you chop the carrots.
—Proverb

In this chapter, you will learn to work with the sources that you have selected to prepare
them for use in your paper. In the reading and note-taking phase of your research project,
you should begin to identify which information that you want to use in your paper. As you
read and think about each source that you have selected, take notes about important points
and then choose passages for possible quotation, paraphrase, or summary.

The learning objectives of Chapter 3 are as follows:

a. To collect sources carefully

b. To organize selected sources well
c. To implement close reading as a means to understand sources
d. To take careful notes
e. To synthesize ideas, facts, and opinions into an organized discussion

3.1 Collecting Sources
Potentially, the most frustrating part of writing a research paper is losing track of a source.
You may have a great quotation that brilliantly sums up your major point, only to discover
that you have lost the record of where you found it. Or you may have the source, but note
that you neglected to write down the entire bibliographical entry meaning another trip to
the library or another search on the database. These oversights are all too common. Listen to the
voice of experience, and save yourself much effort by following the guidelines in S­ idebar 3.1.

DOI: 10.4324/9781032643779-3
32 Using Sources Effectively

Save Your Sources

Sidebar 3.1 Keeping Track of
As you locate each potentially useful source,
Sources
make a personal copy of it. Articles from
printed books or journals can be scanned • Save your sources.
and saved to a file; articles from the Web or • Get the full, exact bibliographic
electronic databases can be saved in a file on information the first time.
your computer as well. The doctrine of fair • Save the way back.
use under United States copyright law allows
you to make a copy of a copyrighted article
for personal use in scholarly work, such as
writing a research paper.
Why should you save your sources? See the reasons later.

• A copy keeps the context. A full copy of an article or section of a book lets you see the
quotation or information in context. As you think through the information, the context
may cause you to rethink your initial interpretation.
• A copy is a handy source. You can return to the source easily any time you want. You will
not need to look it up again or revisit the library or face a “down for maintenance” mes-
sage from the database. As you write your paper, new ideas or change in a direction of
your central idea might cause you to return to the source and use something different or
additional. The convenience of having the source always at hand cannot be overstated.
• A copy can be annotated. If you still use actual paper and print articles out, you can
write notes, highlight passages, fold down corners, or whatever else helps you process
and use the source. Even if you stay all-electronic and never print out anything, you can
still annotate your copies. If you saved a Web article, you can write directly on it, if you
are careful enough to keep clear the difference between our writing and the text of the
article itself. Locked PDF files can be annotated by using two windows: one for the arti-
cle and the other for the word processing software (e.g., Microsoft Word, Google Doc)
that you use. With the files next to each other, make a note of the paragraph or sentence
(type in the first three words in quotation marks), and write your comments in the word
processor.
• A copy is an easy reference. Just before submitting your paper, you can double-check
the accuracy of the quotations, the spelling of names or technical terms, and the correct-
ness of numbers and other information. Use the Find command to locate each quoted
passage, and compare it to your use of the source.
• Copies might be required. Some instructors require annotated copies of sources to be
submitted with rough drafts or with the final draft of the research paper.
• Copies can help establish authorship. Source copies (especially marked-up source cop-
ies) provide evidence that will help defend you in the event that you are falsely accused
of plagiarism.

Get the Full, Exact Bibliographic Information the First Time

This advice seems to be obvious. However, experience shows that many times, especially
with journal articles, students write down only the pages from which they quote and
neglect to write down the beginning and ending pages (as in 126–142) required for the
 Preparing Your Sources 33

Works Cited or References page. The result is

that these students must look up the source Sidebar 3.1a Doi Versus Url
again, making another trip to the library or
duplicating a search on a database. A DOI is a digital object identifier, a
Similarly, it is too common to miss the cop- string of numbers, letters, and words
yright date of books (usually on the reverse that form a permanent identification
side of the title page) and the volume number for a book, article, or other “digital
or even the title of a journal. This omission is object.” The DOI 10.1371/journal.
especially common if you are working with pmed.0020124 belongs to an article in
printed books and journals. Scan or carefully an online medical journal. This article
type in the necessary information. also has a URL (uniform resource loca-
tor). So what’s the difference? A DOI
Save the Way Back is like a Social Security number. Each
If you do not want to save an article from the person has a unique SSN, and each
Web or online database, at least keep a record source that has a DOI has a unique
of how to return to it. If the source has a URL one, forever referring to the same per-
or a DOI, record it. If the source has both, son or source. On the other hand, a
use the DOI (see Sidebar 3.1a, earlier). If you URL is like a residence address. Just as
have your own computer, you can bookmark an address might be correct today but
the URL. Always test the bookmark to be sat- different tomorrow when someone
isfied that it will return you to the same page moves, so a source on the Web can
that you intended. move when a site updates or changes.
Moreover, the same source article
• Do not use the URL from Web shorten-
ing services ([Link], TinyURL, [Link], etc.). might have several URLs because of
These shortening services use URLs that copying. The bottom line is to prefer
are redirected addresses rather than the the DOI if a source has both it and a
actual address of the source page. URL. You do not need both.
• Do not rely on the URL on a printed Web
source. Many actual addresses are too long
for the space allocated on a page, so they are truncated on the print-out. Copy the full
URL from the address bar.

Photographs, graphics, charts, tables, drawings, and other visual information taken from the
Web present a special problem because, when you save them to a file as individual graphic
files, the URLs are not included. Take care, therefore, to note the URL of the graphic when
you save it. A good practice is to save the page or article containing the graphic so that you
have both the graphic in context and the URL of the source page. At the least, paste each
graphic into a word processing file and include the URL of the source beneath the graphic.
You also may want to include some notes explaining the significance of the graphic and
how you plan to use it in your paper.

3.2 Keep Sources Organized

Create a folder for your research project and include subfolders for each source. Choose
two places for these folders so that you will have a backup of all your materials. Choose
34 Using Sources Effectively

places of the most reliability and security, such as your computer’s hard drive, the school’s
network drive, and the cloud. Avoid less secure places, such as USB thumb drives (easily
lost) and CD-ROMs (also easily misplaced).
As you read through your sources and begin to see where they might be used in your
paper, you might add additional subfolders for each section and save the files there. You
can use a single subfolder for the various drafts that you create—remember to save under
a new file name each substantially changed draft—or you can create a separate subfolder
for each.
One benefit of saving to file those sources that are available electronically is that you
can copy and paste your quotations from the file version of an article, guaranteeing that the
quotation will be exact. It is all too easy to miss a word (like not) or to skip a line when typ-
ing out a quotation from a source. An additional advantage of a file version of the informa-
tion is that you can highlight a section of the source and then add a bracketed note in the
file, indicating where in your paper you used the information. For example, “[This section
quoted in the second paragraph on Mnemonics].”
Be sure that your paper includes an accurate reference to the source for each
copy-and-pasted quotation.

Start a Bibliography
Rather than jot down haphazardly the author and title of each work that you have located,
start your bibliography with the first work that you find. You will eventually need to create
a Works Cited page for an MLA-style paper or a References page for an APA-style paper, so
you would show wisdom to begin now. Enter the first source in the proper format, and add
each new source to it as you find it.

Caution: Do not trust the citations given on the Web. These citations are often not
accurate. You can use them as a guide, but always check your citations using an MLA-
or APA-style manual.

The running bibliography serves you in

several ways. First, it helps you to keep track Sidebar 3.2 Reference Management
of all of your sources in one place for quick, Software
easy reference. It will immediately answer
questions such as, “Did I already look at this Now available is software that will
source?” “Was the study by Jenkins published help you to keep track of sources and
before or after the experiment by Smervits?” notes, create the proper in-text cita-
or even “Am I drawing too much [or too lit- tions and bibliographies, and even
tle] on Web [or book or journal] sources, or organize your papers. There are more
in some other way not meeting the research than a dozen such applications, some
requirements for the paper?” downloadable, some Web-based, and
Another benefit to keeping an up-to-date some plug-ins. To find them, search on
bibliography is that it is much easier to enter “free reference management software.”
each new source, alphabetically and in proper HOWEVER, SEE CAUTION EARLIER.
format, one at a time than to locate, organize,
 Preparing Your Sources 35

and enter the entire dozen or two or three sources at the end of your project, when some
early references might be buried somewhere—or missed altogether.

3.3 Use Close Reading to Understand Your Sources

Close reading is the process of carefully engaging what you read in order to find its full
meaning and implications. Close reading is critically important because a careless mistake
can ruin the impact of your use of the source and even jeopardize your entire research
paper. For example, a source might make a sarcastic comment or summarize the thinking
of those on the opposite side of an issue. If you are rushing through the source or just not
paying sufficient attention, you could end up asserting that the source believes the oppo-
site of what is actually the case. Here are some guidelines to help you with your reading
and understanding of sources:

What Is the Purpose of the Information?

Was the book or article written to inform, argue for, or attack a position; present the results
of an experiment; clear up a misconception; or summarize an issue? Many of the sources
that you encounter will do more than one of these things, but they will almost always do
so in the process of advancing a central idea (thesis) in the form of an argument. The argu-
ment will marshal reasons and evidence in favor of some idea and in rebuttal of arguments
against that idea.
For this step, you want to clarify and understand what the source’s author is doing:

• Why did the writer create this information?

• What is the specific subject the writer is addressing?
• What is the central point the writer wants to get across?
• In favor of what is the writer arguing?
• Against what is the writer arguing?
• How would you summarize the source in a single sentence?

What Is the Level of Objectivity?

Some of your sources might be biased; using slanting, emotive language; selective statis-
tics; and so on. As long as you recognize and can control for the bias, you still might want
to use the source. It is important, though, to recognize the bias so that you will be able to
deal with it.

• What can you learn about the author or the author’s affiliation that might indicate either
objectivity or bias?
• Based on your other research sources, is this source being fair, or is there evidence of
bias by what is included and what is omitted?

Analyze the Argument

Once you know the purpose, you can analyze the source’s presentation for effectiveness.

• What are the reasons and evidences given to support this position?
• What are the reasons and evidences given to rebut the opponents?
36 Using Sources Effectively

• Does the writer use specific terms and clear examples?

• How convincing is the writer’s argument?
• How strong or weak are the reasons and evidence? Why?
• Are you convinced that the writer has established the truth or believability of the central
argument?

Notice the Images and Analogies

Much writing—scholarly writing included—communicates at more than just the surface,
literal level. It often contains both stated ideas and implied ideas. In other words, there is
a subtext that reflects the writer’s attitude and values. A subtext can be present through the
metaphors and analogies the writer uses.
For example, if a writer says, “I really don’t care if the organization continues to grow
like a pus-filled sore on the face of society,” the negative image reveals that the writer
really does care and, in fact, certainly hopes the organization would cease growing.

Check Word Meanings for Accuracy

When Jane Austen published the novel Pride and Prejudice in 1813, she included this sen-
tence: “Fatigued as she had been by the morning’s walk, they had no sooner dined than she
set off again in quest of her former acquaintance, and the evening was spent in the satisfac-
tions of an intercourse renewed after any years’ discontinuance” (Chapter 21).
Now, a reader who did not know that, in 1813, intercourse meant communication (i.e.,
talking) might conceivably be offended, or at least wondering what Jane was thinking by
introducing racy elements into her otherwise very reserved tone. Similarly, when King
George told Christopher Wren in 1711 that the architect’s design was “awful” and “artifi-
cial,” Wren was elated because those were great compliments (awful meaning “filling one
with awe” and artificial meaning “containing high art”).
Point One here, then, is that words can change meaning over time. Point Two is that
words can change meaning from country to country, region to region (e.g., a gopher in
Florida is a tortoise, and in California, is a rodent), and even from writer to writer. Be care-
ful, then, to understand what the writer means when using words whose definition is sig-
nificant for the argument. Watch out for these issues:

• A word might be unclear and lack a definition from the writer. For example, “All employ-
ees must do their fair share of work” leaves unclear how the writer defines fair share.
• A word might change meaning during the course of the argument. For example, at the
outset, the writer might say, “If we are to continue selling this new product, it must be a
success in the marketplace.” Then, toward the end of the article, it might say, “The prod-
uct has been and will be a continued success because it is popularly recognized, even
though sales are weak.” Here, the early use of the word success is connected to the idea
of sales volume (i.e., “success in the marketplace”). At the end, success means name
recognition (i.e., popularly recognized) rather than sales. Such a switching of meaning
is known as the fallacy of equivocation.
• The writer may use words in an idiosyncratic way, where the words mean what the writer
wants them to mean rather than what a general reader would understand. For example,
 Preparing Your Sources 37

a writer who uses the word assaulted to mean “physically or verbally attacked” at the
very least combines two different understandings of the word not normally combined.
Using words that have a personal or unusual definition that readers do not necessarily
share can result in confusion.

So What?
In your writing classes, you might have been told that a good way to conclude a paper is
to answer the question, “So what?” That is, after you have brilliantly argued your thesis that
skunks make excellent pets, so what? What is your reader to do now that you have made
such a convincing argument? Similarly, ask yourself what your source expects you to do as
a result of reading the information. Take some action? Change or modify a belief? Add the
new knowledge to your general store of knowledge?

What Is Each Source Saying?

The first step in doing anything with your sources is to read them carefully and understand
what they mean—that is, what central idea (thesis) are they presenting? Is a given source
promoting, defending, or attacking an idea? If you skim or read too fast, you might misun-
derstand the sources’ positions, and that will cause difficulties when you incorporate them
into your paper. See Table 3.1 for logical signals that help reveal meaning.
Use this two-step process for interpreting each source that you find:

• What does it say? In this step, make sure that you understand:
• the definition of all the words
• the structure of each sentence
• the relevance of reasons, or the evidence
• the logic of the argument
• the writer’s tone: calm, rational, sarcastic, angry
• any use of fallacies: emotive language, selection, slanting, hasty generalization
• the central idea being presented

Table 3.1 Logical Signals

Word or Phrase Meaning
because for this reason Offering a reason or evidence to
for the reason that as evidenced by support a proposition
on account of due to the fact that
therefore consequently Presenting a conclusion that fol-
it follows that thus hence lows discussion
as a result
however at the same time Offering a contrast to or conflict
nevertheless on the other hand with previous remarks
still though this may be
38 Using Sources Effectively

• What does it mean? Here, you need to look at the context of each sentence to determine
whether the author is:
• making an assertion
• using an image (metaphor, simile)
• making a comparison (analogy)
• summarizing a point but not necessarily agreeing with an idea
• summarizing or paraphrasing a point in the process of attacking it

3.4 Take Careful Notes

A major source of confusion, inaccuracy—and sometimes plagiarism—lies in careless or
improper note-taking practices. Students who include quotations, summaries, paraphrases,
and their own analyses in their reading notes, without clearly distinguishing among those
different kinds of information, create difficulties for themselves. If you have not already had
the experience, you will be surprised how confusing notes can be once you leave them for
a day or two and come back to work with them—unless you practice careful note-taking
behavior. Following are some suggestions that will enable you to take careful notes.

Use a Labeling System

Make use of a system for labeling the various kinds of notes you type up: quotations, com-
ments by you, paraphrases, or summaries. Then, when you are making notes as you read a
book or an article, apply the technique as you read. The goal is to distinguish clearly what
each note represents. These distinctions will also enable you to work more quickly because
the meaning of each note will always be clear.

• Include the full bibliographic citation at the beginning of your notes so that subsequent
reference can be by author and page number or some other shortened format. See
Examples 3.4.1 and 3.4.2 in the next section.

CAUTION
Remember not to trust the citation provided on the Web for the articles and books
that you use. Always check the given citation against the stylebook required by your
professor.

• Label quotations with the symbol “++Q++” or other distinguishing mark. And, of
course, use quotation marks around every quotation, and include a citation. This prac-
tice includes long quotations that might not require quotation marks in the actual paper.
• Label paraphrases with the symbol ++P++ or other distinguishing mark. When you use
your own words for the text of a source, at a later time, you may confuse them for your
own ideas unless clearly labeled. Be sure to include the citation.
• Label summaries with the symbol “++S++” or other distinguishing mark. Summaries
reduce the material to a shorter form in your own words, so they are even more likely
than paraphrases to be confused with your own work unless they are clearly labeled.
Once again, remember to include a citation.
 Preparing Your Sources 39

• Label your own ideas with the symbol “++Mine++” or other distinguishing mark or sym-
bol. When you add commentary, analysis, or simply write down an idea that occurred
to you as you read, circle that writing and attach a label. Your ideas are valuable. Pro-
tect them.
• The labeling system you use can be your own, and it can use any letters or symbols
(or colors or fonts) that you want, as long as you are consistent and is meaningful
to you.

Example 3.4.1

Sample Notes
Quoted text with bibliographic citation: book APA style (*checked manual for accuracy)
Doe, J. (2024). Tracking subatomic particles. New York: Physics Press.
++Quote++ “The question remains: Are quarks the fundamental building blocks of matter, or is
there something smaller?” middle of page 261
++Q++ “There are perhaps 100 quintillion atoms in a grain of sand, and yet matter is mostly
space.” very bottom of page 144
Quoted text with bibliographic citation: book, MLA style (*checked manual for accuracy)
Doe, Josephine. Tracking Subatomic Particles. Physics Press, 2024.
++Quote++ “The question remains: Are quarks the fundamental building blocks of matter, or is
there something smaller?” middle of page 261
++Q++ “There are perhaps 100 quintillion atoms in a grain of sand, and yet matter is mostly
space.” very bottom of page 144

Example 3.4.2

Sample Notes
Quoted text with bibliographic citation: article APA style (*checked manual for accuracy)
Doe, J. (2021). A new test for blood evidence. Journal of Forensic Science, 22, 265–274. https://
[Link]/10.7860/JQ47202 (DOI or URL)
++Quote++ “The use of luminol can be problematic because it can produce false positives for
blood and damage real blood.” Three lines from bottom of page 266
Quoted text with bibliographic citation: article MLA style (*checked manual for accuracy)
Doe, Josephine. “A New Test for Blood Evidence.” Journal of Forensic Science, vol. 22, 2021,
pp. 265–274. [Link] (DOI or URL)
++Quote++ “The use of luminol can be problematic because it can produce false positives for
blood and damage real blood.” Three lines from bottom of page 266
Comment: Note that the bibliographic citation for the article includes the beginning and
ending page numbers of the article.
Another way to distinguish among quotations, paraphrases, summaries, and your own
thinking is to use different fonts, text colors, or highlighting. If you plan to print your paper
at any point, remember that text colors and highlighting will not print on black-and-white
printers.
Remember: Not only do you want to be careful to identify and give credit to your sources
when you use them but you also want to be sure that you do not accidentally give your
source credit for your own thinking. Your ideas are important.
40 Using Sources Effectively

Quote Exactly
If you are working with physical documents, where you must transcribe the words by
handwriting, typing, or even scanning using optical character recognition software, there
is a chance for errors to enter the text. Even copying and pasting from an electronic source
can introduce errors, especially at the beginning and end of the quotation, because words
or punctuation marks are sometimes cut off. Double-check to assure that the text has been
copied accurately—that all the words, including proper names, are spelled correctly and
that no words have been left out. The word not is commonly left out when copying manu-
ally, and the loss of that word obviously has a critical effect on the meaning of a quotation.
Quoting exactly also means that you are not permitted to change the spelling of any
words in the source, even if that spelling is archaic, incorrect, or nonstandard. For exam-
ple, you may encounter British spellings such as humour, honour, or aluminium. In such
a case, follow the text. If there is an error in your source text, where a word has been left
out, do not silently correct the text. You may insert a missing word with brackets [like this].
In the situation where you encounter a typographical error, you must still quote the source
exactly and then indicate that you are indeed transcribing verbatim by adding the word sic
in brackets. See Chapter 4, Section 4.4 for additional information.

Keep a Quotation File

One of the most common reasons given for inadvertent plagiarism is “confusion in my
notes.” In other words, because of poor note-taking control, the writer mixed up quoted
material with the writer’s own words, and when it was time to draft the paper, the writer
was unable to see the difference, resulting in plagiarizing the quoted material.
A good way to help protect yourself from this problem is to keep a separate file for quo-
tations that you copy from electronic sources, such as the Web. When you use the quoted
material, copy it from your file and paste it into your paper (with appropriate citation, of
course). By doing that, if there is ever any question about the quotation (or paraphrase
or summary), you can look back at the original entry and compare that to what you have
written.
A separate file for each source makes organizing quotations easy, and it allows you to
enter the full bibliographic citation only once at the top of the file and then use a short ref-
erence in subsequent notes. (See the difference between Example 3.4.2 with a full citation
and Example 3.5.1 with a brief reference.)

Keep Copies of Each Source With Your Notes

Keep your reading notes in the same file as your copy of the source. That way, the source
is handy for further reference and for last minute triple-checking of the use of the source,
whether by quotation, summary, or paraphrase. The saved source includes the context of
the words around your quotation or other reference so that you can recheck that your inter-
pretation is based on an accurate understanding. Further research and thinking may also
lead you to use more of the source than you originally planned.
As you work with your sources and notes, do not delete anything. Keep copies of earlier
versions of your paper. If any confusion should arise—over what is a quotation and what
 Preparing Your Sources 41

is your own thinking, for example—you will have the earlier version available to you for
consultation and clarification. Early versions of notes may also be useful if you decide to
change direction in the paper. And, of course, a set of intermediate drafts will help protect
you from a false charge of plagiarism (see Section 3.6).

3.5 Positioning Your Sources

A major feature of the research paper is to synthesize all of the ideas, facts, and opinions
presented by your sources and combine them into an organized discussion. Every source
needs to be blended into the overall structure in a seamless whole. Synthesize, by the way,
comes from the root thesis, meaning “to pull,” and the prefix syn, meaning “together.” Lit-
erally, then, your task is to pull together the various sources into a coherent, logical discus-
sion. For an outstanding paper, it should appear that it is not just you doing the pulling but
your sources are pulling together along with you.
Sound difficult? It is. However, if you do the work described in this section—and do it
carefully—your research paper will practically arrange and write itself.

Purpose Indicators
Whether you put individual notes on note cards or in word processing files, a good strategy
is to indicate the category grouping or orientation of each note. That is, describe briefly
how the note (quotation, summary, paraphrase, your own comment) might fit into your
structure. Does the note provide background or contextual information, support a theory,
rebut a claim, provide statistics for or against a conclusion, or belong to a particular theo-
retical or interpretive camp? When you later assemble your sources for use, these grouping
labels and comments will enable you to arrange them more easily.
As your research progresses, you will begin to get a feel for how your sources might be
arranged. When you are far enough along, you can begin to add organizational comments
to your notes. See the bracketed comment in the example later, where the student has ten-
tatively suggested the connection between two sources.

Example 3.5.1

Sample Note
Johnson, “Asynchronous,” 334–45>>>PRO asynchronous
++S++ and ++Q++ Johnson believes that asynchronous interactions can be more beneficial to the
student than real-time (live or distant) ones because “many otherwise shy learners are embold-
ened by the protected arena of offline communication.” 345 [Put after Jackson’s criticism? Jack-
son, “Learning Modes,” 298]
++Mine++ Johnson focuses on student willingness to ask the professor questions in email but does
not cover threaded discussion groups. A weakness to his argument?
Comment:
In this sample note, the researcher identifies the source briefly (“Johnson, Asynchro-
nous”). The student keeps a running bibliography so that the full citation is not needed for
each note. The page numbers indicate the range of the article or book to which the student
42 Using Sources Effectively

is referring in the note (here, partially summarized and partially quoted, as the symbols
indicate). The marker <<<PRO asynchronous is a category grouping telling the researcher
that this note contains information that favors asynchronous learning. The bracketed com-
ment at the end is an early thought by the researcher about how the source might eventu-
ally fit into the paper. And the researcher’s own analysis or commentary is identified by
++Mine++ so that it is clearly distinguishable from the source.

Relationships of Sources
The sources that you incorporate into your paper must blend together in a coherent and
effective way. To help you with the blending process, identify the logical relationships
among the sources. How can they be synthesized? Table 3.2 contains a sampling of pos-
sible ways that one source can exist in relation to another or respond to another.
Often, however, the relationship among sources will be more like a matrix than a
one-to-one connection. In such cases, you might have a set of relationships such as these:

• Source A and Source B both support Source C, who is qualified by Source D and whose
idea is extended by Source E, leading you to infer idea X, which becomes support for
your central idea.
• Source F presents a powerful but vague statement that Source G defines and for which
Sources H and I provide clear examples.
• Source J presents a finding or interpretation that Source K criticizes strongly. Source L
finds some common ground, which Source M elaborates. Meanwhile, Source N argues
that J and K are both wrong and proposes another way. You draw a conclusion by sorting
out the claims of all these sources.

Create an Outline of Possible Source Uses

To make writing your paper much easier and to ensure that your sources enter the paper at
the right time, make a list or construct a diagram representing a plan for all of your sources

Table 3.2 Examples of Source Relationships

agrees disagrees comments on
supports contradicts offers an alternative
extends (gives counterargument) rebuts
provides supporting data gives refutes (proves wrong) offers a nuance
examples supporting gives a counterexample offers an analogy
concurs criticizes clarifies
acknowledges opposes reviews
applies successfully differs evaluates
provides additional reasons conflicts assesses
adds more evidence diverges interprets
replicates a study doubts qualifies
finds common ground questions harmonizes
 Preparing Your Sources 43

working together. Each entry in the plan should reflect the role that you want each source
to play in your presentation and when it should be incorporated. If you like military analo-
gies, your objective is to persuade your reader that your thesis is believable, your strategy
is to follow the overall plan that you have created, and your tactics involve presenting your
sources in order and by role. Table 3.3 provides an example of a list.
Relying on a plan like this simple outline of source uses will help you to visualize the
overall movement of your paper, which will allow you to see at a glance how well organ-
ized and how strong your argument is likely to be. More than that, you will get a good idea
of how your sources will be supporting you as you argue for your central idea and how you
will be synthesizing the overall discussion. A plan like will not make the paper write itself,
of course, but it will make drafting much easier.
Note that you are not chained to the first version that you write down of such a plan.
Like an outline, it represents current possibility thinking only, not the last word. Writing
is an organic, iterative process. Many writers get new ideas during the process of writing,
realizing that they need to discuss some new aspect of the topic; they also recognize that
a planned idea needs to be moved earlier or later; and, often with some feeling of disap-
pointment, they realize that a planned discussion that they were particularly fond of really
does not fit the paper at all.
Moreover, many writers write from the inside out in a nonlinear way. It is like starting
with a lump of dough (your central idea or thesis) and then pushing it out in various direc-
tions at various times. Sure, you end up with a product that seems to have been written
from beginning to end, but that’s the art, not the actual process. So, as a hint to those stu-
dents who suffer from writer’s block, have a pan but write first whatever part of the paper
you feel like. Start in the middle, if you want.

Table 3.3 Sample Outline of Source Use

Source Role or Purpose
Smith, 344 Jones, 16 and 22 Clarify the problem
Doe, 117 Previously proposed
Alberts, 248 solutions
Whitston 1739–42

Maercus, 344–56 Summarizes

Swanson, 16–17 (if needed) inadequacy of previous solutions

Jones again, 27–28 Supports my solution

Freund, 129 Provides reasons my solution is solid

... ...

Pandall, 121 Great quote for conclusion

44 Using Sources Effectively

3.6 Protect Yourself Against a False Charge of Plagiarism

If you need proof of the value of someone’s writing as intellectual property, take note of the
fact that student research papers are now being stolen and sold or traded to others (both on
campus and on the Web). Imagine your dismay if you, as an honest student, work hard to
produce a great research paper, only to be confronted by your instructor who says that your
paper is available on the Web or has been flagged as containing plagiarism by the schools’
commercial plagiarism service. Following are some steps that you can take to protect your-
self from a problem such as this.

Protect Your Data and Passwords

An individual research paper can require dozens of hours of work; the papers that you have
completed in a typical year can, therefore, represent hundreds of hours of mental effort.
To those who would like to skip the labor but get the credit for it, your work is a valuable
commodity. Your stolen papers could be turned in by the thief, sold to another student, or
uploaded to a paper mill Web site in trade for another paper. Therefore, whatever storage
method that you use, be certain that you keep your work secure from potential thieves.

Do Not Lend Your Paper to Someone Else

If your paper is turned in by someone else, you may be accused of being an accessory
to plagiarism. Be wise, therefore, and remember that lending your paper through any
means—email, flash drive, or any other—puts you at great risk. If you are persuaded to let
a friend look at one of your papers, show it while you are present, if possible. Once the
paper is out of sight, you cannot know what might happen to it.

Report Any Theft Immediately

Should you learn or believe that one or more of your papers might have been stolen or
otherwise compromised, report that fact immediately. No matter if the term has ended or
the assignment has just been submitted in a course, report the theft either to the instructor,
the department, the dean, or other person as soon as you discover the theft.

Save All Drafts and Notes

Good advice is to save a copy of your current draft under a new name that includes the
date every time you work on it. Occasionally, print out a copy of the draft to ensure that
your hard work is never lost. (Too many students have experienced the horror of realizing
that their files somehow disappeared completely.) Either way, you will have a record of
the various stages of your paper’s creation. As recommended in Section 3.4, keep copies
of your paper in two or more secure locations, in case something happens. After all, hard
disk drives crash and network storage sometimes loses data.

Save All Sources

In addition to the drafts and working notes, among the most convincing evidence that you
have written a paper is a collection of all the sources that you used. Any accusation that
 Preparing Your Sources 45

you downloaded a paper can be immediately dispelled if you can show these files to your
professor.
Because Web sites can change unpredictably, it is especially important to save to a file
the articles or pages that you use. Many Web browsers have the ability to save Web pages,
with all their added graphics and hyperlinked content, in a single file for later viewing
offline. An alternative is to convert the page to a PDF document using one of the many
converters available.

Be Proactive
As you work on your paper, visit your instructor to ask for input and feedback. Input
involves asking the instructor’s advice about research strategies (such as where to look,
what keywords to use, what sources are recommended, or what direction to pursue with
your topic). Early on, feedback involves discussing the central idea that you plan to sup-
port; later, it may include showing your instructor preliminary sections of the paper in
order to ensure that you are fulfilling the requirements and are generally on the right track.
When you have a substantial draft, visit the writing center for help with structure or style
(or even grammar and mechanics). Save any evidence of the visit, such as a marked-up
draft. Feedback on drafts (from the instructor and the writing-center tutor) also provides you
with the opportunity to be sure that you are incorporating sources properly and not inad-
vertently plagiarizing any of them. Be specific in your interest here, telling your instructor
or tutor that you are concerned that all your sources receive proper acknowledgment.
To add unique content to your work, conduct your own survey to gather opinions about
an aspect of your subject, or call or email an expert for an interview. Perform an experi-
ment or collect your own data by measuring or counting something relevant to your topic.
(If you meet with your instructor for feedback, ask about a useful experiment or survey that
you might perform.)
All of these steps will make your paper much better, and they will also establish a con-
struction trail demonstrating that you have worked on the paper well in advance of the
due date.

Review Questions
To see how well that you understand this chapter, attempt to answer each of the following
questions without referring to the text. (Write down your answers to make checking easier.)
Then check your answers with the text. If you missed something important, add it to your
answer.

1. What are some of the benefits of having printed copies of each source?
2. Why should you archive your notes as you construct your research paper?
3. What does it mean to add comments to your notes, and why is it useful?
4. Describe some of the ways that you can protect yourself against a false charge of
plagiarism.

Questions for Thought and Discussion

See Teacher’s Edition and Online Version.
46 Using Sources Effectively

Table 3.4 For Locating Controversies

controversy dispute conflict fallacies
opposition disagreement counterarguments lies
criticism debate quarrel misinformation

Mini-Research Project Controversies

Here is a project that will enable you to spice up and round out your research on nearly
any topic. Choose two words from Table 3.4 and then apply them to your current research
paper topic or choose a topic of interest to you just for this project. Combine the topic and
one of the words into a search string and then perform a Google or Bing search on it.

Example [Link].1
fruit fly helicopter spraying counterarguments
electoral college opposition
drink box controversy

If you use several of the controversy terms on the same topic, you will likely get additional,
useful hits.

A Little Rhetoric: Conduplicatio

Conduplicatio is an excellent rhetorical device for maintaining focus and creating empha-
sis. With conduplicatio, a word or phrase from a previous sentence is repeated at the
beginning of the next sentence, thereby pulling out the idea and emphasizing it so that it
signals to the reader the continuity of thought from one sentence to the next.

Example [Link].1
The actual manufacturing cost of a consumer item includes the cost of materials and labor,
of course, but also research and development costs, tooling costs, taxes, and plant utilities.
Tooling costs for an automobile manufacturing line can exceed a billion dollars.
4 Quoting Effectively

Abstract
This chapter covers the Why, When, and How to quote a source. Included is a discussion
of introductory strategies that will keep your source use fresh and the importance of limit-
ing the number and length of quotations. Also emphasized are the differences in APA and
MLA style when considering lead-ins and verb tense use.

The best way to win an argument is to quote someone.

—Proverb

In this chapter, you will learn the art of effective quotation, together with many useful
techniques that add focus, emphasis, and variety to your use of quoted sources. The ideas
presented here will add a number of tools to your writing toolkit, which in turn will allow
you to present quotations with more refinement.

The learning objectives of Chapter 4 are as follows:

a. To learn how to choose when to quote

b. To understand how misuse of quotations can lead to ineffectiveness and
fallaci­ousness
c. To use a variety of introductory strategies to interest and engage your reader’s inter-
est with the quoted sources
d. To choose appropriate quoting strategies for clearer and more effective writing

4.1 Quoting Use and Abuse

Using a quotation—someone’s exact words—can have a dramatic and powerful effect
in your paper, for you are displaying verbatim (word-for-word) what someone, often an
expert, has said about the point that you are making.

DOI: 10.4324/9781032643779-4
48 Using Sources Effectively

When to Choose Quotation

Direct quotation may be preferable to a summary or paraphrase for any of several reasons.
Some of the unique benefits offered by a direct quotation are as follows:

• Expert declaration. The exact words of an authority are more powerful than a summary
or paraphrase of those words, even if the exact words are not remarkable in themselves.
When readers can see precisely what an expert says, they can analyze, dwell on, or
react to those words without any concern that some meaning has been lost through a
paraphrase or summary.
• Direct support. An effective way to reinforce a point that you are making is to supply a
quotation that provides support for that point. Quotations have a sense of presence or
immediacy that paraphrases or summaries lack. The quotation serves as a second voice,
seemingly speaking now, confirming your point.
• Effective language. The quality of the writer’s language may make it highly quotable. Its
elegance, clarity, directness, use of metaphor or other imagery, exactness, aptness—any
of these characteristics may make the words worth quoting because they will add inter-
est to your paper. Having another voice enter the discussion provides variety as well as
impact. If the source says something better than you could, consider quoting.
• Historical flavor. If you make use of a source from many years ago, the style and vocab-
ulary (and even the spelling) may allow a quotation to offer a special zest to your paper.
Some writers have a distinctive and commanding style or engaging use of rhetorical
flourish that offers a unique feel to their ideas.
• Specific example. A source may tell a story, supply an anecdote, or offer a vivid exam-
ple best presented in the source’s own words. Because most anecdotes are condensed
and carefully sequenced, they are almost impossible to paraphrase or summarize with-
out losing their impact or even their meaning.
• Controversial statement. If the source makes an outrageous or highly controversial
claim, quoting the source directly will (1) remove your reader’s skepticism about what
the source really said and (2) help distance you from responsibility for the idea or words
used to express the controversial claim.
• Material for analysis. When you intend to comment on, explain, analyze, or criticize
an idea, quoting it places the exact words at issue before the reader for reference as you
make your remarks. You can then proceed to quote short phrases or even single words
in your analysis without confusing the reader about the context of those words.

Cautions About Quoting

• Quoting too often. Too many quotations in a paper will push your ideas into the back-
ground and take over the paper, rather than act as a support to your writing. Remember
that your own thinking is the purpose of the paper; you are not assembling a quotation
dictionary. If you explain, discuss, or apply most of your quotations, you should be able
to avoid over-quotation. The number of quotations considered too many depends upon
the nature of the writing project, of course, but it also depends upon how long the quo-
tations are. Quotations can range from fairly long to very short. As a rule, short quota-
tions can appear more frequently than long quotations.
 Quoting Effectively 49

• Quoting too many times. Some instructors

provide rules of thumb for their research Sidebar 4.1 Cautions Regarding
paper assignments, not permitting the quo- Quotations
tation (or citation in any form) of one source
more than a certain number of times. (For • Do not quote too often. The reader
example, the rule may be that a student will think that you do not know
may not use one source more than three your subject.
times in a 2,500-word paper.) Whether you • Utilizing one source too frequently
have such a rule or not, the overuse of one does not reflect good integration of
source implies too much dependence on it. sources.
If the citations from a single source occur • Long quotations use the reader to
one after the other without other interven- suspect “padding” on the part of
ing citations, and if they are sequential (as the author.
in pages 265, 288, and 299), it will appear
to the reader that the source is being trans-
ferred into the paper wholesale, rather than being integrated and analyzed along with
other materials.
• Quoting too long. For many instructors, a synonym for lengthy quotation is padding
because, in many cases, that is exactly what is taking place. However, there is another
reason for avoiding lengthy quotations: They are ineffective. Many readers have a habit
of skipping past long quotations. An occasional four- to six-line quotation might be
effective, but a ten- or twelve-line quotation would need to be quite spectacular to be
worth including.

Avoid the Fallacy of Vicious Abstraction

Vicious abstraction occurs when a quotation suggests a meaning different from that
intended by its author because the words are taken out of context. Vicious abstraction can
occur as a result of several different circumstances:

• The source author is presenting someone else’s position. Many writers summarize
or paraphrase their opponent’s position by speaking in the voice of the oppo-
nent with the intention of being fair and realistic. Recognizing when the writer
is ­p resenting another’s ideas is important because the writer is merely describing
those views, not advocating them. Vicious abstraction occurs when a research
writer quotes from one of those summaries and wrongly attributes the views to the
source author.
• The source author’s words require the source context for an accurate understanding
of the meaning, and quoting the words out of context creates a false impression. Many
statements require some context (such as the surrounding paragraph) in order to be fully
and accurately understood.
• The research paper writer omits some words from the quotation (often clearly show-
ing the omission with ellipsis dots), and the abbreviated quotation takes on a meaning
different from the full quotation. Writers are permitted to omit words from a quotation;
however, the meaning of the quotation must remain the same.
50 Using Sources Effectively

Example 4.1.1

Quotation
The group known as Motorists for Faster Driving argues that higher speed limits will
enable us to get to our destinations faster, thus reducing our risk time on the road. In
other words, we should raise or eliminate speed limits for safety’s sake. Such an argu-
ment neglects the fact that higher speed equals higher-speed crashes.
—John Doe, 2024, p. 75

Vicious Abstraction, MLA style:

John Doe believes that “we should raise or eliminate speed limits for safety’s sake” (75).

Comment
Even though the words accurately quoted Doe, they represent a viewpoint that he is
describing (and then rejecting) rather than one that he is advocating.

Example 4.1.2

Quotation:
It is unfortunate that the small sample and the questionable quality of the data leave this
theory completely unsupported. The theory is plausible and provocative. The experimen-
tal design is excellent, and if—and only if—Jones and Brown can supply a new, reliable
data set with the same outcome, the results will revolutionize the way we view the brain.
—Jane Doe, 2024, p. 456.

Vicious Abstraction, APA Style:

Jane Doe (2024) affirmed the discipline-changing impact of the Jones and Brown find-
ings: “The theory is plausible and provocative. The experimental design is excellent,
and . . . the results will revolutionize the way that we view the brain” (p. 456).

Comment
By omitting the strong conditional “if” statement, as well as the context supplied by Doe’s
criticism of the data and its implications, the writer here has presented a completely mis-
leading representation of Doe’s position, even though every word quoted is accurate.
Whenever you draw upon a source, then, quoting or otherwise, be very careful that you
preserve the source author’s real meaning. Never attempt to make a source say what you
want it to say. If you think that a source is wrong, criticize it robustly, but do not distort the
author’s meaning.

4.2 Introductory Strategies
One function of introducing quotations is to mark clearly for the reader the boundary
between your discussion and the use of research material. Even a simple introductory
 Quoting Effectively 51

lead-in not only serves to honor the ideal of intellectual property and prevent plagiarism
(see Chapter 7 on marking the boundaries) but it also helps your reader to understand how
the source information fits into the argument of your paper.

Introduce Your Sources

If you could be a fly on the wall of a coffeehouse, and if you could land near a table of
instructors, you might hear the way that they describe quotations that appear suddenly
and unannounced in a paper: “disembodied quotations,” “phantom words,” “ghost quota-
tions,” or “unannounced strangers.” Rather than making a sudden and unexpected appear-
ance, quotations should be introduced in some way that helps the reader prepare for them.
The introductory lead-in provides an informational hook or a micro-context that lets the
reader know a little about what is coming.

Table 4.1 Introductory Lead-Ins

Element Example
The author’s name • According to Doe
• John Doe writes that
• In an article by John Doe, we read

A description of the • A Yale University psychologist reported

author (credentials, • A State of California geologist stated
job title, etc.) • A researcher who specialized in radiometric dating concludes

The title of the book or • In A History of Secret Codes, we learn

article • The article, “The Botanical Source of Western Medicine,” traces
• Quantum Mechanics for Dummies surveys

The name of the journal • A study of the poet first appeared in English Renaissance History,
or Web site discussing
• The Institute for Strategic Management Web site offers information
about
• The Journal of Polymer Chemistry surveyed

A brief summary of the • In a discussion of the relationship between chocolate consumption

content and depression
• A rhetorical analysis of the poem has shown
• A recent article about the design of room lighting tells us

An expression of the • Arguing exactly the opposite

role • Support for this view comes from
of the quotation • Coming to a similar conclusion by way of a different approach

A combination of the • Too many words, argues Jane Doe, can obscure meaning:
earlier elements • John Doe, writing in the Journal of Numismatics and Philatelics,
notes that many people collect for both esthetic and investment
reasons:
• A report by a water analysis laboratory names the probable source:
52 Using Sources Effectively

See Table 3.2, “Examples of Source Relationships,” and the positioning plan in Chapter 3,
Section 5 for additional discussion and ideas for expressing the role of a quotation.

Choose Introductory Verbs to Create Guiding Lead-In or Signal Phrases

“John Doe says” is always one way to introduce a quotation, of course. However, using the
same introductory verb over and over will get old quickly. However, you should not use
a variety of verbs just for the sake of variety. A more important reason for using different
verbs is that a carefully chosen verb or verb phrase will help set up the quotation by giving
your reader an indication of the role of the quotation. “John Doe shows” provides very dif-
ferent guidance from “John Doe objects.” Lead-in or signal phrases that position the source
in the reader’s mind serve as guiding lead-ins.
Note what a difference a guiding lead-in phrase can make (MLA style):

• Citing an experiment in Philadelphia, Doe says,

• Citing an experiment in Philadelphia, Doe add powerful support to . . .
• Citing an experiment in Philadelphia, Doe presents a stunning rebuttal . . .
• In her response, Doe tentatively suggests that . . .
• In her response, Doe insists that . . .
• In her response, Doe insinuates that . . .

The following are the same guiding lead-in phrases but using APA style:

• Citing an experiment in Philadelphia, Doe said,

• Citing an experiment in Philadelphia, Doe added powerful support to . . .
• Citing an experiment in Philadelphia, Doe presented a stunning rebuttal . . .
• In her response, Doe tentatively suggested that . . .
• In her response, Doe insisted that . . .
• In her response, Doe insinuated that . . .

Table 4.2 offers a number of choices for

you. The list is not exhaustive, but it will begin
your thinking about the kinds of verbs that Sidebar 4.2 Lead-Ins
you can use and the various ways that you
can prepare your reader for the role of the In both MLA and APA, lead-in or sig-
quotation in your paper. The verbs are all in nal phrases are utilized to introduce
present tense so that if you are writing a paper quotations, paraphrases, or other bor-
in APA style, you will need to change them to rowed information. These phrases can
past or present perfect tense as appropriate to include citation information, such
meet APA requirements.
as the author’s name, the title of the
source, and the date of the publica-
Use Introductory Sentences With a Colon tion. These phrases prepare your read-
A particularly effective introduction is to ers for the quotation and help them to
include a sentence that presents helpful infor- transition from one idea to another.
mation to your reader about the nature or role
 Quoting Effectively 53

Table 4.2 Introductory Verbs*

Says Agrees
The verb introduces the quotation The verb indicates that the source agrees with
as information. another source or with the position that you
are advancing.
adds mentions
believes notes accepts concurs
clarifies observes agrees parallels
comments offers assents supports
describes remarks
discusses reports Yields
emphasizes reveals The source agrees that a conflicting point is valid
examines says
explains states acknowledges concedes
explores supposes admits grants
identifies writes agrees recognizes
allows

Argues in favor Argues against

The verb indicates that the source is The verb indicates that the source is providing
providing evidence or reasons for ­evidence against a position.
a position.
argues indicates attacks against
asserts insists contradicts objects
contends maintains criticizes opposes
demonstrates proposes denies rebuts
holds recommends differs refutes
illustrates shows disagrees repudiates

States controversially Implies

The source makes a statement that you The source presents information either tentatively
are skeptical about (be careful of your or indirectly.
tone if you use these).
alleges implies
assumes insinuates
claims proposes
purports suggests

Continues Concludes
You continue to refer to or quote the The source draws a conclusion from previous
source. discussion.
adds concludes
also notes decides
continues decides
goes on to say determines
*
 ote that verb examples are listed in their present tense. This tense is most commonly used for MLA style,
N
not APA style.
54 Using Sources Effectively

of the quotation, followed by a colon. When

your reader coms upon a quotation, an obvi- Sidebar 4.3 Verb Tense
ous question is this: How does this quotation
fit into and advance the central idea of the In MLA and APA styles, different verb
paper? Here are some examples that help tenses are preferred when reporting
answer this question: the findings of research studies. MLA
style allows greater flexibility in its
• Doe prefers an alternative approach: use of introductory verbs. APA style is
• Does reported that the source of the prob- much more structured and specific in
lem lies in a lack of early data: its use of verb tenses. More explana-
• Does distinguishes between the two: tion will be provided later. However,
• Doe reminds us at the idea’s origin:
for the time being, please note the
• Doe provided a possible solution to this
underlined verbs. Those verbs in pre-
problem:
• Doe argues that the evidence supports the sent tense are MLA compliant; those
earlier theory: verbs in past tense are APA compliant.
• Doe is careful to qualify the claims made
by the Midland group:
• In support of this interpretation, Doe cites the range in temperature:
• After 23 years of research, Doe is ready to report the findings:
• A recent study based on a sample of 63,000 users of the medication found that the side
effects were varied but moderate:
• Doe sums up:

Use an Introductory Phrase

Depending on the particular context of your source inclusion, you may want to use an
introductory phrase rather than in introductory sentence. Here are some examples:

• In the words of Doe,

• According to John Doe,
• In Doe’s view,
• As Doe tells us,
• As argued in the American Journal of Ontological Epistemology,
• In the survey analyst’s judgment,
• As first reported by researchers in Supercollider Monthly,
• To quote the report directly,
• Quoting Doe again,

Use the Appropriate Tense in Your Introductory Phrases for APA Style
In the examples in this book, the tense of the introductory verbs includes both present and
past, to show you the possibilities. And, later in this section, you will learn about historical
present tense. MLA style allows great flexibility in choosing the tense of introductory verbs.
However, APA style requires a much more structured and specific use of tense.
 Quoting Effectively 55

For APA, use past tense when reporting events or actions from a specific time in the past,
such as research studies, experiments, or writing. This verb use applies to reporting about
your own work and that of others.

• Doe (2024) reported that this was the case.

• The experimenter found that few subjects were able to transfer the analogy to the
problem.
• Doe and Smith (2020) discovered some additional instances of the phenomenon.
• In a paper presented in early 2019, Doe hypothesized that A did, in fact, cause B.
• We tested the hearing of 36 subjects to determine the highest frequency that they
could hear.
• Volunteers distributed to shoppers what appeared to be valuable coupons.
• Our experiment studied the behavior of an entirely different group.

Use present perfect tense to report events or actions that occurred at a non-specific time in
the past or that occurred over time in the past.

• Others have duplicated these findings.

• Some have replicated these or similar experiments
• Other studies have shown an even larger impact.
• Several researchers investigating this phenomenon have found further evidence of sta-
tistical error.
• This hypothesis has resulted in an ongoing debate about the origin of the phenomenon.

Use present tense to reflect current belief, implications, ideas, or conclusions about the
results of research.

• This research appears to show that reading too much at once increases forgetfulness.
• There are several competing hypotheses that explain the data nearly as well.
• Most of the available evidence argues for the conclusion that odors are keenly con-
nected to memory.
• We conclude, therefore, that the phenomenon presents itself whenever noise levels
exceed 90 decibels.

Note how these tenses can be combined.

• Doe and Smith (2015) designed four experiments whose conclusions support the hypoth-
esis that practicing creative thinking techniques improves creativity.
• Several historical studies (e.g., Doe & Smith, 2012; Jones, 2014; Brown & Johnson,
2015) have shown that the two effects seldom appear together.
• In an experiment on mice, Doe (2013) concluded that high-voltage shocks from cattle
prods inhibit the curiosity of mice.

When you use an introductory phrase, the quotation itself must be a complete sentence,
or you must supply additional introductory words to make a complete sentence. The goal
is to create a flowing, clear, contextualized discussion that the reader can follow easily.
56 Using Sources Effectively

You are free to supply whatever introductory words best maintain the flow while remaining
faithful to the source’s meaning.

Example 4.2.1
Phrase introduction with quoted whole sentence, APA style:

According to Doe (2023), “The poet’s personal letters were not discovered until 1915”
(p. 567).

Phrase introduction with quoted whole sentence, MLA style:

According to Jane Doe, “The poet’s personal letters were not discovered until 1915”
(567).

Example 4.2.2
Phrase introduction with quoted partial sentence, APA style:

In Doe’s analysis (2024), the market for suntan lotion was “not entirely seasonal, but
largely seasonal” (p. 323).

Phrase introduction with quoted partial sentence, MLA style:

In Jane Doe’s analysis, the market for suntan lotion was “not entirely seasonal, but largely
seasonal” (323).

Comment:
Note that when you quote part of a sentence, you do not need to add leading ellip-
ses because it is clear that the source is being quoted beginning in mid-sentence. See
Section 4.4 for further information about punctuating quotations.

Use Both Set-Off and Built-In Quotations

A set-off quotation is presented to the reader in a formal way, with an introductory phrase,
verb, or sentence, followed by a comma or colon. The quotation itself begins with a capital
letter and usually consists of a complete sentence.

Example 4.2.3
Set off with comma, APA style:

In a recent analysis of weather forecasting, Doe (2022) wrote, “The accuracy of forecasts
has increased remarkably as new technologies have become available” (p. 543).
 Quoting Effectively 57

Set off with comm, MLA style:

In a recent analysis of weather forecasting, Jane Doe (2022) writes, “The accuracy of
forecasts has increased remarkably as new technologies have become available” (543).

Example 4.2.4
Set off with colon, APA style:

Doe (2023) expressed caution about forecasts: “Never bet your umbrella on a forecast”
(p. 654).

Set off with colon, MLA style:

John Doe is cautious about forecasts: “Never bet your umbrella on a forecast” (654).

A built-in quotation places the quotation into your own sentence, making it a part of the
sentence. The built-in quotation can be an entire sentence from the source or just a partial
sentence, such as a long phrase. There is no comma or initial capital letter at the beginning
of the quotation because the source’s words are so closely built into the paper writer’s sen-
tence. Instead of a formal division between the writer’s sentence and the source’s words,
the built-in quotation flows seamlessly along as a part of the same sentence—but set off, of
course, by quotation marks:

Example 4.2.5
Built-in whole sentence with that, APA style:

In a recent review of the history of weather forecasting, Doe (2021) wrote that “the accu-
racy of forecasts has increased remarkably as new technologies have become available”
(p. 321).

Built-in whole sentence with that, MLA style:

In a recent review of the history of weather forecasting, Jane Doe (2021) writes that “the
accuracy of forecasts has increased remarkably as new technologies have become avail-
able” (321).

Example 4.2.6
Built-in partial sentence with that, APA style:

In a recent look at the history of weather forecasting, Doe (2021) noted that forecasts
are becoming notably more dependable “as new technologies have become available”
(p. 321).
58 Using Sources Effectively

Built-in partial sentence with that, MLA style:

In a recent look at the history of weather forecasting, Jane Doe (2021) notes that fore-
casts are becoming notably more dependable “as new technologies have become avail-
able” (321).

Use the Historical Present Tense for MLA-Style Papers

Students sometimes ask, “Because all of our sources were written in the past (even last
week is now the past), should not we be writing ‘John Doe said,’ instead of ‘John Doe
says’?”
Other students ask a related question: “I can understand using says for a writer who is
still alive, but what about a writer who has been dead for hundreds of years?”
The historical present tense is a convention in the humanities (English, history, and phi-
losophy, for example) that discusses and quotes all sources in the present tense. The his-
torical present has the conceptual benefit of treating all ideas as equally alive and active,
“in play” and available for consideration. As a practical benefit, the historical present tense
helps your own writing to be livelier and more interesting because you seem to be describ-
ing something happening right now rather than in the past.
Good advice, then, is to use the historical present tense for your papers where all of the
ideas are still under active consideration. (This practice will also prevent your papers from
falling into random tense shifting—a common ailment in research—paper writing.) If you
are comparing changes between the past and present or referring to ideas no long active,
it is acceptable to use the past tense. See Example 4.3.5 later.
For APA-style papers, the present tense is restricted but still used when discussing con-
clusions and current beliefs, as mentioned earlier.

4.3 Quoting Strategies
Quoting a complete sentence or two is certainly a common and usually effective way of
bringing a writer’s words into your paper. However, it is only one way; there are other
ways that can be more effective, depending on the particular circumstances. Using differ-
ent strategies for the sake of variety and interest is, by itself, a good reason to have several
choices. Another reason is that just the right strategy, at the right time, can give your writ-
ing added power and emphasis. This section offers more ideas for incorporating quotations
into your writing.

Interrupt Quotations
When you quote a complete sentence using a set-off introduction, you can do so accord-
ing to Examples 4.2.3 and 4.2.4 earlier, or you can divide the quotation into two pieces
for the purpose of variety or emphasis. The pause in the middle of the quotation and then
resumption of the quotation, adds an energy and emphasis that would not be present if
you delivered the entire quotation at once. Because the position of most emphasis in a
sentence is at the end, you create two emphases by artificially producing two ends. In the
following examples, note how “increased remarkably” gains more emphasis and attention
than if the sentence were quoted whole.
 Quoting Effectively 59

Example 4.3.1
Divided quotation, APA style:

In a recent analysis, Doe (2020) noted the advances in the weather business. “The
accuracy of forecasts has increased remarkably,” she writes, “as new technologies have
become available” (p. 654).

Divided quotation, MLA style:

In a recent analysis, Jane Doe (2020) notes the advances in the weather business. “The
accuracy of forecasts has increased remarkably,” she writes, “as new technologies have
become available” (654).

Comment:
Note that the second piece of the sentence is a continuation of the first part so that
no capital letter is used and commas are appropriate. If you quote two separate
sentences in this divided fashion, however, you will need a period ending the first
sentence and a capital letter beginning the new, independent sentence. Otherwise,
you will have a comma splice. The following is an example of two sentences with an
intervening comment.

Example 4.3.2
Two sentences, divided by comment, APA style:

Doe (2021) reminded us that a recalled product is often not sent anywhere: “The order
means that an identified fault must be remedied by the manufacturer.” In actual practice,
she added, “The remedy often involves only the mailing of new parts to the consumer or
a visit to a repair center” (p. 321).

Two sentences, divided by comment, MLA style:

Jane Doe (2021) reminds us that a recalled product is often not sent anywhere: “The
order means that an identified fault must be remedied by the manufacturer.” In actual
practice, she adds, “The remedy often involves only the mailing of new parts to the con-
sumer or a visit to a repair center” (321).

Leave Out Some Words

An effective method of reducing a source’s words while retaining the benefit of quoting
exact words (rather than summarizing) is to leave out the words of lesser importance. (See
section 4.4 for information about using ellipsis dots to show that words have been omitted
from a quoted source.)
Remember that when you omit words from anywhere in the sentence, and especially in
the middle, you must be sure that the sentence still makes grammatical sense and that you
have not introduced an error such as a sentence fragment or comma splice.
60 Using Sources Effectively

Also, be sure that omitting the words does not change the meaning of the sentence so
that it no longer reflects the writer’s actual view. Recall the discussion of the fallacy of
vicious abstraction earlier in this chapter. Always do a meaning check after you delete
words, and make sure that the overall meaning of the sentence has not changed.
That said, note how effective that it can be to use just some of the source’s words:

Example 4.3.3

Source:
Since its invention, the trend in video camera manufacture, like that of virtually all tech-
nology, has been toward the smaller, until we now have a camera that can be swallowed.
—John Doe, 2024, p. 145

Beginning omitted, APA style:

As Doe (2024) stated, the development of the video camera “has been toward the smaller,
until we now have a camera that can be swallowed” (p. 145).

Beginning omitted, MLA style:

As John Doe states, the development of the video camera “has been toward the smaller,
until we now have a camera that can be swallowed” (145).

Middle omitted, APA style:

Technology researcher Doe (2024) indicated the direction of video design: “Since its
invention, the trend in video camera manufacture . . . has been toward smaller, until we
now have a camera that can be swallowed” (p. 145).

Middle omitted, MLA style:

Technology researcher John Doe (2024) indicated the direction of video design: “Since
its invention, the trend in video camera manufacture . . . has been toward smaller, until
we now have a camera that can be swallowed” (145).

End omitted, APA style:

Doe (2024) reported on this trend toward miniaturization: “Since its invention, the trend
in video camera manufacture, like that of virtually all technology, has been toward the
smaller . . .” (p. 145).

End omitted, MLA style:

John Doe (2024) reports on this trend toward miniaturization: “Since its invention, the
trend in video camera manufacture, like that of virtually all technology, has been toward
the smaller . . .” (p. 145).
 Quoting Effectively 61

Quote Phrases
Often, the most powerful quoting can be accomplished by using short phrases rather than
entire sentences. By selecting just the phrase or phrases that best capture the idea that you
want to emphasize, you can build them into an appropriate sentence. Quoted phrases call
attention to themselves because of their brevity and the highlighting effect produced by
the quotation marks.

Example 4.3.4
Web article, no author, APA style:

The Tapwater Beverage Company promises that its new bottled water product will be
manufactured using “state-of-the-art reverse osmosis filtration” that will guarantee “supe-
riority of both purity and taste” (“Tapwater Enters,” 2023).

Web article, no author, MLA style:

The Tapwater Beverage Company promises that its new bottled water product will be
manufactured using “state-of-the-art reverse osmosis filtration” that will guarantee “supe-
riority of both purity and taste” (“Tapwater Enters”).

Comment:
In the example above, the name of the company that owns the Web site is used as the
opening boundary marker and a shortened version of the title of the article is used for the
closing marker. On the References page (for APA) or Works Cited page (for MLA), the arti-
cle would be listed alphabetically by the first word of the title, and the entire title would be
spelled out: “Tapwater Enters Bottled Water Business.”
Using only the phrases that best contain the meaning of the sentence also allows you not
only to omit extraneous material but also to adapt a sentence’s tense, point of view, and
other elements to produce agreement with your own writing. The following example clari-
fies this sentence’s meaning:

Example 4.3.5

Source:
We have no plans to expand into Asian markets at this time.
—Jane Doe, 2023, p. 456

Tense and point-of-view change made, APA style:

In 2023, Doe announced that the company had “no plans to expand into Asian markets”
at the time (p. 456). However, within a year, it was building distribution warehouses in
three Asian countries.
62 Using Sources Effectively

Tense and point-of-view change made, MLA style:

In 2015, Jane Doe announced that the company had “no plans to expand into Asian
markets” at the time (456). However, within a year, it was building distribution ware-
houses in three Asian countries.

Comment:
The source is an announcement made in the present tense, while the writer wants to use
the past tense to recount past events. The announcement was also made in the first-person
plural (we) while the user of the source wants to use third-person singular (the company
and it). These changes are made outside the quotation. Then, the quoted words are built
into the sentence with the desired revisions.
Important note: Remember that when you put words within quotation marks, you are
promising your reader that those words are the source’s exact words. The rule for quota-
tion, then, is the following:

Always quote exactly.

If words need to be changed, change words outside the quotation marks and quote only
exact words. Use ellipsis dots to delete words within a quotation and square brackets to
insert any words that you are adding to make the meaning of the quotation clear. Never
silently alter any quoted words. See Section 4.4 later for information and examples relating
to the use of ellipsis dots and square brackets.

4.4 Punctuating Quotations
Minding your periods and commas in the papers that you write is important not only
because accuracy is important for scholarliness—and a good grade—but because readers
take their cues from the quality (the accuracy and consistency) of your presentation to help
them to decide how reliable your ideas are. So when it comes to punctuation, take it seri-
ously. The byword is scrupulous meticulousness.

General Conventions
When you use a source that follows British rather than American conventions for quotation
(such as using single rather than double quotation marks), you should convert the punctua-
tion use to American conventions while leaving the spelling and grammar of the original
unchanged. The reason for this conversion is that punctuation is traditionally considered a
printer’s convention, and every document should be consistent with its conventions.
Research papers that mix conventions (sometimes putting commas inside quotation
marks, sometimes outside, for example) appear to be careless and unprofessional, as if the
writer had not performed even basic proofreading. Consistency is necessary for—and at
least implies—accuracy (though, of course, it might not involve accuracy), while inconsist-
ency broadcasts inaccuracy, suggestions carelessness, and sends an unflattering message
to the reader about the writer’s competence.
 Quoting Effectively 63

The conventions are really quite simple, so there is no reason not to master them now
and use them consistently going forward.
Table 4.3 shows a summary of the most common American conventions for punctuating
quotations.
Of the rules in Table 4.3, Rule 2 is perhaps the most commonly broken in student writ-
ing. Unless you have a citation that moves the period after the parentheses (see Rule 5),
periods and commas go inside the quotation mark.
Rule 5 emphasizes quoting a single word as a quotation from a source. Be sparing in your
use of quotation marks to call attention to the source’s use of a word, with the implication

Table 4.3 Quick Take on In-Text Citation

Examples throughout this book are presented in both APA and MLA in-text citation styles. These
styles replace footnotes and endnotes. Instead, some information about the source (i.e., the
author, page number, and sometimes date) is given in the text itself, and the full bibliographic
entry is placed on a References (APA) or Works Cited (MLA) page.
Critical to the proper working of this reference system is the match between the in-text citation
and the bibliographic entry. If the text has “According to Jones (2024),” then there must be an
entry on the References page under “Jones, T. (2024).”

APA
For APA quotations, include the author’s last name, year, and page number (with a p.):

• Jones (2024) discovered that “something is true” (p. 245).

• Researchers recently found, “Something is true” (Smith, 2023, p. 321).
• Several solutions were suggested in 2014 by Doe, including “the use of wax” (p. 876).

MLA
For MLA quotations, include the author’s first and last name when mentioning the author in the
text, or the last name if in the citation, and the page number (without a p.):

• John Smith agrees: “The preflight check was performed correctly” (123).
• Jane Doe argues that “the word in line four should be tattered, not tottered” (654).
• The forensics expert testified that “the luminol test revealed blood” (Jones 13).

Table 4.4 Quotation Rules and Examples

Quotation Rules Examples
1. Quotation use double quotation marks. “Follow American conventions,” she says.
2. Periods and commas go inside quotation The instructor says, “Remember where the
marks. comma goes,” and adds, “and periods, too.”
3. Quoting within a quotation uses single The waiter said, “Our cake has been called
­quotation marks. ‘chocolate decadence’ by food critics.”
4. Quoting one word uses double quotation She called the spa “rejuvenating” and “fun.”
marks. The punctuation goes inside.
5. A parenthetical citation is part of the APA: The book MLA: The book says, “Try this”
­sentence but not part of the quotation. (345).
64 Using Sources Effectively

that you disagree with the appropriateness of the use. Such a practice is known as using
scare quotes or sneer quotes because the quoter seems to be sneering at the source’s use
of the words.

Example 4.4.1

Source:
With sneer quotes

A. [MLA style] John Doe claims that the proposal would not be “fair,” and would be
“unjust” (127).
B. [APA style] Doe (2024) claimed that the proposal would not be “fair,” and would be
“unjust” (p. 127).

Without sneer quotes

A. [MLA style] John Doe claims that the proposal would not be fair, and would be unjust
(127).
B. [APA style] Doe (2024) claimed that the proposal would not be fair, and would be
unjust (p. 127).

Further, take care to avoid putting any of your own words in sneer quotes, as if you disavow
the words themselves. As you can see, such a “habit” is usually seen as a sign of “immatu-
rity” and is not an “effective” writing “practice.”

Ellipsis
Words cannot be omitted or added to a quotation unless you inform your reader that you
are altering the quotation from its original form. To do this alteration, use ellipsis dots (or
ellipses, plural of ellipsis) to show where you have omitted words, and use brackets to
show where you have inserted words.
Ellipsis dots consist of three periods with spaces between them. They are used to indi-
cate the omission of words from the middle or at the end of a quotation (but not the
beginning). With publication of the most recent versions of the Publication Manual of the
American Psychological Association (7th edition, APA, 2020) and the MLA Handbook
for Writers of (Research Papers, (9th edition, MLA, 2021), ellipsis dots follow the same
conventions.

Example 4.4.2

Source:
Do not tie your shoe in a melon patch or adjust your hat under a pear tree.
—Chinese Proverb
 Quoting Effectively 65

Ellipsis in the middle of the sentence:

APA and MLA Style:

A Chinese proverb reminds us to avoid actions that causal observers may misinterpret:
Do not . . . adjust your hat under a pear tree.

Comment:
Words omitted from the middle of the quotation are indicated by three evenly spaced
periods.
Ellipsis dots and a period at the end of a sentence:

APA and MLA Style:

The Chinese proverb says: “Do not tie your shoe in a melon patch.”

Comment:
When the quotation ends before the sources sentence ends, ellipsis dots at the end of the
sentence include four dots. One dot is the period at the end of the sentence, and the three
dots show that words have been omitted. The period follows the last letter just like any
other period.
Ellipsis dots and a period at the end but with intervening parenthetical material:

APA and MLA Style:

We should be careful to avoid suspicious behavior: “Do not tie your shoe in a melon
patch . . .” (Chinese proverb).

Comment:
If there is a citation at the end, the period moves from after the last letter of the quotation
to after the end of the citation.
Ellipsis dots are not used to show initial words omitted:

APA and MLA Style:

A Chinese proverb says not to “tie your shoe in a melon patch . . .”

Comment:
The omission of words from the beginning of a quotation does not need to be signaled
because the quotation is clearly beginning mid-sentence or begins with a lowercase letter.
The omission at the end needs to be indicated to let the reader know that more words fol-
low in the original source.
66 Using Sources Effectively

Square Brackets
Square brackets are used to add words inside a quotation. Parentheses are not used because
they would indicate that the author of the source was making a parenthetical comment,
and confusion would result. Note the difference:

Example 4.4.3
Incorrect use of parentheses inside a quotation, APA style:

Harris and Curtis (2024) wrote, “Square brackets (also called, simply, brackets) are used
to add words inside a quotation” (p. 72).

Correct use of square brackets inside a quotation, APA style:

Harris and Curtis (2024) wrote, “Square brackets [also called, simply, brackets] are used
to add words inside a quotation” (p. 72).
In the first situation, your reader will likely think that we (the authors) added the
words “also called, simply brackets” as a parenthetical aside, which is incorrect. In
the second example, using square brackets makes it clear that you, quoting us, added
the additional words.
Inserting one or more words may be desirable under several circumstances. See Table 4.5

Example 4.4.4

Source:
A question arose about the impact of the wheel rim on the road at the time of the acci-
dent. Examination revealed that fresh gouges were clearly visible where it contacted the
pavement. —David Doe, 2024, p. 643.

Table 4.5 Why Insert Words and Use Brackets

• To clarify a pronoun by adding the word to which it refers.
This word, the antecedent, may be in a previous sentence not included in the quotation.
• To add clarity or explanation.
Quoting part of an author’s work means, by definition, that you are losing some of the context
of the quotation. Thus, it is sometimes necessary to supply a few words to clarify to what the
source is referring by a specific term, reference allusion, or other comment.
• To expand an acronym.
Some sources reflect the acronym-laden specialty about which they are writing. They assume
that their reader knows the meaning. However, your reader might not, so be sure to present the
words behind the acronym the first time it occurs, whether in your writing or in a quotation.
• To identify an obvious error in the text.
If an author commits an obvious error, brackets are used so that it will not appear to be a copy-
ing mistake. The Latin word sic (meaning thus) is used. The word is italicized in APA but not in
MLA style. And note that, whatever the nature of the error, you should not add an exclamation
point after the sic, as if you are astonished that such an error could be made.
 Quoting Effectively 67

Example of adding an antecedent, APA style:

The forensic investigation “revealed that fresh gouges were clearly visible where it [the rim
of the wheel] contacted the pavement” (Doe, 2024, p. 643).

Example of adding an antecedent, MLA style:

The forensic investigation “revealed that fresh gouges were clearly visible where it [the rim
of the wheel] contacted the pavement” (Doe 643).

Comment:
Whenever the antecedent for a pronoun (it, him, her, they, we) is not present, clarify it
either within the quotation in square brackets or in the introduction to the quotation.

Example 4.4.5

Source:
Hikers made the trek to both mountain and desert weather stations and retrieved the
recording drum data. The sampling records were examined for levels of the same atmos-
pheric gasses. —Sarah Smith, 2023, p. 543.

Example of adding a clarifying explanation, APA style:

Smith (2023) discovered that the investigation included data from both high and low
altitude: “The sampling records [from weather stations in the desert and the mountains]
were examined for levels of the same atmospheric gasses” (p. 543).

Example of adding a clarifying explanation, MLA style:

Sarah Smith notes that the investigation included data from both high and low altitude:
“The sampling records [from weather stations in the desert and the mountains] were
examined for levels of the same atmospheric gasses” (543).

Comment:
An alternative to adding the clarification in square brackets inside the quotation is to add it
to the introductory lead-in or to the sentence following the quotation. Thus, for this exam-
ple, the writer might have either introduced the quotation or added a follow-up sentence
such as this one: “Sarah Smith notes that the investigation included data from both moun-
tain and desert weather stations.”

Example 4.4.6

Source:
In many call centers, there is a constant tension between helping the customer and
meeting AHT goals. —David Doe, 2022, p. 321
68 Using Sources Effectively

Example of expanding the acronym, APA style:

As Doe (2022) has noted, “In many call centers, there is a constant tension between
helping the customer and meeting AHT [Average Handle Time] goals” (p. 321).

Example of expanding the acronym, MLA style:

“In many call centers,” writes David Doe, “there is a constant tension between helping
the customer and meeting AHT [Average Handle Time] goals” (321).

Example 4.4.7
“The general’s words, however, should be understood in the contrext of the surrounding
battle” (Begg, 2025, p. 345).

Example if inserting sic, APA style:

One historian said that General Herring has been misunderstood: “The general’s words,
however, should be understood in the contrext [sic] of the surrounding battle” (Begg,
2025, p. 345).

Example if inserting sic, MLA style:

One historian said that General Herring has been misunderstood: “The general’s words,
however, should be understood in the contrext [sic] of the surrounding battle” (Begg 345).

Important: Note that when you add brack-

eted words to a sentence, you may not Sidebar 4.34 Sic
silently remove any of the words of the text.
In ­Example 4.4.4. earlier, for instance, when Sic (with square-brackets, usually) is
supplying the antecedent to it, the it must an abbreviation of “sic erat scriptum,”
remain. If you remove a word or words, then which is Latin for “thus it had been
you must show that text is missing by includ- written.” Sic [sic] indicates that the
ing ellipsis dots in the appropriate place. copied or quoted word that appears
odd or erroneous is quoted exactly as
Review Questions it was written in the original.
To see how well you understand this chapter,
attempt to answer each of the following ques-
tions without referring to the text. (Write down your answers to make checking easier.) Then
check your answers with the text. If you missed something important, add it to your answer.

1. What are the reasons for choosing to quote rather than to paraphrase?
2. Describe the way quotations can be used unwisely.
3. Define the fallacy of vicious abstraction and give an example.
4. List as many different introductory verbs as you can in one minute. Next, explain why
having a choice of these words can improve your writing.
 Quoting Effectively 69

5. What is historical present tense, and why is it used?

6. Why is it important to pay attention to the accuracy of your punctuation?

Questions for Thought and Discussion

See Teacher’s Edition and Online Version.

Mini-Research Project: Misattributed Quotations

Whom are you really quoting? It is not uncommon for some wise or pointed saying to be
credited to a famous person who never said it. Start up your favorite Web browser, and
search on the string “misattributed quotations.”

1. For three of the ones you find, do the following:

• Write out the quotation.
• Name who really said it.
• Name to whom it is attributed.
• Explain, based on your research, how the quotation became misattributed.
2. For one misattribution, find a quotation that has been wrongly attributed to at least four
people. Report according the same instructions earlier.

A Little Rhetoric Analogy

An analogy forms a comparison between a new idea or something that the writer wants to
explain and something already familiar to the reader. By comparing the unfamiliar to the
familiar, the writer clarifies the unfamiliar. Usually, the writer identifies several points of
similarity between the two.

Example [Link].1
An engineering blueprint is like a road map. Just as the map shows where the roads
and rivers and cities are, the blueprint shows where the wiring, pipes, and rooms are.
The map shows how the roads interconnect, while the blueprint shows how the wiring
interconnects. Bot map and blueprint are diagrams that represent physical objects on a
miniature scale.

Example [Link].2
A computer software algorithm is like a recipe. Both represent a step=by=step process
that leads to a given result. When the steps of a cake recipe are followed in order, a cake
results. When a software sorting algorithm is run, a sorted list results.

Example [Link].3
Whereas an algorithm produces a result by a fixed set of steps, a heuristic produces a
result by experiment or trial and error. In other words, a heuristic is like finding your
70 Using Sources Effectively

way to the top of a mountain when there is no existing path. You have to step up and try
something, a step here and a step there, sometimes making progress and sometimes not.
Eventually, you find out how to get to the top by getting there.

Now You Try

1. Create three analogies that clarify an idea, a process, or an object (such as a smartphone).
2. Show the analogies to three people to receive their feedback. Are the analogies clear?
Do the people understand the new thing now that they have read your analogy? Do you
need to make improvements?
3. Comment on what you have learned from creating, sharing, and improving your
analogies.
5 Paraphrasing and Summarizing

Abstract
This chapter explores the use of paraphrasing and summarizing as alternatives to quoting.
Presented are the Why, When, and How to paraphrase and summarize. Included is infor-
mation to help you to decide when it is better to quote, paraphrase, or summarize your
source. The final section warns writers to avoid the verbal disease of thesaurusitis.

Pierre gets the girl.

—A plot summary of War and Peace

The previous chapter showed you how to quote from your sources effectively. This chapter
shows you two alternative methods of presenting source material, paraphrasing and sum-
marizing. These two skills have their own techniques and requirements, which, learned
well, will give you a full range of choices for incorporating source material.

The learning objectives of Chapter 5 are as follows:

a. To paraphrase and summarize effectively in order to strengthen writing substantially.

b. To know when to choose among quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing in order
for each source to have optimal impact.
c. To practice proper paraphrasing and summarizing in order to avoid plagiarizing.

5.1 Paraphrasing
Sometimes, a source will provide you with an excellent idea in support of your thesis, and
you will feel overjoyed at finding it. But then, you look a bit closer. The way the source
expresses the idea is confusing or even nearly opaque. A quotation would simply not have
the powerful effect the idea deserves. Fortunately, quoting is only one way to incorporate a
source’s ideas into your research paper. Another way is to paraphrase the source, express-
ing the same meaning at the same length but using your own clear words and sentence
structure.

DOI: 10.4324/9781032643779-5
72 Using Sources Effectively

What Is a Paraphrase?
A paraphrase is a restatement or rewriting of a source in order to present the source’s idea
or meaning without actually quoting the source’s words. That is to say this:

A paraphrase converts a source’s words into about the same number of your own
words.

Example 5.1.1

Source:
The emergency room medical intervention provided to the subject was deemed subopti-
mal to best practices by legal counsel, so the facility and the on-shift physician received
a legal service declaring a therapeutic misadventure. —John Doe, 2024, p. 432.

Example paraphrase, APA style:

Doe (2024) reported that, after the accident, attorneys for the patient decided that the
treatment given in the emergency room was substandard in comparison with that of
other hospitals, so they filed a malpractice lawsuit against the doctor on duty and the
hospital (p. 432).

Example paraphrase, MLA style:

Doe (2024) reports that, after the accident, attorneys for the patient decided that the
treatment given in the emergency room was substandard in comparison with that of
other hospitals, so they filed a malpractice lawsuit against the doctor on duty and the
hospital (432).

Comment:
In this example, you can see that the paraphrase requires the same number of words as the
source, and it includes all the ideas in the source, but the paraphrase is clearer and easier
to understand.

Why and When to Paraphrase

Any one of several conditions can make paraphrasing a good choice as a means of incor-
porating a source into your paper:

• Arrangement for emphasis. The rearrangement of ideas and sentence structure associ-
ated with the process of paraphrasing allows you to emphasize the ideas of importance
to your paper. The end of a sentence or passage has the most emphasis, the begin-
ning the second most, and the middle the least. Therefore, if your source mentions an
 Paraphrasing and Summarizing 73

important idea in the middle of a long sentence, your paraphrase can position the idea
at the end for more impact.
• Simplifying the material. The material may need to be simplified either in sentence
structure, vocabulary, or presentation. The source may be highly technical or specific
to a particular discipline, while you may be writing for a more general audience. The
complexity of the argument may make it difficult to follow. In such cases, you can
simplify the material through a paraphrase. The act of paraphrasing will increase your
own understanding of the source material, and the paraphrase itself will increase your
reader’s understanding.
• Clarifying the meaning. The material can be presented more clearly because the source
has a difficult style or technical vocabulary. Some brilliant thinkers write poorly. Oth-
ers encumber their writing with an excess of jargon, over-use of the passive voice, or
otherwise render their words less effective than their ideas. Paraphrasing under these
circumstances is useful. Quoting a source that your reader cannot understand will not
help your paper, but providing a clear paraphrase will.
• Normalizing your paper’s style. Even though your paper might include sources from the
highly sophisticated to the simple, you might want to maintain a uniform writing style.
Further, the comprehension level of the paper should be kept consistent to match your
audience. In such a case, paraphrasing sources allows you to convert them into your
own style and vocabulary.
• Keeping the same length. If the length of the source does not need to be shortened (as
a summary would do), or more details are desired than a summary would provide, a
paraphrase is the right choice.

Example 5.1.2

Source:
The often-discussed Theory X, Theory Y, and Theory Z management styles, which are
in essence varying descriptors of a philosophy of human motivation, have been in the
atmosphere of leadership since the 1960s. —Stacy Smith, 2024, pp. 234–235

Example paraphrase, APA Style:

In an article in Management Review, Smith (2024) observed that thinking about leader-
ship has, since the 1960s, included those frequently talked about Theory X, Theory Y,
and Theory Z approaches to managing, and Smith noted that these are actually different
beliefs about employee motivation (pp. 234–235).

Example paraphrase, MLA Style:

In an article in Management Review, Stacy Smith (2024) observes that thinking about
leadership has, since the 1960s, included those frequently talked about Theory X, Theory
Y, and Theory Z approaches to managing, and Smith notes that these are actually differ-
ent beliefs about employee motivation (234–235).
74 Using Sources Effectively

Comment:
Sidebar 5.1 Paraphrasing
In her article, Stacy Smith buried in mid-
Guidelines
sentence what the research paper writer thought
was her most important idea—that these man- • Use the same number of words.
agement theories are about employee motiva-
• Preserve the meaning.
tion. In the paraphrase, then, this thought was
• Maintain the tone and attitude of
put at the end, to give it emphasis.
the author.

Paraphrasing Ground Rules

Because paraphrasing involves changing the source’s words and the sequence of the
source’s ideas, you must take care not to produce a distorted result. In order to create
a paraphrase that is ethical and appropriate, then, keep these guidelines in mind as you
develop your skill in paraphrasing.

• Use the same number of words. Keep the paraphrase about the same number of words
as the original, not omitting any significant features of the source material. Include each
point, major and minor, from the original.
• Preserve the meaning. Take care to preserve the author’s original meaning and to avoid
taking the ideas out of context. What the author stressed as the main points of the pas-
sage should be kept as the main points of the paraphrase. The author’s point of view and
conclusions should be preserved.
• Maintain the tone and attitude of the author. Be careful not to create a trivialized or
sarcastic paraphrase of a source with which you disagree; similarly, avoid making a
source with which you agree appear more attractive (with euphemisms, for example)
than it is.

Again, when you work on paraphrasing, take care that the result is a complete paraphrase,
not a partial one that includes phrases from the source. Including strings of the source’s
words without using quotation marks is plagiarism. In order to avoid plagiarism, follow
these guidelines for a successful paraphrase:

• The paraphrase must be almost entirely in your own words. Use new vocabulary (such
as synonyms) and new phrases. Do not mix your own words with any of the source’s
words (unless you quote the source’s words). (Of course, you may use the same techni-
cal terms, such as chronic insomnia, and the same helper words, such as a, and, the, of
in, is, and so forth.)
• Use a different sentence structure from that of the source. Recast the ideas into
your own presentation. Do not copy the arrangement of clauses or other rhetorical
structures.
• In most cases, rearrange the order of the ideas. You must include all of the points
and ideas of the source, but you should rearrange them. For passages that require a
specific sequence, such as scientific processes, historical events, or cause-and-effect
 Paraphrasing and Summarizing 75

descriptions, maintain the order of the source at the major steps. You still may wish to
rearrange the discussion within each step.
• Put quotation marks around any exact words that you retain from the source. Quoting
particularly effective phrases from the source is not technically part of a paraphrase, but
doing so can lend flavor and sparkle to the paraphrase. Just be sure to include quotation
marks around each phrase that you quote.
• Provide a citation that clearly gives credit to the source for the ideas in the paraphrase.

How to Paraphrase
Now that we have discussed the rules and rationale for paraphrasing, and mentioned what
to be aware of while creating paraphrases, let’s look at the practical side. To create an effec-
tive paraphrase, follow these steps:

• Read the source passage several times. In order to get a complete understanding of the
passage, read it over more than once. Consult a dictionary, if necessary, to define any
words that you do not know. Use your reading comprehension skills here: Read the
passage, look away, think about what you just read, recite out loud what you think the
passage means, and then check your understanding by looking at the passage again.
This first step is crucial, for you cannot paraphrase a passage accurately if you do not
understand it.
• Outline the passage. Use your own words and phrases for writing the outline so that you
can be free to use them as the building blocks of your paraphrase. You might write the
first version of the outline without consulting the passage, in order to avoid the tempta-
tion of borrowing words or phrases from it. Then, consult the passage again to ensure
that the outline is accurate and complete. Remember that a paraphrase does not omit
any ideas.
• Rearrange the outline. Change the order of items to reflect the order of emphasis that
you want to present in your paraphrase or to create better clarity. For example, the
author may present a conclusion at the beginning of the passage, while you may want
to put it at the end of your paraphrase.
• Write the paraphrase. Use the outline or your memory to write the paraphrase. Do not
look at the source text. It is a good idea to write the paraphrase in several different ways,
comparing the clarity, emphasis, and fidelity of each version to the source. Two or three
variants will give you a choice later on when you want to build the source into your
paper.
• Check the result. Compare the paraphrase with the original to be sure that you have pre-
served the source’s meaning accurately. Be sure that you have not accidentally included
exact words or phrases that you remembered from reading the source. (The techni-
cal term for this remembering is cryptomnesia, inadvertently forgetting where you read
phrases and thinking that they are your own.)
• Add the appropriate citation. A good idea is to include a possible lead-in as well, so
that your paraphrase is appropriately introduced. Be sure that the source is properly
credited, using the citation style that you have chosen or been assigned.
76 Using Sources Effectively

When you are finished, double-check the ground rules earlier to be sure that they have
been satisfied. To help you understand the process better, study the following exam-
ples. Follow the steps in the process and then compare the result with the source in
each case.

Example 5.1.3

Source text:
Invention, strictly speaking, is little more than a new combination of those images which
have been previously gathered and deposited in the memory: nothing can come of
­nothing: he who has laid up no materials, can produce no combinations. —Sir Joshua
Reynolds, Discourses on Art, 1797, pp. 15–16

Outline using your own words:

(1) Creativity combines ideas of visual impressions already remembered.
(2) Everything needs a source or original.
(3) Without ideas or images, there is no raw material to intermix.

Rearrange, revising freely:

(3) Without a stock of ideas, there is no raw material to intermix to get a new product.
(2) Everything needs a source.
(1) Creativity in painting [thus] is an act of combining visual impressions seen and
remembered.

Write using APA style of citation:

Reynolds (1797) argued that without a stock of ideas, the artist will have no raw mate-
rial to intermix to get a new idea because every creation needs a source. Creativity in
painting is, therefore, an act of combining visual impressions that the artist has seen and
remembered (pp. 15–16). (Note: In APA style of citation, page numbers are not required
for paraphrases, but they help the reader find the related passage.)

Write using MLA style of citation:

Sir Joshua Reynolds (1797) argues that without a stock of ideas, the artist will have no
raw material to intermix to get a new idea because every creation needs a source. Crea-
tivity in painting is, therefore, an act of combining visual impressions that the artist has
seen and remembered (15–16).

Comment:
Note here that the original quotation contains 39 words, while the paraphrase has 42
words. The ideas are all included, while the language is clarified, and the concept of crea-
tivity (“invention” in the original) is placed last for emphasis.
 Paraphrasing and Summarizing 77

Example 5.1.4

Source Text:
Historically, the quality of a decision has corresponded directly with the quantity of
information resources available for making the decision. However, today the explosive
increase in the quantity of information has created a new reality, that when a certain
point is reached, referred to as information overload, the amount of information is such
that it reduces the quality of the decision because the information can no longer be
effectively processed. Thus, the overabundance of information actually inhibits rather
than enhances decision quality. —Jason Doe, 2024, p. 345.

Outline using your own words:

(1) In the past (or until recently), a better decision came from a larger amount of information.
(2) But now, the amount of information is increasing so much that it can make decisions
worse.
(3) Called information overload when too much information cannot all be taken into
account.
(4) So, too much information can hurt rather than improve a decision.

Rearrange, revising here and there:

(3) Information overload results when too much information cannot all be taken into
account.
(1) In the past, the larger the amount of information, the better the decision would be.
(2) But now, the amount of information is increasing so much that it can make deci-
sions worse
(4) So, too much information can hurt rather than improve a decision.

Write using APA-style of citation:

As Doe (discussed), information overload occurs when so much information is present
that it cannot all be taken into account. In the past, the more information available
for making a decision, the better the decision would be. Today, however, there is so
much information available for making most decisions that a point can be reached when
acquiring still more information can be harmful. An attempt to take too much informa-
tion into account hurts rather than helps the resulting decision (p. 345).

Write using MLA-style of citation:

As Jason Doe tells us, information overload occurs when so much information is pre-
sent that it cannot all be taken into account. In the past, the more information available
for making a decision, the better the decision would be. Today, however, there is so
much information available for making most decisions that a point can be reached when
acquiring still more information can be harmful. An attempt to take too much informa-
tion into account hurts rather than helps the resulting ­decision (345).
78 Using Sources Effectively

Comment:
The source text has been rearranged to emphasize the concept of information overload and
to simplify the vocabulary and sentence structure. Length is comparable, with the source
being 82 words and the paraphrase 76 words.

Example 5.1.5

Source text:
Retailers may use discounted-price sales in order to clear excess inventories. However,
if price discounting occurs too frequently, customers might come to expect such events
regularly and, therefore, defer purchases in anticipation of upcoming off-price events. In
such a case, this shifted buying pattern will reduce the retailer’s full-margin volume and,
possibly, only worsen the excess inventory problem. —Judy Doe, 2024, p. 543.

Outline using your own words:

(1) Some stores have regular lower-price sales to reduce the oversupply of merchandise.
(2) If there are too many sales, customers will begin to take them for granted.
(3) Customers will then put off buying from the store until a sale is on.
(4) This behavior will lower the number of goods sold at full price.
(5) These lower sales may increase the oversupply of merchandise.

Rearrange:
(1) Some stores have regular lower-price sales to reduce the oversupply of merchandise.
(5) These lower sales may increase the oversupply of merchandise.
(3) Customers will then put off buying from the store until a sale is on.
(2) If there are too many sales, customers will begin to take them for granted.
(4) This behavior will lower the number of goods sold at full price.

Write using APA-style citation:

Some stores, according to Doe (2024), employ regular lower-price sales in order to
reduce the oversupply of merchandise on hand, but this practice can actually increase
the oversupply. When sales occur too often, customers will wait for a sale before buying
because they take the sale opportunities for granted.
This behavior will lower the number of goods sold at full price, leaving them in inven-
tory (p. 543).

Write using MLA-style citation:

Some stores, according to Judy Doe (2024), employ regular lower-price sales in order to
reduce the oversupply of merchandise on hand, but this practice can actually increase
the oversupply. When sales occur too often, customers will wait for a sale before buying
because they take the sale opportunities for granted. This behavior will lower the number
of goods sold at full price, leaving them in inventory (543).
 Paraphrasing and Summarizing 79

Comment:
The source text has been rearranged to highlight the unintended effects of too-frequent
sales on inventory. Sentences (2) and (3) have been intermixed in the paraphrase. As with
the other examples above, note that the writer is free to improve, add, and delete words
from the outline, even though the outline is written in complete sentences, paraphrasing
each source sentence. Length of the two passages is comparable, with the source at 58
words and the paraphrase at 61.

Cautions About Paraphrasing

Following the guidelines and the instructions discussed earlier should help you write effec-
tive paraphrases. However, you should still be on the alert to avoid the most common
errors of paraphrasing:

• Changing only some of the words. Writers who change only a few words or who include
various phrases from the source in the paraphrase commit plagiarism. As the instructions
earlier note, all of the words must be different (other than technical terms under discus-
sion, such as information overload and the helper words, such as the, end, and, of, etc.)
• Changing words but keeping the same sentence structure and order of presentation.
Paraphrasing must be more than substituting synonyms for every word in the original.
Rewrite the source.
• Adding ideas or explanation. The paraphrase should reflect the source accurately and
must not include ideas absent from the source. Explanation of the paraphrase should
come in your own subsequent discussion, not in the paraphrase itself.
• Adding interpretation or assessment. The paraphrase should not include your evalua-
tion or judgment of the ideas. Evaluate afterwards. Avoid also any biased presentation of
the meaning, such as the use of emotive, belittling, or sarcastic words in the paraphrase.
Rise above such unjust tactics.
• Creating a straw man fallacy. Writers who exaggerate or misrepresent the source in a
way that makes it an easier target for rebuttal commit the straw man fallacy. Take care
that your paraphrase is fair, especially if you are hostile toward the source. See the
example later (the version labeled “Straw man fallacy paraphrase”).

Example 5.1.6

Source:
Unless steps are taken to provide a predictable and stable energy supply in the face of
growing demand, the nation may be in danger of sudden power losses or even extended
blackouts, thus damaging our industrial and information-based economies. Building
more gas-fired generation plants seems to be the best answer. —Jason Doe, 2024, p. 342

Fair paraphrase, APA style:

Doe (2024) suggested that we must construct additional power plants fueled by natural
gas if we are to have a reliable electricity supply during this period of increasing usage.
80 Using Sources Effectively

Without that, the country’s economic base (both industrial and information-driven) may
be damaged by lengthy blackouts or abrupt losses of power (p. 342).

Inadequate paraphrase, APA style:

Doe (2024) recommended that the government take action to provide a predictable and
stable energy supply because of constantly growing demand. Otherwise, we may be in
danger of losing power or even experiencing extended blackouts. These circumstances
could damage our industrial and information-based economy. He says that gas-fired
plants appear to be the best answer (p. 342).

Comment:
The writer of this inadequate paraphrase commits plagiarism by including many
word-for-word phrases from the source (indicated by the bold type). The order of the ideas
is also unchanged from the source. Changing only a few words in a source creates an inad-
equate paraphrase because it plagiarizes the remainder of the source.

Straw man fallacy paraphrase, APA style:

Doe (2024) claimed that if we do not litter the whole country with a bunch of heavily
polluting powerplants, there would be no way to ensure a reliable supply of power in
the face of constantly growing wasteful usage. Without all those new plants, he alleged,
our who economy will collapse and we will all be cast into permanent darkness (p. 342).

Comment:
The straw man paraphrase is not only a mischaracterization of Doe, attributing extremist
claims to him (“economy will collapse,” “permanent darkness”), but it also uses highly
emotive terms to sneer at the writer and his argument (“claimed,” “litter,” “alleged”). Inter-
pretations of the facts are also added to the paraphrase (“heavily polluting,” “wasteful”).
Remember that the place to attack a position that you reject is after you have presented the
author’s position as accurately as you can.

5.2 Summarizing
In addition to quoting and paraphrasing, your third choice for incorporating a source into
your own writing is to summarize it. Summarizing possesses a flexibility that allows for
highly creative uses of source material. While there is no degree of paraphrasing (a para-
phrase must contain about the same number of words as the source), a summary can be
created with many fewer or only somewhat fewer words.

What Is a Summary?
A summary is a condensed restatement or rewriting of a course in order to present the
source’s idea in a more focused or shorter way than quoting or paraphrasing would allow.
In other words:
 Paraphrasing and Summarizing 81

A summary reduces a source’s words into fewer of your own words.

Example 5.2.1

Source:
Fromage swept the huge sand vacuum back and forth along an arc parallel to the boat,
getting deeper and deeper in a fixed area. After a few minutes, he heard the thud of
something more solid than sand hitting the walls of the vacuum. Then, he looked down
on the sea floor. Something glinted at him. It was a coin. Then, there was another. And,
two more. Three. A bar of silver. Suddenly a whole cornucopia of coins and bars, both in
gold and silver, lay before him as the vacuum drew off the overlying sand. —Jason Doe,
2025, p. 165 [96 words]

Summary:
At the moment of discovery of the treasure, Doe (2025) described how Fromage used a
sand vacuum to uncover first a coin, then another, and finally the load of precious metal
bars and coins (p. 165). [34 words]

Why and When to Summarize

The power of summarizing comes from its flexibility. A summary can shorten a source
text moderately or dramatically, depending on your application. You may want to
reduce a section from a book or article to about a third or a fourth of its original length,
or you may want to summarize an entire article or even a book in a paragraph. A sum-
mary, at its most condensed level, might involve a sentence, a phrase, or even only a
single word or two. For example, if you have just presented an argument for a posi-
tion, quoting and citing a source or two, you might continue to bolster your case by
referring briefly to other sources that also argue in favor of your position: “This view
is also supported by Yang (2023), Romero (2024), and Doe (2025).” Here, you have
summarized each of these three sources by stating that they are in agreement with your
argument.

• Simplify the source. An argument or discussion that may take several pages in the source
can be condensed, clarified, and simplified. Stating just the principal reasons or points
gets the information to the reader without derailing your own argument.
• Eliminate the extras. Unneeded examples, digressions, or explanations can be omitted,
keeping only the essential parts of the discussion or the main argument. References to
other discussions in the same book or article, which would be irrelevant to your readers,
can be eliminated.
• Condense the source. Fewer details are needed than a paraphrase would provide.
A summary can be a more general statement of the overall meaning of the source. Too
much of another source tends to create an elaborate digression rather than a seamless
support to your own discussion.
82 Using Sources Effectively

• Make a minor point. A source might contribute to your argument in a minor way, or you
wish to refer to it only briefly. For example (MLA style), “Jason Doe agrees with Yang,
using many of the same arguments” (165).

In order to avoid plagiarism, follow these guidelines for a successful summary:

• The summary must be almost entirely in your own words. Use new vocabulary (such as
synonyms) and new phrases. Do not mix your own words with any of the source’s words
(unless you quote the source’s words). (Once again, you may use the same technical
terms and helper words that you can when paraphrasing.)
• Use a sentence structure different from that of the source. Recast the ideas into your
own presentation.
• Rearrange the order of the ideas. A summary will omit some ideas, but the remain-
ing ones should be reordered as well. (If you are summarizing a passage describ-
ing a process or necessary sequence of events, you may maintain the order of the
source.)
• Use quotation marks around any exact words that you retain from the source.
• Provide a citation that clearly gives the source credit for the ideas.

In order to create a summary that is ethical and appropriate, take care to preserve
the author’s original meaning and to avoid taking the ideas out of context. See the
­Paraphrasing Ground Rules on page 74 for more information; the same rules apply to
summarizing.

How to Summarize
To create an effective summary, follow these steps:

• Read the source passage several times. In order to get a complete understanding of the
passage, read it over more than once. Con-
sult a dictionary, if necessary, to define any Sidebar 5.2 Summarizing
word that you do not know. Use your read-
Guidelines
ing comprehension skills here: Read the
passage, look away, think about what you • Simplify the source.
just read, recite out loud what you think
• Eliminate the extras.
the passage means, and then check your
• Condense the source.
understanding by looking at the passage
again. This step is crucial because you can- • Make a minor point.
not summarize a passage accurately if you • Use only your own words.
do not understand it. • Implement a different sentence
• Decide how long a summary that you structure.
need. Depending on your purpose, you • Rearrange the order of the ideas.
may need a paragraph, a few sentences, • Add quotation marks around any
one sentence, or part of a sentence. Key exact words that you retain.
considerations for length include the • Provide a citation.
following:
 Paraphrasing and Summarizing 83

• How important is the source to your argument? Does the source represent a major
contribution to your argument or only a minor one?
• How compressed or expanded are the ideas? If the source takes many words to argue
a point or uses many digressions or examples, you can summarize more compactly
than if the source presents ideas densely.

Keeping the length goal in mind will guide you in the remaining steps.

• Outline the passage. Use your own words and phrases for writing the outline so that you
can be free to use them as the building blocks of your summary. As you outline, include
the main points, but omit the supporting material that you do not need. Be careful, how-
ever, not to alter the meaning. If the source is short enough, you might attempt to write
the outline without consulting the source, in order to avoid the temptation of borrowing
words or phrases from it. Then, check to be sure that you have included all the main
ideas.
• Rearrange the outline. Change the order of the outline to reflect the order of emphasis
that you want to present in the summary.
• Write the summary. Use the outline to guide you, and do not look at the source text.
• Check the result. Compare the summary with the original to be sure that you have accu-
rately preserved the source’s meaning. Be sure that you have not accidentally included
exact words or phrases that you remembered from reading the source, or if you have, be
sure to put quotation marks around them.
• Add the appropriate citation. In addition to crediting the source properly, you might
also want to include an appropriate lead-in to the summary. You might not use exactly
that lead-in for the final paper, but it will provide a possibility.

Example 5.2.2
Source text, with sentence numbers added for reference:

(1) Fire is both a devastating and renewing event in the life of the forest. (2) An unchecked
forest fire can clear thousands of acres, burning to ashes every tree, bush, and vine,
together with the plant material on the forest floor that supplies mulch for vegetation,
protection and food for insects, and (along with roots) erosion control. (3) Small ani-
mals and insects are killed off by the fire and heat while larger animals that survive
temporarily by fleeing may live only to starve later because their food supply has been
eliminated. (4) Without the erosion control of the forest plants, the winter rains can
wash precious topsoil away, clogging rivers and killing fish and leaving an even more
barren landscape. (5) However, the same fire that caused this destruction also has
cleansed the forest of dead or diseased trees. (6) Harmful pests (such as pine beetles)
are killed, too. (7) Some types of seeds require the heat of a fire in order to germinate;
they now have the opportunity to begin new life. (8) Other small seedlings are now
able to grow also, freed from the deep shade and competition of the previous vegeta-
tion. (9) Even the ashes can add their chemistry to the soil. —Judy Doe, 2025, p. 143
[199 words]
84 Using Sources Effectively

Decide the length:

This summary should be one-fourth of the original (therefore, about 50 words here)

Outline using your own words and omitting lesser details:

(1) Fire can harm and help a forest.

(2) Trees, shrubs, dead leaves, and pine needles—all burned to powder.
(3) Smaller wildlife is killed.
(4) Loss of roots and mulch can cause mudslides.
(5) Unhealthy trees have been purged from the forest by the fire.
(6) Insect pests have also been eliminated.
(7) Seeds that require heat to sprout can grow.
(8) Plants that could not compete with large trees can thrive, also.
(9) Ashes help the soil.

Rearrange:
(1) Trees, shrubs, dead leaves, and pine needles—all burned to powder.
(4) Loss of roots and mulch can cause mudslides.
(2) Smaller wildlife is killed.
(6) Insect pests have also been eliminated.
(5) Unhealthy trees have been purged from the forest by the fire.
(9) Ashes help the soil.
(7) Seeds that require heat to sprout can grow.
(8) Plants that could not compete with large trees can thrive, also.
(1) Fire can harm and help a forest.

First draft:
In describing the effects of a forest fire, Doe (2025) points out that everything—
trees, shrubs, leaves on the ground—is burned to powder, eliminating roots and
mulch that would prevent mudslides. Even smaller wildlife is killed. However, she
also notes that insect pests are killed as well, together with unhealthy trees. Their
ashes have become a soil amendment. Seeds that require heat to sprout can now
grow, and plants that would never grow in the deep shade of the forest can now
thrive. In Doe’s view, then, fire can be both harmful and helpful to a forest (p. 143).
[98 words]

Comment:
This draft has reduced the passage by only 50%. You may need to work through several
drafts to achieve our length goal since it is difficult to hit a length target on the first try.
Measuring your progress sets up a new goal. Here, the new goal is to reduce the first sum-
mary draft by half.
 Paraphrasing and Summarizing 85

Second draft:
In describing the effects of a forest fire, Doe (2025) points out that everything is burned to
power, eliminating both trees and the mulch that would prevent mudslides. Even smaller
wildlife is killed. However, she further notes that insect pests are killed, also, together
with unhealthy trees, turning their ashes into a soil amendment. Seeds that require heat
to sprout can now grow. In Doe’s view, then, fire can be both harmful and helpful to a
forest (p. 143). [77 words]

Comment:
This draft contains 77 words. At this point, you may decide that the summary is as con-
densed as you need it and adopt this version for your paper. If you still want the 50-word
version, you can reduce the draft further. Your new goal is to reduce this draft by one-third.

Third draft using APA citation style:

In a forest fire, Doe (2025) pointed out, everything is destroyed: Trees and mulch
turn to ashes, and smaller wildlife is killed. However, she noted that insect pests and
unhealthy trees are also turned to a soil-amending ash, while heat-sprouted seeds can
now thrive. In Doe’s view, then, a forest fire can be both harmful and helpful (p. 143).
[57 words]

Third draft using MLA citation style:

In a forest fire, Judy Doe (2025) points out, everything is destroyed: Trees and mulch
turn to ashes, and smaller wildlife is killed. However, she notes that insect pests and
unhealthy trees are also turned to a soil-amending ash, while heat-sprouted seeds can
now thrive. In Doe’s view, then, a forest fire can be both harmful and helpful (143). [57
words]

Comment:
This draft is 57 words, close to our goal. When you work on several drafts of a text, ham-
mering it down to fewer and fewer words, not only will you come to know the text itself
very well but you will also gain insights into exactly what you see as the important or even
essential parts of the text. In addition, you will develop your writing skills further, as you
wrestle with sentence structures and phrasings in an effort to hone down the number of
words to meet your requirements. Summarizing can be an exciting challenge.
An alternative technique for summarizing is to construct a sentence outline that contains
about the same number of words as the projected summary. In the situation earlier, for
example, the outline would be limited to about 50 words. Writing a summary of the desired
length based on the outline then becomes simpler. The challenge in this case lies in trim-
ming down the ideas into an appropriate-length outline. You may wish to experiment to see
which of these techniques works better for you.
86 Using Sources Effectively

Example 5.2.3
Source text: The fire passage in Example 5.2.2.
Goal: 50 words.
Strategy: Nine sentences must be reduced to an average length of five to six words each.

Outline:
(1) In a forest, fire can harm and help. [8 words]
(2) Everything is burned. [3 words]
(3) Small animals are killed immediately; others die from hunger later. [10 words]
(4) Erosion leaves the hills barren. [5 words]
(5) Dead and diseased trees are removed. [6 words]
(6) Harmful insects are killed. [4 words]
(7) Some seeds need fire heat to germinate. [7 words]
(8) Small plants can now grow freely. [6 words]
(9) Ashes fertilize the soil. [4 words]

Total words in the outline: 53 words

Rearrange:
(2) Everything is burned.
(4) Erosion leaves the hills barren.
(3) Small animals are killed immediately; others die from hunger later
(6) Harmful insects are killed.
(5) Dead and diseased trees are removed.
(9) Ashes fertilize the soil.
(7) Some seeds need fire heat to germinate.
(8) Small plants can now grow freely.
(1) In a forest, fire can harm and help.

Initial Comment:
Starting with 53 words, and realizing that the sentences will need glue words (transitions and
conjunctions), we realize that our goal of 50 words is a challenge. Let’s see what we can do.

Summary, APA style:

In a forest fire, noted Doe (2025), everything is burned, causing erosion to leave the
hills barren—after the small animals are killed immediately and larger ones die from
hunger later on. However, harmful insects are also killed, and dead and diseased trees
are removed. Ashes fertilize the soil, while some seeds need fire heat to germinate. And,
small plants can now grow freely. So, a forest fire can both harm and help. [73 words]

Comment:
This summary is a bit more awkward than the earlier ones because it follows the wording
of the outline so closely, and it still misses the 50-word goal by a relatively large margin.
 Paraphrasing and Summarizing 87

Good advice, then, is to focus on writing an effective and engaging (and faithful) summary.
Do not force yourself to use the exact sentences or phrases in your outline.

Cautions About Summarizing

The cautions that apply to paraphrasing also apply to summarizing:

• Be careful to use your own words and sentence structure to write the summary.
• Avoid adding your own ideas to the summary. Do not spell out assumptions or other
unstated ideas.
• Avoid adding interpretive comments to the summary. Your comments and interpreta-
tion should follow the summary.
• Be careful to summarize fairly and avoid creating a straw man fallacy.

See the section Cautions About Paraphrasing on page 84 earlier for detailed information
about these cautions. In addition to these, there are two cautions relevant only to summaries:

• Avoid presenting a minor point in the source as a major point. When you summarize
and omit various details, be careful that a minor point does not appear to be the main
point of the passage (or article or book).
• Avoid presenting a major point in the source as a minor point. The omission of details,
explanations, and examples can sometimes make a point that was discussed at great
length appear less important than other, more minor, points in your summary, unless
you are careful. If necessary, you can clarify the difference between major and minor
points: “One of Doe’s most significant points is.”

Source Limitations on Summarizing

As a final comment on the art of summarizing, it should be noted that some sources are
much easier to reduce substantially in a summary than others. The reason for this difficulty
is that the prose of some writers is already fairly compact, while that of others is more
expanded. Some writers practice an intense verbal economy, writing crisp, often short sen-
tences and getting their points across briefly. Others employ a verbose style: some because
they use an abundance of words to express each thought and others because they explore
the byways and detours of thought while they write. Thus, condensing the text of an already
terse writer will be more of a challenge than working with a more expanded text.
It is important, then, to get a feel for the relative density of the text that you want to sum-
marize before you establish a goal for reducing it. If you have a lengthy passage of very
compact writing, you might decide to quote or paraphrase several sections rather than to
summarize the entire passage.

5.3 Deciding Whether to Quote, Paraphrase, or Summarize

Your decision about which form of source use to apply for a given reference depends on
many factors, including the following:

• how clearly and effectively the author writes

• how much of the of the source’s argument that you want to use (the main argument,
including the support arguments, one argument, or just a crucial phrase)
88 Using Sources Effectively

• how important the source is to your main

discussion Sidebar 5.3 Criteria for
• your plan to blend the source into your dis- ­Incorporating A Source
cussion (what is the most effective use)
• Clarity of author’s presentation
Reasons to use quotations, paraphrases, and • Quantity of the source to be used
summaries have been present earlier in their • Importance of the source to the
respective sections. For some additional clar- discussion
ity, a sidebar with the criteria is provided later. • Ease of embedding the source
For even more help in deciding how to
incorporate an author’s idea in your paper,
you can use the decision grid in Figure 5.1.
The grid operates on the basis of how the writer expresses the idea that you want to incor-
porate into your paper.
As you can see, there are four quadrants, and the decision is based on the inter-relationship
between (1) the number of words the author uses to present the information that you want
to use and (2) the degree of clarity and complexity of the author’s presentation.

• If the information that you want to use from the source is presented in just a few words
that are clear and easily understood, then quotation is a likely choice.

Many words

Summarize or divide into

short quotations Summarize

Quote Paraphrase

Few words
Clear and Less clear or
accessible overly complex

Figure 5.1 Decision Grid: Quote, Paraphrase, or Summarize

 Paraphrasing and Summarizing 89

• If the information is presented in few words, but the presentation is difficult to under-
stand, then paraphrasing might be best.
• If the information requires many words, but they are all clear and accessible (under-
standable), then you might either summarize or break the source up into several short
quotations, discussing each one before quoting the next.
• If the information that you need to include is in the form of both many words and com-
plex or unclear words, then summarizing is a good choice.

If you want to know why this decision grid is important, it is because your audience—your
reader—is important. Remember, you are not writing a research paper to be put on the
shelf. You are writing to be read. Because the purpose of writing is to communicate with
a reader, your decision about how to use a particular source will often hinge on who your
reader is. Suppose, for example, you are writing a research paper on “Confirmation Bias
and Decision Making in War.” If you are writing for a scholarly reader, you might use
many quotations, even though the language and vocabulary were both elevated. On the
other hand, if you were writing for a middle school audience, you would be more likely to
choose paraphrase and summary so that you could make the ideas more accessible.

When deciding whether to quote, paraphrase, or summarize, think about which

method will serve your readers best.

5.4 Beware of Thesaurusitis
The purpose of writing is to communicate, not to obscure your ideas by showing off an
abstract vocabulary. A good vocabulary is important for the clearest expression, but choos-
ing words merely for the sake of impressing the reader is a mistake. Words should be cho-
sen for their accuracy and appropriateness to the context.
Thesaurusitis is a condition that often seizes young writers who wish to impress their
readers. These writers use a thesaurus to look up many of the words that they have written
and then substitute the longest words that they can find. Unknown to them, the result is not
a seemingly sophisticated paper that impresses their instructor. Rather, the result is often
quite comical, causing any educated reader to laugh at it. There are several reasons these
thoughtless substitutions fail to be effective.

• There are several levels of language use. For example, a competent writer would not
mix slang words with formal words like this: “Your honor, this bad dude has committed
a serious violation of the traffic code.” Similarly, some words are more fitting in a for-
mal or an informal context. Except for slang or informal words, the thesaurus does not
typically label which level of diction (language use) each word belongs to, and some-
times, the usage practice is rather subtle. To put it another way, words cannot be mixed
together without consideration of their usage level.
• Synonyms often have only similar meanings. The thesaurus contains synonyms, but
a synonym often does not mean exactly the same thing as another word. More com-
monly, a synonym means something similar to another word. The similarity varies. You
may have seen some of the comical results from using synonyms. Here is an example,
90 Using Sources Effectively

constructed by using a synonym dictionary, showing that love means hatred because
they are synonyms:
Love is synonymous with Affection.
Affection is synonymous with Concern.
Concern is synonymous with Carefulness.
Carefulness is synonymous with Exactness.
Exactness, is synonymous with Strictness.
Strictness is synonymous with Criticism.
Criticism is synonymous with Disapproval.
Disapproval is synonymous with Aversion.
Aversion is synonymous with Hatred.
• Words are often used in ways that do not transfer to synonyms. Figurative use of words
and ideas, idioms, and even clichés affect the interpretation of words and phrases,
changing their meaning from a literal understanding to something more nuanced. Sup-
pose a student writes in a paper, “Last night, my roommate was dead wrong about when
the bookstore closed.” Wanting to impress the instructor, the student looks up two words
in the thesaurus and substitutes them this way: “Last night, my roommate was deceased
unlawful about when the bookstore closed.” Clearly, deceased and unlawful, though
synonyms for dead and wrong, respectively, cannot be thoughtlessly substituted for
those words in just any situation. And, yet, the resulting sentence is not much different
from the writing many instructors receive.

Review Questions
To see how well that you understand this chapter, attempt to answer each of the following ques-
tions without referring to the text. (Write down your answers to make checking easier.) Then
check your answers with the text. If you missed something important, add it to your answer.

1. What are some of the reasons to prefer paraphrasing a source?

2. Explain the difference between a paraphrase and a summary.
3. Define the straw man fallacy and give an example.
4. Describe the type of source material that would be better summarized than quoted or
paraphrased.
5. When you paraphrase or summarize, what should you check to make sure that the
result is acceptable?
6. Define thesaurusitis and explain what makes it a problem rather than a benefit.

Questions for Thought and Discussion

See Teacher’s Edition and Online Version.

Mini-Research Project: Comparing Summaries

Think of a classic novel or play that you have read (or with the permission of your instruc-
tor, a film that you have seen). Then, perform a Web search to locate two or three summa-
ries of the book or film. Read them over and then answer the following questions.
 Paraphrasing and Summarizing 91

1. What stands out to you about what was included in the summaries, and what was
left out?
2. How do the two or three summaries compare? Comment on the similarities and the
differences.
3. Which of the summaries is the best? Why?
4. How would you improve the best of the summaries?
5. What grade would you give to each summary, and why?

A Little Rhetoric: Metabasis

Speaking of summarizing, there is a powerful rhetorical device, known by its Greek name,
metabasis (muh TAB uh sis), that involves summarizing. Metabasis serves to maintain focus
and to provide a signal to the reader by briefly summarizing what has just been said and
then summarizing what will be said next. It is an excellent transitional device, allowing
you to let your reader know that you are changing direction.
Let’s look at some examples to make this clear.

Example 5.1.R.1
A. Now that we have described the intended results of the legislation, let us turn our atten-
tion to the unexpected consequences that resulted.
B. Up to this point, we have been considering Doe’s arguments against re-zoning the area.
Now, we must examine Smit’s reasons in favor of zoning change.

Now You Try

1. Create three transitional statements using metabasis.

Paraphrasing and Summarizing Activity

1. Choose a portion of your own writing, about 25 to 50 words, and paraphrase it accord-
ing to the instructions in this chapter.
2. Choose a portion of your own writing, about 300 words, and summarize it in 25 words
according to the instructions in this chapter.
3. Comment on what you learned from the activities earlier.

Chapter 5 Review: Acceptable Use or Plagiarism?

Directions: Read the source text and then compare it with each of the potential uses that
follow. The potential uses may involve a summary, a paraphrase, or a combination and

Table 5.1 Example Phrases for Metabasis

Phrases to Signal the Summary Phrases to Signal a New Direction
Now that we have considered We must turn our attention to
Up to now, we have covered It is important to address also
So far, our attention has been focused on Let us now examine
That, then, concludes our discussion of Now, let us consider
92 Using Sources Effectively

may include quotation. In each case, ask, “Is the potential use acceptable, or does it com-
mit plagiarism?” Explain your answers.
(Note: This review uses APA citation style.)

Source Text:
If there is no approved treatment for an illness or condition, some people in the study
may be given a placebo, while others get the new treatment being tested. The main rea-
son to have a placebo group is to be sure that any effects that happen are actually caused
by the treatment and not some other factor. The placebo looks, tastes, or feels just like
the actual treatment, so that the patient’s expectations alone are not responsible for the
outcome. (American Cancer Society, 2009, How are placebos used? Section, para. 3)

Potential Use 1
When there is no treatment approved for an illness, some people may be given a placebo,
while others will get the medicine being tested. The reason to give some in the group a pla-
cebo is to be sure that the results are actually caused by the medicine and not by some other
factor. The placebo looks, tastes, and feels just like the real medicine, so that the patient
expectations are not responsible for the outcome. (American Cancer Society, 2009, How
are placebos used? section, para. 3)
Acceptable use Plagiarism

Potential Use 2
In the absence of an approved treatment for an illness or condition, a placebo is sometimes
given to people in the study, while others get the test medicine. Those people on placebos
serve to ensure that any effects that happen are actually caused by the treatment. Placebos
are designed to look, taste, and feel just like the real thing, preventing the patient’s expec-
tations from affecting the outcome of the study. (American Cancer Society, 2009, How are
placebos used? section, para. 3)
Acceptable use Plagiarism

Potential Use 3
According to the American Cancer Society (2009), when the effects of a new medicine or
therapy are under investigation, a placebo group will sometimes be used in addition to
those given the experimental medication. Because the placebo “looks, tastes, or feels just
like the actual treatment,” the results are not skewed by what either group of patients think
will happen. Thus, researchers can sometimes ensure that the results of taking the medicine
are actually produced by it. (How are placebos used? section, para. 3)
Acceptable use Plagiarism

Potential Use 4
As the American Cancer Society notes, “When there is no treatment approved for an ill-
ness, some people may be given a placebo” (How are placebos used? section, para. 3).
 Paraphrasing and Summarizing 93

Other people will get the new treatment being tested. The reason for the placebo group
is to be sure that whatever effects happen are actually caused by the treatment instead of
some other thing. The placebo looks, tastes, or feels just like the actual treatment, so that
by themselves, the patient’s expectations will not determine the outcome.
Acceptable use Plagiarism

Potential Use 5
In the Web posting, “Placebo Effect,” the American Cancer Society (2009) explains that
in an experimental treatment study, a control group might be given a placebo “to be sure
that any effects that happen are actually caused by the treatment.”1 Because the placebo
is indistinguishable from the actual medicine, any results that might have been caused by
anticipated effects are controlled (How are placebos used? Section, para. 3)
Acceptable use Plagiarism

Potential Use 6
In clinical trials, in addition to the patients who are given the experimental treatment, a
placebo group might be employed in order to control for the effects of what the patients
think will happen as a result of the treatment. Comparing the results of the treatment group
with those of the placebo group allows the true effects of the treatment to be determined.
Acceptable use Plagiarism

Reference
American Cancer Society. (2009, June 11). Placebo effect. [Link]
content/ETO_5_3x_Placebo_Effect.asp
Answers in the Teacher’s Guide.
6 Avoiding Plagiarism

Abstract
This chapter provides practical instruction about what does and does not constitute pla-
giarism. This chapter defines the issues and clarifies misconceptions in order to help you
avoid plagiarism. In addition, you are warned against the inappropriate use of artificial
intelligence and its use in place of your critical thinking.

You said that we could work together to share our ideas.

—Student excuse for plagiarism

The learning objectives of Chapter 6 are as follows:

a. To identify the various forms of plagiarism (intentional and unintentional) for

avoidance
b. To acknowledge that intentional plagiarism harms the plagiarizer
c. To learn what to cite so that citation is easier
d. To prevent deception by understanding the myths surrounding citation

An important part of using sources effectively lies in distinguishing between your own
ideas and the ideas that come from outside sources. This chapter presents the information
and guidelines that you will need to know about what and when to cite so that you can
avoid plagiarism, both intentional and unintentional.

6.1 What Is Plagiarism?

A Working Definition of Plagiarism

Perhaps the best way to clarify what plagiarism is (and is not) is to begin with a simple defi-
nition and then explain its meaning. Therefore, we will begin with this definition:

Plagiarism occurs when an information source is not properly credited.

DOI: 10.4324/9781032643779-6
 Avoiding Plagiarism 95

As you read and contemplate this brief def-

inition, think about some of the implications. Sidebar 6.1 Implications Of
Specifically, note the following: Plagiarism

• An information source includes much • Plagiarism involves more than tex-

more than just words. As you will soon tual information sources.
see, information sources include photo- • Unintentional plagiarism occurs
graphs, videos, and computer code. frequently.
• Plagiarism is often unintentional. Thus, it • Improperly cited sources constitute
is not defined only as the intentional failure plagiarism.
to credit an information source. • Copyright dates are irrelevant.
• A source may be credited but improperly
• Location and format are not
credited. Thus, there may still be plagia-
pertinent.
rism even though a citation is present.
• Copyright is irrelevant. The definition does
not mention the legal status (copyright,
public domain, permission to use, etc.) of the information because those elements are
not relevant to the plagiarism issue.
• The location and format of the source are irrelevant. The source of the information
(such as the Internet) has no bearing on the need to cite nor does the form it takes—ink
on paper, pixels on a screen, words spoken.

Intentional Plagiarism
When people say “plagiarism,” deliberate cheating on an assignment by copying a few
sentences, a few paragraphs, or even an entire paper without quoting and citing the source
comes to mind. It is no secret to students—or to their instructors—that entire research
papers are available both for free and for sale on the Web, that journal articles can be cop-
ied from electronic databases, and that some students share their papers with each other.
And, of course, every instructor knows how some students copy sentences and paragraphs
from far and near and paste them into their papers without attribution.
This behavior, which amounts to stealing someone else’s words and ideas and lying
about it to the instructor by claiming them as the student’s own, is highly offensive—to the
instructor, who is taking the time to read the paper as if it were genuine; to other students,
who are competing with what might be a professionally written work; and to the academy,
whose degree is in danger of being awarded under false circumstances. Such complete
disrespect for the academic enterprise (contempt for classmates, instructors, and academic
integrity) is, therefore, punished harshly in most cases. A failing grade on the assignment is
usually the most gentle penalty, with failure in the course more common. In higher educa-
tion expulsion from the college or university—together with a “cheating F” recorded on the
student’s permanent transcript—is not at all uncommon.
That said, there are better reasons to avoid intentional plagiarism than merely the fear of
punishment. See Section 6.2 later.
96 Using Sources Effectively

Table 6.1 Actions that Constitute Plagiarism

Downloading and turning in a paper from the Including a graph, table, or picture from a
Web, including a Web page or a paper mill source without proper citation
essay
Copying and pasting phrases, sentences, or Getting so much help from a tutor or writing
paragraphs into your paper without showing helper that the paper or part of the paper is
a quotation and adding proper citation no longer honestly your work
Paraphrasing or summarizing a source’s words Turning in previously written work when that
or ideas without proper citation ­practice is prohibited by your instructor

Unintentional Plagiarism
Recall that our definition states, “Plagiarism occurs when an information source is not
properly credited.” The definition does not say whether or not the writer intended to pro-
vide proper credit. Thus, it is possible to commit plagiarism without intent. The causes of
unintentional plagiarism are several, such as lack of knowledge of proper source use, mis-
understanding the rules for citation, careless note taking, reliance on uninformed opinion
about citing, and carelessness in the application of the rules of citation.
Sometimes, a significant source of unintentional plagiarism is the overuse or improper
use of a tutor (see The Fine Print, later). Be careful not to cross the line between get-
ting advice and having a tutor contribute to your paper without acknowledgment. Writing
tutors should not write sentences for you or make major changes to your own work. See
Table 6.2 for clarification about what is permitted and not permitted for help from a tutor.

The Fine Print

Counsel does hereby stipulate that in order to close a legal loophole, it is hereby declared,
averred, stated, and defined that in the context of “overuse or improper use of a tutor,”
tutor, also known as helper, and sometimes editor, and occasionally proofreader, includes
not only employees of the writing center but also all faculty and staff of this or any univer-
sity or college, or anyone, including friends, enemies, girlfriends and boyfriends (both cur-
rent and former), parents, spouses, brothers, sisters, aunts, uncles, cousins, grandparents,
random members of the public, commercial editing organizations, pay-for-text establish-
ments, generative artificial intelligence (e.g., chatGPT), together with any other source of
aid external to the student’s own mind. This definition stands in addition to any policy at
the student’s own institution. In other words, let your tutor teach you what is correct, but do
your own work. And do not try to get around the work by claiming that you were helped
by a zombie (especially generative artificial intelligence or chatGPT).
Artificial intelligence (e.g., AI, chatGPT, etc.) has been mentioned earlier. Because this
set of technologies is relatively new to the general public, a more in-depth description is
provided. As a result of these technologies, computers are able to learn, reason, and ana-
lyze. Students have been known to use AI to write a complete paper without thinking for
themselves. As a consequence, students must consult with their instructor as to how AI can
be used for their assignments. Some instructors permit AI use, others allow limited use, and
still others forbid the use of AI entirely.
 Avoiding Plagiarism 97

Table 6.2 Acceptable Versus Unacceptable Writing Help

Acceptable Plagiarism or Cheating
• Helper identifies errors in grammar or • Helper fixes mistakes in grammar or
punctuation and explains the rules. punctuation.
• Helper explains errors in sentences and • Helper writes or rewrites sentences for
tells how to remedy them. student.
• Helper suggests adding detail, arguments, • Helper gives student details, arguments,
examples, or definitions. examples, or definitions.
• Helper suggests a revision to the order of • Helper proposes revision to the order of the
the paper or a section and discusses possi- paper and writes down or dictates a revised
ble directions in general terms. order.
• Helper identifies resources (citation style, • Helper completes citations or bibliographic
paper planning worksheets). entries for student.

Self-Recycling
Self-recycling occurs when students use their own writing. Common examples include
using a paper from a previous course in another course, turning in the same paper to
two different instructors during the same term, or using portions of previously written
work in new work. In surveys taken at the university level, most students believed that
self-recycling was permissible, thinking, “You cannot plagiarize yourself.” However, many
professors and their institutions disagree. The purpose of a writing assignment is not simply
to create busy work that you can reduce by recycling previous work. Rather, the writing
assignment provides you with an opportunity to explore a subject, hone your research
skills, improve your thinking and analyzing abilities, practice your writing skills—and learn
much. Remember this:

The goal of education is not just to get through but to get better.

Copying and pasting your own previous work short-circuits this intention just as effec-
tively as copying and pasting text from somewhere else. For this reason, self-recycling
and multiple submission of papers are usually prohibited. If you have questions about
self-recycling or multiple submission of papers, consult your instructor or ask about insti-
tutional policy.
Artificial intelligence (AI) is the ability of machines to perform tasks that are usually
associated with human intelligence, such as learning, reasoning, and making decisions.
AI is a broad field that encompasses many disciplines, including computer science, data
analytics, and neuroscience.

6.2 Why You Should Avoid Intentional Plagiarism

Many of the materials in this book will help you avoid unintentional plagiarism by training
you in the proper use of sources: when to cite, hot to cite, and how to build sources into
98 Using Sources Effectively

your writing, both correctly and effectively. Avoiding intentional plagiarism, on the other
hand, must be a matter of personal choice on your part. If you are wondering why you
should not cheat, consider the following points:

Intentional Plagiarism Harms Your Character

Would you like to have a friend who is a thief and a liar, acts pridefully superior to others,
and takes advantage of others’ honesty? Those who turn in the work of another as their own
are doing exactly that. First, they steal another’s words or ideas; then, they lie about it by
claiming authorship for them. Next, they turn in the paper, knowing that the instructor will
expend pointless time and effort grading a paper and making comments that will have no
effect on the students’ learning. Last, they secretly sneer at those students who have made
the effort to write their own paper and, if the course is based on a curve, may actually harm
the honest students’ grades.
The fact is, our character is shaped by what we do. The person who cheats on research
papers is rapidly losing personal integrity, and that loss will be reflected in other areas of
life as well. For this reason, one of the most important results of formal education is who
you become. Knowledge is important, and developing skills (such as thinking and writing)
is important. But becoming a person of integrity—someone who can be trusted, someone
who tells the truth—is indeed crucial. The habits that you develop in college are likely to
stay with you throughout your working life.

Follow the Golden Rule

Many writers, religious leaders, and philosophers have advocated the Golden Rule,
“Behave toward others the same way that you want them to behave toward you,” because
this rule helps hold the fabric of society together. If you cheat and others cheat, how
will anyone ever be able to trust anyone else? Would you want to have heart surgery
by a doctor who cheated through medical school? Would you want an attorney who
cheated through law school? Would you even want an auto mechanic who cheated on
the licensing exams? If you think it is all right for you to cheat, why should others think—
and do—differently?

Intentional Plagiarizers Cheat Themselves

Chapter 1 discussed the importance of learning how to write and think because most peo-
ple will need these skills in whatever career that they choose. Turning in a copied paper
(e.g., chatGPT), or even a paper assembled from copied parts, prevents the development
of these writing, thinking, and problem-solving skills as well as the skills of researching,
organizing, planning, and attention to detail—all of which are highly valued by those who
hire and promote employees. Thus, by not learning how to work with information in an
economy based on working with information, intentional plagiarizers are cheating them-
selves out of future success. They also cheat themselves out of a significant part of their
education by not gaining the knowledge and insights that researching and writing a paper
would have given them.
 Avoiding Plagiarism 99

Intentional Plagiarizers Never Know When They Will Be Caught

As you are certainly aware, many universities subscribe to plagiarism checking services,
which get smarter and more aware all the time. A plagiarizer never knows when the software
will flag an old paper and report suspected theft to the administration. We have all heard
stories about plagiarizers who were caught after graduation, only to have their degrees
revoked. In academia, one of the most famous cases of plagiarism (whether intentional or
unintentional) involved Doris Kearns Goodwin, who was an historian and Pulitzer Prize
winner. Her book The Fitzgeralds and the Kennedys: An American Saga (1987) included
passages that had been taken from other works and not cited. Certainly, being haunted by
a lifetime of stress, fear, and doubt is not worth it, just to save the effort of completing a
research paper honestly.

6.3 Guidelines for Citation

The definition of plagiarism on the first page of this chapter tells us that an information
source must be cited. An information source refers to any producer of information other
than your own observation, knowledge, or experience. This idea can be expressed in
another way as a working rule for citation:

If the information came from outside your own head, cite the source.

The term information here will be interpreted quite broadly. The following sections will
clarify the rule.

What Needs to Be Cited?

The rather broad word information is used in the definitions earlier because breadth is
needed to include all the forms of borrowed intellectual material (to use an even broader
term) now available to you. The early definitions of plagiarism and the rules for citation
used terms such as borrowed words or ideas, but phrases such as these are clearly too lim-
iting. Table 6.3 shows many kinds of intellectual property or information products in need
of citation when you make use of them in your research papers. The list is not intended to
be exhaustive but rather to allow you to see the breadth of possibility. The following sec-
tions provide further guidelines.

Do You Ever Have to Cite Yourself?

The surprising answer is yes. If you have created a previous work, such as an experiment
that you performed and wrote up, a short film, survey analysis, formal speech, and so on,
you must cite it if you quote or refer to it in a new work. If you performed the experiment
for the paper on which you are working, then you do not cite it. Whatever you have written
or created before becomes a potential source that you then should cite when you borrow
from that paper. Yes, you can even quote yourself (though, of course, discretion is advised).
An exception to this rule would be a case where an instructor allows you to make use of
100 Using Sources Effectively

Table 6.3 What to Cite

You Must Cite Somone Else’s You Do Not Have to Cite Your Own
words you quote words
words you summarize idea (interpretation, opinion, conclusion)
words you paraphrase data
idea (interpretation, opinion, conclusion) graph
photograph
data drawing
graph table of information
photograph computer program code
drawing experiment
table of information survey
computer program code example
experiment unique concept
survey apt phrase
example expression of common knowledge
unique concept solution to a problem
apt phrase (e.g., “flat-tire thinking”)
expression of common knowledge
solution to a problem
speech or audio recording
video source (film, TV program)

previous work to generate new work, as in taking an old paper and revising it into a new
paper, or using sections of previous work in a new work.
A final reason for self-citation is to clarify the source of an illustration. It is assumed that
tables, graphs, charts, and descriptive drawings have been produced by the writer of the
paper (unless otherwise cited). However, photographs and artistic drawings might be less
clearly understood as the paper writer’s work because not every writer is a photographer
or artist. In order to avoid confusion, then, it might prove helpful to add a note, such as
“Photograph by the author,” to such work. If your paper includes some photographs by you
and some by other sources, it becomes essential to add personal credit or an appropriate
citation to each.
Remember: The location of the information source (such as the Web, a speech, or a
book) and the format of the information (printed, audio, digital, video, live person) are
irrelevant. You must cite all of the sources of information that you use, regardless of loca-
tion or format.

What About Common Knowledge?

There is one exception the rule of citing all outside information. Common knowledge does
not need to be cited. Common knowledge includes whatever an education person would
be expected to know or could locate in an ordinary encyclopedia. It represents the kind
of general information found in many sources and remembered by many people. Here are
some of the types of common knowledge:
 Avoiding Plagiarism 101

• Easily observable information. For example, heat makes people tired in summer, pup-
pies display tremendous energy, most teenagers like chocolate, mud can be very sticky,
certain types of trees lose their leaves in the fall, the First Amendment to the U.S. Consti-
tution concerns freedom of speech and religion, and the freeways are crowded at rush
hour in many large cities.
• Commonly reported facts. For example, poet George Herbert was born in 1593 and
died in 1633, Napoleon’s army was decimated by the winter march from Moscow dur-
ing the War of 1812, the Concorde passenger jet was developed jointly by the British
and French, automobile tires are made from rubber compounds, and cigarette smoking
can cause health problems.
• Common sayings. For example, traditional proverbs need no citation: “Waste not, want
not”; “Look before you leap”; and “He who hesitates is lost.” Some quotations have
become proverbial as well, such as Alexander Pope’s “Fools rush in where angels fear to
tread.” (Quoting more than this commonly spoken line would require a citation.)

There are some cautions to the earlier information:

• Finding the same information in several places does not automatically make it common
knowledge. Especially on the Web, information gets posted and reposted on many sites.
A dozen sites selling the same vitamins or advancing the same political ideas may all
have the same information, but that does not make the information common knowledge
(or even reliable). Commonly expressed claims (that may be controversial) are not the
same as common knowledge. Common knowledge means just that: generally accepted
information of a factual or historical nature.
• Quoting a source presenting common knowledge requires citation. While common
knowledge by itself need not be cited, the source of the specific expression of common
knowledge must be identified. For example, you may mention without citation, as ear-
lier, that Napoleon’s army suffered ruinous losses during the march to and from Mos-
cow. However, if your source says, “Napoleon’s army froze in droves as it struggled ever
so futilely from Moscow,” you must use quotation marks and cite the source of those
words, if you use them. Therefore, if you use someone’s words, you must quote and cite
them, even if they contain an idea that is common knowledge.
• An organized body of common knowledge needs citation. A fact or two of common
knowledge taken from an encyclopedia need not be cited. However, you may not sum-
marize or paraphrase long passages without citation because the structure of informa-
tion (its sequencing, emphasis, and selection) is not common knowledge and will need
attribution.
• Common knowledge is often intermingled with interpretation. In many sources
­common knowledge facts are mixed with analysis, interpretation, and opinion. All
such commentary on common knowledge must be cited. For example, if your source
says that operating the space shuttle program is an expensive project, that would not
need citation since it is common knowledge. However, if your source uses the word
wasteful instead of (or in addition to) expensive, that is interpretation and would need
citation.
102 Using Sources Effectively

• You may not always know what is common knowledge. When you encounter a fact that you
believe might be common knowledge, but you are unsure, follow the rule of uncertainty:

If in doubt, cite it.

It is better to cite unnecessarily than to neglect citing something that should have been
cited. If you have a large amount of common knowledge, such as some biographical details
of a famous writer, it may be easier to paraphrase or summarize a single source (and cite
it) than to assemble the many pieces from various general references.

• Sometimes common knowledge sources disagree. General sources may differ about the
dates of certain events, the number of people involved, or even the definition of a term.
If you are aware of such disagreement, you should cite the source that you use and cite
both (or all) pieces of conflicting information.
• Common knowledge is not always true. Sometimes, what “everybody knows” is not
even correct. For example, the common belief that people should drink eight glasses
of water a day is more myth than fact. The claim looks like a piece of common knowl-
edge because it is repeated everywhere, yet there appears to be no scientific basis for it.
Unless you are quite certain about a claim being both common and correct, you might
want to cite the source or perform further research to resolve the issue.

Will My Paper Be Nothing but Citations?

Sidebar 6.2 Common ­Knowledge
A common fear or objection to the rule that Cautions
all borrowed information must be cited is
that such a practice will make the student’s • Finding the same information in
paper nothing but citations. However, as we several places does not automati-
noted in Chapter 1, sources and their cita- cally make it common knowledge
tions support your own thinking and analysis. • Quoting a source presenting com-
Your assignment is to write a research paper, mon knowledge requires citation.
not to glue together a research paper by using • An organized body of common
a few transitional expressions to connect a
knowledge needs citation.
handful of sources. Much of the paper should
• Common knowledge is often inter-
consist of your own thinking, analysis, inter-
pretation, examples, commentary, fresh mingled with interpretation.
ideas, judgments, explanations, anecdotes, • You may not always know what is
evaluation of data, and so on. This section common knowledge.
can be summed up by the decision tree in • Sometimes common knowledge
Figure 6.1 on the previous page, which helps sources disagree.
you decide when to cite by asking just two • Common knowledge is not always
questions: Did you think of it? And is it com- true.
mon knowledge?
 Avoiding Plagiarism 103

Figure 6.1 When Should You Cite?

6.4 Myths and Facts About Citing

This section is intended to clear up many of the misconceptions about the use of various
kinds of information available to you, by exposing and correcting some of the myths about
citing. A myth in the sense used here means a wrong belief, often spread around com-
monly by others who do not know the facts.

The Public Domain Myth

Myth: You can quote anything that is in the public domain or no longer protected by
copyright without having to cite the source.
Fact: As mentioned earlier, the legal status of a piece of information has no bearing on
whether or not it needs to be cited.

The World Wide Web Myth

Myth: Whatever is on the Web is common knowledge, so it is permissible to use anything
there without quotation marks or attribution.
Fact: This myth contains two errors. First, much of the information on the Web is not com-
mon knowledge. The Web is filled with unique facts, interpretations, opinions, com-
mentaries, creative works, original articles, and much more. The second error lies in
not recognizing that even what is common knowledge on the Web or elsewhere cannot
104 Using Sources Effectively

be quoted word-for-word without citation. The quotation of any words from a source
needs to have quotation marks (or a block quotation) and a citation. And recall that the
“expression of common knowledge” needs to be cited.

It should also be noted in relation to this myth that most of what is on the Web is also
copyrighted. Web pages, letters, email, and other forms of written communication are now
automatically copyrighted as soon as they are written down. It is no longer necessary to
register writing with the copyright office in order to be protected. And note that copyright
also applies to photographs, drawings, and other intellectual property on the Web.

The Fair Use Myth

Myth: Even if a work is copyrighted, I can use it without attribution because I have fair
use under copyright law.
Fact: This myth arises from a confusion similar to that just earlier. Fair use allows you to
quote a source without payment or written permission. (For example, you can quote a
dozen lines from a copyrighted poem in order to analyze it in a paper that you are writ-
ing for a class, without having to pay the copyright holder a royalty.) Fair use, however,
does not permit you to steal the author’s words by claiming them as your own. In fact,
as you will see by looking at Sidebar 6.1, if you do plagiarize a copyrighted source,
you may be guilty not only of plagiarism (an academic dishonesty offense) but also of
copyright infringement (a civil, and in some cases criminal, offense).

The Encyclopedia Myth

Myth: Because encyclopedias contain common or general knowledge, I can copy from
them without having to cite them.
Fact: While it is true that common knowledge (such as the dates of birth and death of
Abraham Lincoln or the names of the 50 states) does not need attribution, quoting an
encyclopedia (which may not be a very scholarly practice anyway) does require attribu-
tion and quotation marks for two reasons. First, whenever you copy words, you must
use quotation marks or a block indentation (and a citation in each case) to show that
you are quoting.

Second there is much more in encyclopedias than common knowledge facts. Attribution is
required for any source (including encyclopedias) from which you get judgments, conclu-
sions, viewpoints, interpretations, thoughts, ideas, evaluations, specific words or phrases,
findings, controversial facts, or even interesting questions. As mentioned earlier, the best
rule to follow here is this: “If in doubt, cite it.” Even if you think that you have an item of
common knowledge, reference its source.

The Paraphrased Paper Myth

Myth: If I change a common knowledge source into my own words, I can use the whole
source without attribution.
Fact: As we discussed in the previous chapter on paraphrasing, the structure and sequence
of ideas are considered unique to the writer and are, therefore, not common knowledge.
 Avoiding Plagiarism 105

You can use a fact or two from a common

knowledge source without citation, but to Sidebar 6.3 Plagiarism and
copy the same structure and order of facts, Copyright Infringement
even in your own words, would be to com-
mit plagiarism. If you think about it for a Plagiarism and copyright infringement
moment, you will see that if the wholesale both refer to violations of intellectual
paraphrasing of common knowledge were property standards, but the two vio-
allowed, it would defeat the purpose of lations are different. Plagiarism is an
writing research papers because students ethical violation relating to a lack of
would be merely replacing words rather proper attribution for borrowed mate-
than performing the tasks of researching, rial. Copyright infringement is a legal
analyzing, and integrating sources into violation relating to the misuse of intel-
their own writing. lectual property, usually for financial
gain. The differences can be clarified
by the following example. Imagine
The Friend’s Permission Myth that we start a publishing company
Myth: If my friends give me permission to called Bob and Christie’s Press, and
use their papers, I can turn these papers we publish the following four books.
in as my own without being guilty of
plagiarism because I am not stealing my
friends’ words or ideas. Gulliver’s Travels
Fact: If you are writing an academic research by
paper, there is no circumstance where Jonathan Swift
you are permitted to present the words of Published
another as your own. (Even if you are writ- by
ing a paper as a team, you are claiming Bob and Christie’s Press
that the team is the true author of the words
of the paper, except where items have been
clearly quoted.) No source can elect not to
be cited. Another way to say this truth is that Gulliver’s Travels
no one can give you permission to deceive by
your instructor into thinking that you wrote Robert Harris
something that you did not write. Even Published
sources that want to remain anonymous by
must be cited—as anonymous sources. Bob and Christie’s Press

The Named Source Myth

Myth: If I mention the author’s name in the The Hunt for Red October
text, I can copy word-for-word and quo- by
tation marks are not necessary. Tom Clancy
Fact: Remember that a fundamental goal of Published
including research material from others by
is to differentiate between your ideas and Bob and Christie’s Press
the words and ideas of your sources. All
quotations require either quotation marks
106 Using Sources Effectively

or block indentations. All text in your

paper without one of the markers is
assumed to have been written by you. The Hunt for Red October
If that assumption is wrong, you are by
plagiarizing. Christie Curtis
Published
by
The Converted Words Myth
Bob and Christie’s Press
Myth: If I turn the source’s words com-
pletely into my own words, then the
words and ideas become my own, and The first book, Gulliver’s Travels
I do not need to cite the source. by Jonathan Swift, is in the public
Fact: You cannot write a source out of exist- domain because it was first pub-
ence by changing words around. Put- lished in 1725 and all copyrights
ting a source’s words completely into have long since expired. So we can
your own words is an effective strategy publish this book or parts of it with-
known as paraphrasing. Yet, every par- out copyright infringement. Further,
aphrase must be cited because every as long as we accurately attribute
source must be cited. The origin of the text that we publish to its real
ideas as well as words needs proper author, we do not commit plagia-
attribution. The applicable saying here rism. In fact, we might be consid-
is the following: “Give credit where ered respected publishers of classic
credit is due.” literature.
The second book, however, com-
The Tiny Theft Myth mits plagiarism because now one of
us is claiming to be the author of a
Myth: If I use only a few words from a
work that we did not write. We are
source, I do not need to cite them.
still not guilty of copyright infringe-
Fact: Every quoted word needs to be cited
ment, though, since the book is not
(as well as placed in quotation marks).
copyrighted.
The best example of quoting just a few
The third book, The Hunt for
words is the apt phrase, two or three
Red October by Tom Clancy, accu-
words that provide a flair or flavor from
rately lists its real author, so we are
a source. Sometimes, the phrase is sim-
not guilty of plagiarism by reprint-
ply unusual or artistic, as in an alliteration
ing it. However, Mr. Clancy’s pub-
such as “clandestine coup.” Often, the
lisher would be highly upset if we
apt phrase is a colorful metaphor, as in
did so because we would be guilty
“pretzeled logic.” The temptation to steal
of copyright infringement. The book
another writer’s wit or rhetorical elegance
is still copyrighted, and I do not
can sometimes be great and should be
have the rights to print the book. My
resisted. Whether elegant or not, bor-
printing it, then, would most likely
­
rowed words must be quoted or cited.
see me hauled into court, ordered to
For example, if a source says, “The rollout cease distributing it, and required to
of the one-serving soft drink machine was pay monetary damages. The fourth
an eloquent failure,” you must put “elo- book would commit both plagiarism
quent failure” in quotation marks because
 Avoiding Plagiarism 107

it is an apt phrase. Eloquence refers to pow-

erful, moving, vivid speech, so an “eloquent and copyright infringement because it
failure” is a failure that peaks powerfully—an claims that I am the author of a work
expressive metaphor. But what if the source I did not write (plagiarism), and it
says simply, “The rollout of the one-serving unlawfully uses copyrighted intellec-
soft drink machine was a complete failure”? tual property (copyright infringement).
Again, if you quote “complete failure,” the
source’s exact words, put them in quotation
marks and cite the source because it repre-
sents the source’s judgment or opinion. Even SIDEBAR 6.4
if you paraphrase the source and write, “the
attempt to sell a single-serving soft drink You can avoid worrying about all of
maker became a total disaster,” you need to the myths by relying instead on a sim-
cite the source of that opinion. ple test for deciding whether or not
On the other hand, if you are writing about, you need to cite a piece of informa-
say, home soda makers, you do not need to tion. The text involves asking yourself
put common terms describing them in quo- about how your reader might under-
tation marks because they do not represent stand the source of the information. In
either an apt phrase or an opinion or conclu- other words, ask the question, “Will
sion. See Table 6.4.
my reader likely believe that this infor-
mation originated with me when it did
The Background Information Myth not?” If the answer is “Yes,” then you
Myth: I just used the source for background need a citation to correct your reader’s
information but did not actually cite any misunderstanding.
part of it, so all I needed to do was to list
the source in the bibliography.
Fact: If you use information from a source in your paper, you must cite where you use
it. Any item of background information that you mention must be cited unless it is
common knowledge. Remember that a use includes paraphrase, summary, brief
mention, or even an isolated fact, not just a quotation or direct reference to the
author’s interpretation. If the source contained only common knowledge that you,
therefore, did not cite, do not list the source in the bibliography. The References list
(APA) and Works Cited list (MLA) should contain only those works explicitly referred
to in your paper.

Table 6.4 Home Soda Makers Citation Example

Cite Do Not Cite
marketing dispute expensive
poorly engineered new
fabulous flop made by Brand X
billion-dollar bomb soda maker
Brand X albatross single-serving
108 Using Sources Effectively

Review Questions
To see how well that you understand this chapter, attempt to answer each of the following
questions without referring to the text. (Write down your answers to make checking easier.)
Then check your answers with the text. If you missed something important, add it to your
answer.

1. In your own words, define plagiarism.

2. Describe the difference between intentional and unintentional plagiarism.
3. What is self-recycling, and why do most academic institutions prohibit it?
4. How do intentional plagiarizers hurt themselves?
5. Give examples of information sources other than words that must be cited.
6. Define common knowledge and give an example.
7. Explain the relationship between copyright infringement and plagiarism.
8. Define public domain and give an example.
9. How does public domain differ from common knowledge?

Questions for Thought and Discussion

See Teacher’s Edition and Online Version.

Mini-Research Project: Famous Plagiarism Cases

Use a search tool, such as Google or Bing, to search for “famous plagiarism cases,” and
read a few of the cases on two or three sites.

1. Look through a dozen cases, and note the reasons (or excuses) given by the famous
offenders for their plagiarizing. What are the two most common reasons given? Why do
you think that these reasons are so?
2. Choose half a dozen cases, and state briefly the nature of the plagiarism, the reason
given for it, and your judgment about how credible the reason is.
3. Choose half a dozen cases, state briefly the nature of the plagiarism, what punishment
or penalty the plagiarizer faced, and your judgment about how well the punishment fit
the plagiarism.

Bonus Search
In Section 6.2 earlier, we mentioned that some people have had their college degrees
revoked after it was discovered that they had plagiarized. Is that really true, or are we just
making that up? Do a Google or Bing search on “college degrees revoked for plagiarism,”
and see if anything turns up.

A Little Rhetoric: Rhetorical Question

A rhetorical question asks a question whose answer is implied in the question itself or by
the context of the question. The implied answer is often yes or no. Note in Example C later
that the rhetorical question and its implied answer are set up by a previous statement.
 Avoiding Plagiarism 109

Example [Link].1

A. With the availability of ever-new electronic toys that seem to obsolete whatever you
just bought, is it any wonder that many consumers are holding off purchasing new TVs?
B. How much longer are we willing to stand by while the city’s bank account becomes
smaller and smaller because of the lawsuits over potholes?
C. Doe’s conclusion drawn from his experiment runs completely counter to the findings
of six other studies. That being the case, does he really expect us to accept his results
while he refuses to release his data?

The purpose and effect of using a rhetorical question is to bring your reader into the discus-
sion and think along with you. In a sense, you are declaring common ground, something
you and your reader may agree on.

Now You Try

1. Write three setup statements as you see in the examples earlier and then add three rhe-
torical questions.
2. Write three rhetorical questions that do not need setup statements.
7 Putting It Together

Abstract
This chapter shows you how to insert quotations elegantly and effectively into your own
writing, following the “simple rule” of marking the boundaries of each quotation to ensure
that you are never accused of plagiarism.

Some assembly required.

—Message on box of child’s play set

The learning objectives of Chapter 7 are as follows:

a. To apply the Simple Rule by marking the boundaries of your source in order that
you clearly identify the words and ideas that you have borrowed from a source
b. To give credit for your own ideas by marking the boundaries clearly in order to dif-
ferentiate them from a source’s words
c. To remember to cite borrowed tables and graphics

Now that you know how to select and prepare your sources for use in your research paper,
there remains the task of putting everything together in a way that makes your writing clear
and effective. Your sources should be smoothly built into the flow of your paper, producing
a collaborative argument, and yet clearly distinguished from your own writing. This chap-
ter explains how to integrate your sources with your own words.

7.1 The Simple Rule: Mark the Boundaries

The Simple Rule for incorporating sources into your writing is mark the boundaries. The
rule is a reminder to distinguish carefully between your own words and ideas and those
of the sources that you use. Simply stated, you place boundary markers around the source
material that you use to set it off from your own writing. In other words, you indicate
clearly when you begin to draw upon a source and when you have finished. The source
material is framed or enclosed using boundary markers.
Note: In some of the examples, the boundary markers are set in bold and a larger font
so that you can identify them more easily. In your own work, you will not set them off this

DOI: 10.4324/9781032643779-7
 Putting It Together 111

way but will leave them in the same type as your other text, the same way the other exam-
ples here are presented. Remember, in APA style, even material that has marked bounda-
ries is double spaced.
Marking the boundaries of your sources also has the practical value of helping you to
avoid plagiarism because you show clearly when you are using research material. How-
ever, just as important, the boundary markers show your reader which ideas are your own.

Marking the Boundaries of Short Quotations

When you use an author’s exact words, marking the boundaries involves using quotation
marks for quotations of fewer than four lines or fewer than 40 words. In addition to the
quotation marks, the markers include an introductory lead-in and a citation.

Example 7.1.1
Boundary markers set in bold for identification

Phrase, APA:
Doe (2025) argued that history is “an interpretation of selected events” rather than a mere
presentation of facts (p. 131).

Phrase, MLA
Jane Doe (2025) argues that history is “an interpretation of selected events” rather than a
mere presentation of facts (131).

Example 7.1.2

Part of a sentence, APA:

The practice of bloodletting to cure disease, wrote Doe (2025), was derived from “the
medieval theory of the four humours, which supposed that many ailments arose from an
excess of blood in need of reducing to its proper level” (p. 224).

Table 7.1 Marking the Boundaries of Short Quotations

If you quote
A short phrase
Part of a sentence
An entire sentence
Two or three sentences
Then
The boundaries are marked by

(1) a lead-in
(2) opening and closing quotation marks
(3) a citation
112 Using Sources Effectively

Part of a sentence, MLA:

The practice of bloodletting to cure disease, writes Jane Doe (2025), was derived from
“the medieval theory of the four humours, which supposed that many ailments arose
from an excess of blood in need of reducing to its proper level” (224).

Example 7.1.3

Entire sentence, APA:

Doe (2025) viewed the site as a probably burial pit: “The artifacts of the L2 site were all
bunched together within a rough circle approximately three meters in diameter” (p. 233).

Entire sentence, MLA:

Jane Doe (2025) views the site as a probably burial pit: “The artifacts of the L2 site were
all bunched together within a rough circle approximately three meters in diameter” (233).

In all of these examples, the author’s words are clearly marked and attributed. This
boundary marking separates the source information from your own ideas and words.

Marking the Boundaries of Long Quotations

When you quote at length, the words are set off from the rest of the text using a block
indentation that visually shows the boundaries of the quoted words. No quotation marks
are needed because the visual separation clearly shows the quotation. An introductory
lead-in prepares the reader for the long quotation, and a citation ends it.

Example 7.1.4

Paragraph, APA (indent one-half inch):

Tseng and Sanchez (2024) asserted that more and more people are using social media as
an avenue for receiving “cheap cybertherapy.” Users, they have noted, are less concerned

Table 7.2 Marking the Boundaries of Long Quotations

If you quote
more than four lines (MLA)
more 40 words (APA)
one or more paragraphs
then
the boundaries are marked by

(1) a lead-in
(2) a block indentation
(3) a citation
 Putting It Together 113

about the human relationship provided by a real therapist than they are about the ease and
cost of getting online counseling:

Simulated counseling provided by a programmed response computer algorithm is

almost as old as computing. It was free, easy, and for many, remarkably therapeutic—if
one credits the personal anecdotes. Now, however, users of personal computers can
access any number of Web sites, blogs, and other media to received psychological
advice of various kinds from real people. Whether this easy access represents an
advance in the use of computers to provide cheap cybertherapy, or a frightening
setback in the art and skill of fixing broken humans, is the principal issue. How much
these amateur psychologists can help is less of a question than how much damage that
they can do. (p. 456)

Paragraph, MLA (indent one-half inch):

David Tseng and Alicia Sanchez (2024) assert that more and more people are using social
media as an avenue for receiving “cheap cybertherapy.” Users, they note, are less con-
cerned about the human relationship provided by a real therapist than they are about the
ease and cost of getting online counseling:

Simulated counseling provided by a programmed response computer algorithm is

almost as old as computing. It was free, easy, and for many, remarkably therapeutic—if
one credits the personal anecdotes. Now, however, users of personal computers can
access any number of Web sites, blogs, and other media to received psychological
advice of various kinds from real people. Whether this easy access represents an advance
in the use of computers to provide cheap cybertherapy, or a frightening setback in
the art and skill of fixing broken humans, is the principal issue. How much these
amateur psychologists can help is less of a question than how much damage that they
can do. (p. 456)

Comment:
Note that for both APA and MLA block quotation style:

• Indent one-half inch from the left margin

• Do not indent the first line of the quotation any extra amount
• There are no quotation marks
• The parenthetical citation floats after the final period instead of being included as part
of the last sentence

Marking the Boundaries of an Unquoted Source

When you rely on source material without quoting it, there are no quotation marks (or
block indent) so that the introductory lead-in and close (often a citation) are even more
important because they alone function as the boundary markers.
114 Using Sources Effectively

Table 7.3 Marking the Boundaries of an Unquoted Source

If you are
summarizing
paraphrasing
mentioning briefly
using an idea from the source
then
the boundaries are marked by

(1) a lead-in
(2) a citation or other close

Your reader must be able to distinguish between your own ideas and arguments and
those of the sources that you use. Boundary markers are the only way to be clear about this
distinction.
A paragraph that consists of a dozen or so lines of text with a citation only at the begin-
ning or end is unfortunately common in some students’ research papers. In this type of
paragraph, there is no indication of how much of the paragraph draws upon the source
mentioned in the citation. Does the citation apply to the whole paragraph or only the sen-
tence containing the citation? Or does the writer intend the citation to apply to two or three
sentences but not to all of the paragraph? Without both boundary markers, the citation
alone can be confusing. Study the following examples to understand this problem more
clearly to learn how to remedy the confusion.

Example 7.1.5

Source:
When a consumer product is subject to a recall order, it seldom travels anywhere. The
order means that an identified fault must be remedied by the manufacturer. The remedy
often involves only the mailing of new parts to the consumer or a visit to a repair center. —
Alicia Chavez, 2024, p. 321.

Hypothetical student paragraph with citation, APA style:

A product recall might be more accurately known as a product repair because most
recalled products never leave the consumer’s home. In many cases, when a defect is
discovered by the manufacturer, a repair kit is sent to the consumer. In other cases, the
product must be taken in for repair. Rarely will the product be called in and exchanged
for another. For example, recalled automobiles are never returned to the factory and
replaced; they are simply repaired at a dealer (Chavez, 2024, p. 321).

Hypothetical student paragraph with citation, MLA style:

A product recall might be more accurately known as a product repair because most
recalled products never leave the consumer’s home. In many cases, when a defect is
 Putting It Together 115

discovered by the manufacturer, a repair kit is sent to the consumer. In other cases, the
product must be taken in for repair. Rarely will the product be called in and exchanged
for another. For example, recalled automobiles are never returned to the factory and
replaced; they are simply repaired at a dealer (Chavez 321).

Comment:
In the paragraphs shown earlier, the student has not distinguished original ideas from a
paraphrase of Chavez. Neither an instructor nor any other reader will be able to tell how
much of the paragraph is being attributed to the source. Note later the proper use of
boundary markers.
Hypothetical student paragraph with citation, APA style:

A product recall might be more accurately known as a product repair. As Chavez (2014)
noted, most recalled products never leave the consumer’s home. In many cases, when
a defect is discovered by the manufacturer, a repair kit is sent to the consumer. In other
cases, the product must be taken in for repair. Rarely will the product be called in and
exchanged for another (p. 321). For example, recalled automobiles are never returned
to the factory and replaced; they are simply repaired at a dealer.

Hypothetical student paragraph with citation, MLA style:

A product recall might be more accurately known as a product repair. As Alicia

Chavez notes, most recalled products never leave the consumer’s home. In many
cases, when a defect is discovered by the manufacturer, a repair kit is sent to the
consumer. In other cases, the product must be taken in for repair. Rarely will the
product be called in and exchanged for another (321). For example, recalled auto-
mobiles are never returned to the factory and replaced; they are simply repaired at
a dealer.

The use of both boundary markers in these two examples shows that the first part of the
paragraph (renaming a recall to a repair) is the student’s own idea, as is the example of
the automobile recall at the end of the paragraph. Thus, including the proper bound-
ary markers where they belong not only sets off the source but also clearly reveals the
student’s own ideas in the paragraph. Once again, your own thinking is important.
It is a significant part of what your instructor expects. Give yourself credit, and be
sure to show the difference between your ideas and those that you are incorporating
from research.

7.2 Marking the Boundaries in Problem Cases

Occasionally, situations arise when you must use a little creativity to construct your bound-
ary markers. Example situations include these: (1) Web pages usually lack page numbers,
(2) some Web pages show no author, and (3) citing an entire article or book in APA style
does not require the use of page numbers. In these cases, there may be only one obvious
item to use as a boundary marker.
116 Using Sources Effectively

How to Create a Second Boundary Marker

One solution for indicating an end boundary is to show clearly that new material is begin-
ning. One of the following markers may be appropriate:

• Start a new paragraph.

• Add a clear transition of thought (for example, “Another researcher stated”).
• Show clearly that you are now commenting (for example, “But Sanchez does not men-
tion,” or “Sanchez’s implication is clear, it seems, when”).

Another solution is to use information about the source (author, title, subject, thesis, role in
your paper) to create an additional marker. That way, the new marker serves to introduce
the source, and the citation information serves as the closing boundary marker.

Example 7.2.1

Problem passage, entire article cited, APA style:

Boolean logic frees the researcher from using only one keyword at a time. Sanchez
(2025) reported that using the appropriate forms of Boolean logic allows the searcher
to control both the breadth of the search and the desired proximity of the search terms.
This type of precision is simply impossible with paper indexes or printed bibliographies.

Comment
This passage shows clearly that the first sentence belongs to the writer of the paper, while
the second sentence belongs to Sanchez. However, it fails to show that the last sentence
belongs to the writer rather than Sanchez because there is no terminating boundary marker.
In this case, the solution to the problem is to construct a second boundary marker by
describing the author of the source, as in the following example:

Improved passage, entire article cited, APA style:

Boolean logic frees the researcher from using only one keyword at a time. A Library of
Congress researcher reported that using the appropriate forms of Boolean logic allows
the searcher to control both the breadth of the search and the desired proximity of the
search terms (Sanchez, 2025). This type of precision is simply impossible with paper
indexes or printed bibliographies

Example 7.2.2
Problem passage, Web page, with no stated author or date, APA style:

According to “Making Lighting Work” (n.d.), when room lighting is designed, more than
just lighting intensity (or brightness) needs to be considered. The color of the light and
the location of the sources are also critical. Without consideration of all these factors,
glare, eyestrain, and bizarre shadows can result.
 Putting It Together 117

Note: For APA, use “n.d.” for no date.

Improved passage, Web page, with no stated author or date, APA style:

According to an article on the Lighting Institute Web site, when room lighting is designed,
more than just lighting intensity (or brightness) needs to be considered. The color of the
light and the location of the sources are also critical. Without consideration of all these
factors, glare, eyestrain, and bizarre shadows can result (“Making Lighting Work,” n.d.).

Improved passage, Web page, with no stated author or date, MLA style:

According to an article on the Lighting Institute Web site, when room lighting is designed,
more than just lighting intensity (or brightness) needs to be considered. The color of the
light and the location of the sources are also critical. Without consideration of all these
factors, glare, eyestrain, and bizarre shadows can result (“Making Lighting Work”).

Comment:
These improved passages neatly package the source material so that the writer can now
make comments before and after it in the same paragraph without creating any confusion
in the reader’s mind about whose ideas are being presented. Comments before the passage
might provide a context for it. Then, after the passage, additional examples or discussion
can be added. The result is a clear and coherent argument, supported by a well-integrated
source.

Marking the Boundaries for Non-Text Information

You will recall from earlier chapters that all borrowed information must be cited, includ-
ing photographs, drawings, tables, graphs, and so forth. The rules for citation are similar,
considering the visual nature of the information.
Non-text information, such as a graph or table, sets itself off from your text by its visual
form, much as a block indentation sets off a long, quoted text. Even so, this type of informa-
tion includes boundary markers. For citation purposes, non-text information is divided into
two categories, tables, and figures. A table involves the presentation of words or data in a
structured form. A figure includes a graph, a drawing, or a photograph.
In APA style, boundary markers for a table include a label at the beginning and a note
with the citation at the end. If the table has been taken from a source exactly as it appears
in the source, it is cited as From, but if you reorganize the data or take only part of it, the
table is cited as Adapted from. (Note that for papers prepared for publication, a copyright
notice naming the copyright holder of the source of the table is also included at the end of
the bibliographic information, and if necessary, a note that permission has been secured.
See Figure 7.1.)
The eighth edition of the MLA handbook ignores tables and graphics because MLA’s goal
is to simplify citation. For this reason, we will treat tables and graphs the same way that we
would handle any other source.
118 Using Sources Effectively

Favorite Picnic Locations by Age

< 15 15–34 35–50 > 50
Beach 52 31 25 22
Sunny Lawn 40 48 31 17
Shaded Tree 8 21 44 61
Note. Survey taken June 6, 2015. n = 346. From “Recreational Options as Influenced by Climate and Age,”
by J. Doe, 2015, Journal of Leisure Time, 43, p. 274.

Figure 7.1 Example Table and Citation, APA Style

Favorite Picnic Locations by Age

< 15 15–34 35–50 > 50
Beach 52 31 25 22
Sunny Lawn 40 48 31 17
Shaded Tree 8 21 44 61

Figure 7.2 Example Table and Citation, MLA Style

In Figure 7.2, the boundary markers are similar to those in APA style, with the same
beginning marker of the word Table, a number, and a title on the line later. The ending
marker is similar also, with the word Source replacing the word From. The citation, of
course, is in MLA style.
For figures (graphs, charts, maps, drawings, and photographs) in APA citation style, the
figure itself provides the beginning marker (like a block indent), and the ending marker
consists of a label and a citation. The label should include the word figure and a figure
number and a title or caption for the figure (see Figure 7.3).
As with the table, if the graphic is pasted in exactly as it appears in the source, it is cited
as From, but if you crop, enhance, or otherwise alter it, the graphic is cited as Adapted
from. (As with a table, if your paper is being prepared for publication, include a copyright
notice at the end of the bibliographic information.)
For MLA style, boundary markers are similar to those in APA. The graphic provides its
own beginning marker and the citation at the end follows MLA style. Note that MLA abbre-
viates the figure label to Fig. and does not italicize it (see Figure 7.4).

Review Questions
To see how well you understand this chapter, attempt to answer each of the following
questions without referring to the text. (Write down your answers to make checking eas-
ier.) Then check your answers with the text. If you missed something important, add it to
your answer.

1. In your own words, define the Simple Rule.

2. Why is it important to indicate the beginning and ending of the sources?
 Putting It Together 119

Figure 1. Egyptian hieroglyph. From “Is this glyph all wet?” by R. A. Doe, 2017. Journal
of Modern Antiquities, 65, p. 316. Copyright 2017 by the Society for the Study of Ancient
Artifacts.

Figure 7.3 Example Figure and Caption, APA Style

Fig. 2. Egyptian hieroglyph. From R. A. Doe 316.

Figure 7.4 Example Figure and Caption, MLA Style

3. Describe several ways to create an introductory boundary marker when the usual bib-
liographic information for the source is limited, as for example an anonymous Web
article.
4. Describe several ways to create a second boundary marker when there is too little
standard bibliographic information about the source.

A Little Rhetoric: Hypophora

The rhetorical device hypophora (high POFF or uh) is an excellent writing tool because it
does the following:

• enhances motivation
• peaks curiosity
• takes your reader with you
• helps organize your thoughts

How does it work? There is an example right there. You simply ask and answer a question.
The question can be one that a reader might typically ask, or it can be one that your reader
would probably not have thought of but that opens an important avenue for exploration.
Note how livelier and inviting a question can be than a statement:

Example [Link].1
Statement

Now, we will discuss the way to assess these abstract claims. An answer has been provided
by Wu (2025). . . .
120 Using Sources Effectively

Hypophora
But how are we to ass such abstract claims? One answer has been provided by Wu (2025)
who argued. . . .

Note: Notice how the citation and verb tense comply with APA style.

A common use of hypophora is to ask a question as the first sentence of a paragraph and
then use the rest of the paragraph to answer it.

Example [Link].2
A. What is Wu’s (2025) response to these attacks on his findings?
B. If this fact has been known for so long, why is it still ignored?
C. Here, someone might ask about the collection method of data. Wu reassures us that . . .

Note: Notice how this the present tense is used in “C.” This tense complies with MLA
style.
Another strategy is to ask several questions one after another and then answer each one
in the following paragraphs.

Example [Link].3
A. Now that the funds have been identified, the question arises: What will be done with
this windfall? And who will decide who gets what? And how soon will the money be
released? The answers might shock you.
B. What, then, was the primary cause of the accident? What role did secondary causes
play? In fact, are the true causes really understood?
C. Now that a new general was in charge, how did the battle strategy change? Was it more
effective? Were there fewer casualties?

Either way, hypophora gives structure by presenting a logical order to the discussion while
creating interest in your treatment of the subject. As with other rhetorical devices, you
should not overuse hypophora. Once or twice in a paper will usually be the most effective.
Table 7.4 lists some of the lead-ins that can be sued to set up hypophora.

Now You Try

Find three paragraphs in papers that you have written or are writing, and create a lead sen-
tence for each using hypophora.

Table 7.4 Lead-Ins for Hypophora

Now the question arises Here, it might be asked
At this point, the obvious question is Such a fact raises the question
A question someone might have here is This, then, leads to the question
Of course, someone might wonder But what/when/where/why/how/who
 Putting It Together 121

1. What is the difference in effect? Is the difference better, the same as, or worse than your
original? Explain why.
2. Show your best original and hypophora-added paragraphs to friends and get their feed-
back. Which do they prefer? Why? What effect does the paragraph with hypophora
have on your readers?

Chapter 7 Review: Boundary Markers

Directions: For each example, decide whether or not the boundaries between the source
use and the paper writer’s own words have been adequately marked. In cases where the
difference is not clear, suggest improvements. Finally, if the source is summarized or para-
phrased, decide whether the use is properly constructed or commits plagiarism.

Source Text
Initially, oil rigs were required to be directly over the reservoir of oil that they sought to
pump out. Later, however, the development of slant drilling techniques permitted oil com-
panies to reach multiple crude sources from a single drilling location, such as an offshore
platform. Onshore, slant drilling allowed the exploitation of resources beneath developed
areas. —Wu, 2025, p. 123

Potential Use 1, APA Style

In the early days of oil drilling, oil rigs were required to be directly over the reservoir of
oil that they sought to pump out. But the, as Wu (2025) wrote, “The development of slant
drilling techniques permitted oil companies to reach multiple crude sources from a single
drilling location, such as an offshore platform” (p. 123). On land, slant drilling allowed the
use of resources beneath developed areas.

Potential Use 2, APA Style

Early oil rigs could drill only straight down, so that they had to be right on top of the pools
of oil that they tapped. Eventually, slant drilling enabled access to oil resources from loca-
tions far to the side of a given pool (Wu, 2025, p. 123).

Potential Use 3, MLA Style

Oil drilling has not always been as flexible as it is today. In the early days, as oil historian
Sam Wu tells us, drilling rigs had to be “directly over the reservoir of oil they sought to
pump out” (123).

Potential Use 4, MLA Style

In his discussion of the history of oil drilling, Sam Wu reminds us that the technique of
slant drilling (drilling at an angle from a wellhead) was not available early on. Originally,
the pool of oil to be tapped had to be directly under the wellhead. Only later could oil
beneath settled land be tapped from the side, ad multiple locations tapped from a single
offshore rig (123).
122 Using Sources Effectively

Potential Use 5, APA Style

Originally, claimed Wu (2025), oil rigs had to be directly over te reservoir of oil they
pumped. Later on, however, the invention of slat drilling procedures allowed oil compa-
nies to reach several oil sources from a single drilling spot, such as an offshore platform.
On land, slant drilling permitted the drilling of oil beneath industrialized areas.
8 Effective Use

Abstract
This chapter goes beyond mere compliance with the rules of source use and discusses
how to use sources in a powerful and effective way. By employing some of the practical
ideas here, you will be able to write more vibrant and successful papers. In addition, you
will learn how to identify in others’ writing, and to avoid in your own writing, the use of
logical fallacies.

He had nothing to say, but he sure said it well.

—Anonymous

The learning objectives of Chapter 8 are as follows:

a. To give greater credibility to your sources by more detailed introductions

b. To clarify the purpose and impact of your source by discussing the meaning or
implications more fully
c. To strengthen your writing by more effectively interweaving your sources
d. To maintain the readers’ confidence in your writing by avoiding the common pit-
falls of an ineffective source.

Previous chapters have shown you how to select, prepare, and incorporate sources into
your research-based writing. This chapter takes you a step further by providing some practi-
cal techniques for enhancing your use of sources to help you make your researched writing
particularly effective.

8.1 Introduce the Source Thoroughly

Section 4.2 of Chapter 4 discussed general strategies for introducing your sources. The dis-
cussion here provides you with some more advanced introductory strategies that will help
you add attention and credibility to the sources that you use.

DOI: 10.4324/9781032643779-8
124 Using Sources Effectively

Establish the Credibility of the Source

Going back at least to the time of ancient Greek and Roman oratory, speakers have tradi-
tionally been introduced, often by someone familiar to the audience, to attest to their trust-
worthiness. Ever since printed books have become available, prefaces and forewords by
well-known people often recommend the books (and their authors) to the public. Your role
as the introducer of a source is similar. When you say, “As John Doe says,” your reader’s
first reaction might be to ask a few questions:

• Who is John Doe?

• Why is he being quoted (or summarized or paraphrased)?
• Why should I believe him, anyway?
• What is this reference doing here?

In other words, your role as introducer of a source is to provide the reader with enough
background that the source appears to be worth paying attention to as a credible voice.
You will recall that the first test of source evaluation, discussed in Chapter 2, Section 2.5,
is Expertise. Now that you have located a source that has met the criteria for expertise, you
may wish to offer some of the evidence of this expertise to your reader. Note the difference:

• As John Doe says, “These South American plants are dangerous.”

• As John Doe, some guy with a Web page, says, “These South American plants are
dangerous.”
• [MLA style] As John Doe, author of Poisonous Plants in Africa, says, “These South Ameri-
can plants are dangerous.”
• [APA style] As John Doe (2025), author of Poisonous Plants in Africa, said, “These South
American plants are dangerous” (p. 123).

Clearly, the information provided in the last two instances gives the reader much more
reason to accept John Doe’s comments as authoritative than does the information in the
introductory language of the first two. The background information that helps build cred-
ibility of an author includes the following:

• organizational affiliation (for example, of the Mayo Clinic)

• respected Web site (for example, a government site, FDA, FTC, FBI, etc.)
• job description (for example, coroner, geologist, forensic chemist, automotive safety
engineer, market analyst)
• relevant publications (name the one that you are citing or another one that established
an arena of expertise)
• relevant accomplishments (for example, war veteran, mountaineer, Nobel laureate,
eyewitness)
• relevant experience (for example, twenty years’ experience spotting art fakes)

Two words of caution are appropriate here. First, avoid making a bald authority appeal,
which implies that a source should be believed just because the writer possesses expert
 Effective Use 125

credentials or is associated with a famous organization. (See the fallacy of appeal to pres-
tige in Section 8.5 in this chapter.) The credentials tell us why we should listen to the
source, but the quality of the source’s arguments and evidence is what persuades us (or
not) about the issue at hand. Second, use these introductions somewhat sparingly and keep
them fairly brief, in order to keep the focus on the information under discussion rather than
on the credentials.
Another way to establish credibility is to comment on the nature of the information itself,
showing that the way it was acquired makes it likely to be dependable:

• In a major national survey, Doe (2025) discovered that (APA)

• Based on interviews with seven eyewitnesses, Doe (2025) concluded (APA)
• An examination of the original autographed manuscript by Doe (2025) reveals (MLA)
• After living with the tribe for two years, Doe (2025) reported (APA)
• In an experiment with a more rigorous research model, Doe (2025) has corrected (APA)

Note: Each bulleted example is labeled either APA style or MLA style.
The length of your credibility-stablishing introduction depends on three factors:

• How much of the source that you use. The amount of space that you devote to a source,
whether by quotation, summary, or paraphrase, indicates to some extent the degree of
importance that you place on it. The more that you use of a source, then, the more space
that you should take to establish the source’s credibility.
• The nature of the source material. If the source is presenting an uncontroversial histori-
cal narrative or providing some background information, a less elaborate introduction
will be needed than if the source is providing analysis, expert opinion, evaluation, or
judgment. Conclusions consisting of expert opinions or judgments require the presenta-
tion of credentials to give them weight and persuasive power.
• How important the source is for your argument or discussion. If you claim that the
source provides substantial weight in favor of your position, you will need to establish
credibility more thoroughly than if you bring in the source only as a minor support or as
additional information.

As the examples earlier show, most credibility-building introductions should consist of

just a few words. As a suggestion, even for sources with the most important impact in your
paper, keep the maximum length of your introductory comments to less than ten words,
and use such a length once or twice, at most, in a ten-page paper. Do not ramble on end-
lessly about how important or famous that your source is.

Provide Needed Background or Context

In addition (or perhaps as an alternative) to providing information about the author, some
information that puts the source material in context may be desirable. Explanation, history,
contrasting ideas, the setup of an experiment, or other information will often be useful for
helping the reader understand the source.
126 Using Sources Effectively

Example 8.1.1
Historical background leads to quotation, APA style:

Even a few years ago, individuals who prepared their own income taxes using tax soft-
ware would have to wait until the “final version” of the software was released or make
two trips to the computer store: one to get the preliminary version and a second trip to
get the final version. With the advent of Web technology, however, that awkwardness
has changed. As Doe (2025) wrote recently, “Users can now buy the software anytime,
knowing that an up-to-the minute update is available 24 hours a day on the company’s
Web site” (pp. 61–62).

Pronounced impact can be created by describing a problem or question that the source
then solves, answers, or at least discusses.

Example 8.1.2
Problem statement leads to quotation, MLA style:

William Shakespeare had barely breathed his last breath before the controversy began
over the authorship of the plays and other works attributed to him. Over the years,
more than 50 candidates (including Queen Elizabeth herself) have been named, either
individually or in groups, as writers of the works. The controversy has not been trivial,
either: Mountains of tantalizing evidence have been brought together for each of the top
half-dozen candidates (including Shakespeare himself). Renaissance scholar Jane Doe
argues that the issues is not likely to be resolved anytime soon: “Each of the principal
candidates, such as Bacon and De Vere, has too much circumstantial evidence to ignore
and yet not enough to be finally convincing” (345).

Recommend the Source

In Chapter 4, you learned how helpful it can be to direct your reader’s understanding of the
role of a source by using appropriate introductory lead-ins, such as “Jane Doe agrees,” or
“Jane Doe has the opposite opinion.” It can be equally useful and effective to recommend
to the reader that particular attention to a source is desirable:

• APA Style: Interesting enough, John Does reported that

• MLA Style: The most significant finding, however, comes from Jane Doe, who
• APA Style: Doe identified an important detail:
• APA Style: The most insightful connection, however, is made by John Doe
• APA Style: Then, in 2025, Jane Doe developed a powerful synthesis
• APA Style: Indeed, as Doe suggested,

In this last example, the word indeed is functioning as a sentential adverb, a word or phrase
used to emphasize the importance of the coming statement. Use of a sentential adverb at
the beginning of a sentence lets your reader know that what follows is especially signifi-
cant. See Table 8.1 for other choices.
 Effective Use 127

Table 8.1 Sentential Adverbs

assuredly in brief remarkably
certainly in fact significantly
clearly in short specifically
definitely indeed surprisingly
evidently of course to be sure
importantly on the whole without a doubt

Caution: Take care to be moderate in your recommendation. Avoid unprofessional or

overly enthusiastic language, such as amazingly, incredibly wonderfully, brilliantly, abso-
lutely, convincingly, and the like. Similarly, you should avoid emphasizing the importance
of more than just a few sources. Remember the proverb, “Where everything is important,
nothing is important.” So, to make the emphasis stand out, it is best to limit your use of
these words to less than one of every ten quotations, paraphrases, or summaries.

8.2 Discuss or Apply the Source

During the process of researching, thinking, and drafting, writers form many connections
in their minds between the various materials being used. As a result of such labor, a quo-
tation inserted to support a point may have a seemingly obvious link or purpose in the
writer’s mind. However, the reader has access only to the written words on the page, not
to the writer’s thoughts. Sometimes, therefore, a reader is left wondering about the role of
a quotation or other reference. An important task for you as a writer is to be sure that the
connections between elements are clear.

The Purpose of a Source Is Not Always Self-Evident

Sources (quotations, paraphrases, summaries, even brief references) do not explain them-
selves. Imagine your reader looking at the last source that you inserted and asking one of
these questions:

• What is this doing here?

• How does this reference apply to the point being discussed?
• How does this help advance the argument?
• What does this quotation mean?
• What should I especially notice in all of these words?

As a thinking stimulus for yourself, imagine your reader reading over the quotation or
paraphrase and saying, “Okay. I read that. I know what Doe says. So what?” Your task is to
answer the “So what?” for your reader.

Explain the Source Beginning With an Interpretive Lead-In

The first way to help your reader to understand the meaning and purpose of a quotation or
other source use is to choose a good introductory lead-in, as was just discussed earlier, and
128 Using Sources Effectively

in Chapter 4. A good lead-in helps to explain the source in advance by identifying its func-
tion in the paper—the lead-in positions the source in the logical context of the argument.
For example, instead of writing, “Doe says,” which tells the reader nothing about Doe’s role
in the discussion, you might use “Doe clarifies this” or “Doe offers a counterargument.”
Then, after you use a source, go on to explain or demonstrate how your lead-in is correct.
Sources often need clarification, interpretation, commentary, or some other explanation.
You may need to draw specific attention to the significant detail or the main point that you
want your reader to understand if your use of the source is several lines long. Generally
speaking, the more of a source that you use, the longer your explanation should be.
Some writers keep a loose scheme in their minds: The introductory lead-in should be
from a fourth to half as long as the quotation, paraphrase, or summary; and the explana-
tion following should be twice as long as the material being cited. Such a scheme may not
fit every situation, but the general idea is interesting: The longer your source use, the more
lead-in is desirable to build credibility or supply background, and the more explanation is
needed to apply the source to the argument of the paper. The logic of this scheme seems
reasonable: The longer use of the source, the more importance it assumes.
Just as the role of a source can be positioned for the reader by using an effective intro-
ductory lead-in, so your comments can be positioned by a lead-in called an interpretive
lead-in. The presence of these two signals to your readers keeps them informed about your
direction and focus. Note in Table 8.2 an example of the “interpretation sandwich”:
Table 8.3 lists interpretative lead-ins that will allow you to orient your reader’s attention
as you begin to explain the significance of your source.
When you explain or interpret the source, do not restate or paraphrase it. If the quotation
itself is unclear, you should probably paraphrase it instead of quoting it. If the quotation is
clear, focus your commentary on applying it to your discussion. The point is to avoid say-
ing the same thing that the quotation says. Note in the following example how ineffective
a redundant comment can be:

Example 8.2.1
Quotation with ineffective commentary, APA style:

In his analysis, Doe (2025) wrote, “This bill for subsidizing buggy whip manufacture is
ill-advised. It should be voted down” (p. 1414). Here, Doe says that he is against the bill
to subsidize buggy whip manufacture.
A better practice is to add a clarifying interpretation, the “So what?” that will help your
reader understand the quotation.

Table 8.2 Interpretation Sandwich Example

Introductory lead-in positions Source quoted, summarized, or Interpretive lead-in positions
the source paraphrased your discussion

John Doe proposes a “Those who drive Here Doe seems to

gas tax based on miles the most would have forgotten
driven. pay the most” (234). long-haul trucks.
 Effective Use 129

Table 8.3 Interpretive Lead-Ins

What does it mean? What does it not mean?
Here we see This does not mean of course, that
From this we can understand No one would suggest from this that
This means, in effect, that This should not be understood to say
In other words, It would be incorrect to interpret this as
What does it imply? What does it not imply?
With this comment, Doe indicates It does not follow from this that
Doe appears to be implying here that Here Doe does not appear to be implying
The implication of this fact are This fact still does not rule out
The inference follows that This fact still does not rule out
From this, we can conclude that Yet, it cannot be concluded that
Where does this lead? How does this challenge or complicate?
As a result, Such a fact argues against the idea that
As a consequence, This, then, becomes a second hypothesis
This leads toward the conclusion that Here, then, is still another complication
This discovery greatly strengthens These findings appear to contradict the

Example 8.2
Quotation with improved commentary, MLA style:

In his analysis, John Doe wrote, “This bill for subsidizing buggy whip manufacture is
ill-advised. It should be voted down” (1414). Doe realizes that subsidies for unneeded
or marginal products represent a poor use of scarce public resources.

Be Reasonable About the Effect of the Source

Remember that an argument is built by offering multiple reasons and by appealing to evi-
dence. No one piece will be overwhelming by itself even though it may be quite strong.
Therefore, be careful not to attribute more convincing power to one source than it reason-
ably has. Rather than claim, for example, that a source proves a point or that it provides
overwhelming evidence, you might say that it lends weight to the argument. Other reason-
able claims include these:

• Doe’s argument here presents a sturdy challenge to

• This seems to provide the best answer
• Clearly, this evidence cannot be ignored
• The fact that this experiment has been repeated with similar results gives us a degree of
confidence in the conclusion that
• This is a credible argument that deserves serious consideration

The point of being modest is that making reasonable claims will increase your reader’s
confidence in your ability to evaluate and present evidence in a scholarly fashion.
130 Using Sources Effectively

Provide an Example to Clarify the Source’s Point

When a source treats an issue in general or abstract terms, you can aid your reader’s
understanding by supplying a clarifying example as part of your commentary. A concrete
example creates an image in the reader’s mind, making the concept more easily grasped.

Example 8.2.3
Summarized source followed by paper writer’s examples, APA style:

In his discussion of household electrical consumption, Young (2025) argued that of

the more than dozen electrical motors in a typical home, the “occasional use” motors
add significantly to the overall energy usage (pp. 246–252). Examples of occasional
use motors would include bathroom vent fans, range hood fans, and garbage disposals
because they are used only on occasion rather than continuously, as in the case of a
refrigerator circulation fan.

Comment:
After the writer of the paper supplies several concrete examples, such as garbage dispos-
als, the reader will have enough knowledge of the term occasional use motor to follow the
subsequent discussion with understanding.

Example 8.2.4
Quoted source followed by paper writer’s example, MLA style:

A common style of literary criticism in the eighteenth century, writes David Young, was
to “point out the beauties and defects of a given work, with the idea that the critic would
help build the public’s taste as well as improve art itself” (321). Many issues of The Tatler
and The Spectator periodical papers by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele exemplify
this practice.

8.3 Blend in Your Sources

Using formal introductions over and over to set off quotations can create a rough or even
disjointed feeling to your discussion and inhibit the smooth flow that a well-written paper
ought to have. Alternatively, blending your sources into your writing can produce a par-
ticularly effective paper by allowing you to maintain the desired feeling of continuity while
bringing in your desired variety of quotations. By moving quickly back and forth from source
to discussion, you show that you understand and can work with the source’s ideas easily
and fluidly. Using a blended structure means that you do not need to interrupt the flow of
your own words in order to present the source’s words. Your own voice continues smoothly.

Work Your Sources Into the Discussion

Often, the centrally important core of information in a source can be found in just a phrase
or portion of a sentence. In these cases, you can quote just that piece. If there are several
 Effective Use 131

such pieces, they can be assembled artfully into your discussion. When you construct sen-
tences from a combination of your own words and those of the source, take care that the
result is clear, smooth, and grammatical.

Example 8.3.1
Blended quotations, APA style:

During an investigation of the site, Doe (2025) found evidence of “early disturbances
in most of the graves,” (p. 233) with seven of them “plundered and virtually destroyed”
(p. 254) by grave robbers. As a result of this activity, he concluded that the “entire site is
largely compromised” (p. 221).

Example 8.3.2
Blended quotations, MLA style:

In her chapter on “The Power of Prepositions,” Jane Doe notes that a small change in
prepositions can produce “a dramatic alteration of the actual meaning” of a statement
(453). For example, the expression “made of chicken” may mean only that there was
“one chicken among a thousand horses” (447).

Combine Quoting With Summarizing

If quoting represents a regular-speed presentation of a source, summarizing represents
fast-forward. By combining these two modes of use, you can regulate the tempo of the bor-
rowing, speeding up and slowing down as the importance of the material warrants.

Example 8.3.3
Combined use, APA style:

In his article on Web search tools, Doe (2025) discussed the search engines, such as
Google, indexing billions of pages of content; specialty search engines for subject, such
as law, medicine, and education; and search tools for the deep or invisible Web, which
he found “a rich and expansive realm of treasured content not often enough explored”
by the average Web searcher (p. 365).

Example 8.3.4
Combined use, MLA style:

In his article Web search tools, John Doe covers the search engines, such as Google,
indexing billions of pages of content; specialty search engines for subjects, such as law,
medicine, and education; and search tools for the deep or invisible Web, which he finds
“a rich and expansive realm of treasured content not often enough explored” by the
average Web searcher (365).
132 Using Sources Effectively

Use One Long, Many Short for Powerful Persuasion

Especially in cases where you are building an argument, a successful strategy is to quote
and discuss one source at some length to demonstrate its support and then quote or refer
to two or three other sources very briefly as additional examples of support. This practice
offers the benefit of showing that several sources support your point, while saving you the
time and space of detailing all of them.

Example 8.3.5
Long and short sources, APA style:

Advances in communication technology, argued Young (2025), rather than enabling us to

make better decisions, have deprived us of the ability to think. A hundred years ago, he said,
a message required “three days by horseback or three months by ship” to go from one party
another, allowing for “substantial thinking time by both sender and receiver” between mes-
sages. Now, however, we are connected “instantly by fax, telephone and Internet video,”
all of which demand instant, unthinking replies (pp. 354–355). Sanchez (2000) concluded
much the same thing about our “thoughtless response time” (p. 222), as did Smith (2015).

Comment:
You may recall from Chapter 2 that the credibility and reliability of information can be
tested by seeking corroboration—the determination that the information is supported by
more than one source. Specifically mentioned was triangulation, finding three sources that
agree. Notice in the example just above that the writer has triangulated the sources for
the reader: Three sources are cited that agree with each other. The corroboration has been
accomplished briefly, yet it substantially strengthens the point that the writer is making.

8.4 Avoid Ineffective Use

Bringing in a source in an awkward or ineffective way can backfire on the writer of a paper
by confusing or detouring the argument. When you use a source, then, take care to make
its presentation as strong as your own discussion in the paper.

Beware of Long Quotations

Two crucial goals of your writing should be to keep your reader both interested in your dis-
cussion and focused on the central idea that you are advancing. Lengthy quotations, and
especially several lengthy quotations, tend to subvert both of these goals. No hard-and-fast
rule about quotations exists, of course, and you can find many examples of books with
half-page or even longer quotations as evidence that you may do the same. However, there
are some good reasons to use great caution before using a quotation longer than about six
or seven lines:

• Long quotations look like padding to many instructors (as was mentioned in Chapter 4).
If a quotation is not discussed thoroughly, it might appear even more arbitrarily inserted.
 Effective Use 133

• Many readers skip long quotations. No quotation can be effective if it is not read. Read-
ers following the discussion closely may think that they will lose their train of thought if
they read a ten- or twenty-line quotation, so they may skim or even skit it altogether.
• Readers may lose focus when they do read through a long quotation; the subject cap-
tures their attention, and they begin to think about the source’s interests and arguments
rather than the role the source is supposed to be playing in your paper.

It is not uncommon for a long quotation to make only a single point that could be summed
up or delivered in a short quotation taken from the longer one. Either form of condensing
would make better use of your paper’s space and your reader’s time.

Example 8.4.1
Source, letter from a government authority regarding a rumor trending on social media:

We have investigated these claims thoroughly, subjecting them to our usual rigorous
procedures for determining whether or not there is a factual basis behind them, and have
concluded that the claims have no basis in fact. They remain unsubstantiated rumors
spread persistently and yet without any discoverable merit. Parties wishing to contact the
Agency for further information are welcome to do so. —Noemi Fregoso, 2025

Comment:
One way to use this source would be to quote it in its entirety. However, you could make
the same point (less boringly and, in fact, more powerfully) as follows:

Abbreviated use, APA style:

In a letter on the Agency’s Web site, Fregoso (2025), chief information officer, wrote that
the Agency had “investigated these claims thoroughly” and that they had “no basis in
fact.”

If you seriously believe that your argument can best benefit by the quotation of more than
40 or 50 words, your best approach will probably be to break the quotation up. Quote a
portion and then discuss or apply that part, then quote some more. By breaking the quota-
tion into several pieces, you will not only better maintain your voice in the paper but also
more clearly preserve the flow of the argument or discussion. You also show more clearly
what parts of the source that you are addressing in your comments.

Avoid Overusing One Source

Whether or not you must include a minimum number of sources in your paper, be careful
not to use one source too much. Overuse of one source can take several forms:

• Citing the same source several times in a row. Using a source several times by fol-
lowing the same order of presentation as the source (such as pages 234, 255, 276, or
worse, pages 234, 235, 237) creates the appearance that the source is merely being
134 Using Sources Effectively

summarized and transferred into the paper without any further processing analysis, inte-
gration into the overall argument, or interplay with other sources. A better practice is
to collect all your sources and arrange them in the most useful order before you begin
drafting.
• Citing a source sequentially. Even when other sources are placed between sequential
uses of a single source, the effect is much the same as that just described: The writer
appears to be copying without thinking rather than constructing a purposefully organ-
ized discussion.
• Citing a source too many times. Regardless of the order or location of multiple uses of
a single source, relying on a single source more than just a few times usually implies
inadequate research and thinking.

When you write a paper of any kind, even a book review, take command of the organiza-
tion of ideas and the structure of the presentation. Put the concepts and your comments
into the arrangement that you believe to be the most effective. Readers expect reviewers
to engage with the material and present it in a clear way, and many instructors are wary
of reviews that follow exactly the order of ideas in the book. They know all too well that
some students type a bit, turn a few pages, type a bit more, turn a few more pages, and so
on the night before the paper is due.

Begin and End Each Paragraph With Your Own Words

Usually, it is best to avoid beginning a paragraph with the use of a source (quotation, para-
phrase, or summary) because that leaves no room to set up the topic of the paragraph and
introduce the source. Similarly, unless a quotation is used for effect (such as a proverb or
provocative statement), it is usually best to end the paragraph by applying the quotation
and then concluding the paragraph with your own further discussion. The same policy
holds true for summaries and paraphrases.

Be Sure Citations Match the References

Experienced instructors know that this piece of obvious advice bears reinforcing. The
purpose of an in-text citation (both APA and MLA) is to allow the reader to find the full
bibliographic entry among the References (APA) or Works Cited (MLA) at the end of
the paper. Simply put, if the citation says “Doe (2025),” there should be an entry in the
bibliography under “Doe” as the first word of the entry. If an article or other source is
anonymous and the citation uses a short title, such as “Tea Trade,” there should be an
entry under “Tea Trade” as the first words. This cross-referencing from in-text citation to
bibliography is also why the entries in the bibliography are alphabetized: to permit easy
location of the cited works.
To avoid creating the impression of being an unskilled writer, you should be sure
that every citation has an exactly matching entry in the bibliography, which is care-
fully alphabetized. You will also thereby avoid being suspected of faking a citation.
Citation faking is a serious act of academic dishonesty, often found in connection with
plagiarism and often punished similarly. Take care to avoid any suspicion of this dis-
honest practice.
 Effective Use 135

8.5 Working With Sources That Disagree or Conflict

In Chapter 1, we mentioned that the use of sources at conflict with your position can
strengthen your research paper. For this reason, you will want to locate and include some
of these sources in your work whenever possible. (Refer to the Mini-Research Project at
the end of Chapter 3 for some search strategies.) This section contains advice about how to
make use of conflicts.

Identify the Source of Disagree

Whatever subject that you research, you are likely to encounter conflicting claims about
facts and events themselves or about the meaning of facts and events. In order for you to
choose which claims to accept and which to counter with other arguments, you should
first locate the source of the conflict. Here are some reasons why sources conflict:

One source is outdated. New facts may have come to light, new technological discover-
ies may have been made, or a new understanding may have arisen. For example, the
account of a historical event may be changed when an old manuscript is discovered,
explaining how the event occurred. New discoveries in biochemistry change our views
of mental illness and treatment. Technical discoveries in computers and digital cameras
quickly render even recent information obsolete.
The sources begin with different assumptions. Assumptions, often unstated by the writer,
underlie much of what is presented. People differ about what constitutes good or
acceptable evidence and what can be assumed without examination. For example, a
writer who assumes that printed paper will always be available.
The sources are using different definitions. When a term has no fixed or universal defini-
tion scholars must create a working definition—called a stipulative definition—which
serves a specific purpose. When these definitions vary widely from scholar to scholar,
the arguments and conclusions of a study or interpretive article can also vary widely.
For example, terms such as mental illness, binge drinking, and toxic waste are open to
widely different definitions. Thus, if one study claims that there are a thousand toxic
waste sites in the United States, while another claims that there are 10,000 or a 100,000,
the different definitions used by each author may be the source of the disparity.
Interpretations differ. This differing may be the most common reason for conflict in
sources. Several people examine a set of facts and create different explanations for
those facts. (Indeed, a recommended exercise in problem solving involves creating
several explanations for the same set of data. The problem solver can then examine
these rival hypotheses to determine which tells the most convincing story.) The mean-
ing of facts is frequently uncertain or ambiguous so that equally careful and unbiased
investigators can quite rationally come to very different conclusions. It is important to
remember this fact: Honest people can differ.
For example, imagine the investigation of a crime scene. All the evidence may be present
to the investigators, yet there are, at least initially, several equally plausible explana-
tions. In constructing an explanatory story, each investigator might be influenced by
different evidence or by emphasizing different pieces of evidence. Though they disa-
gree, they come together to work out those differences as far as possible.
136 Using Sources Effectively

The source authors have different values. Values shape the choices of all of us. Decision
making is a product of the available alternatives, the criteria that we want our choice
to meet, and the values that we hold about the worth of each criterion. Analysis and
interpretation are, in a sense, acts of decision making, so they, too, are shaped by our
values. A writer who argues that building a dam across a river is a good idea because
it will supply electricity and a writer who argues that the dam is a bad idea because
of its environmental impact are using the same facts to come to opposite conclusions
because their values differ.
Personal bias is present. There are many varieties of bias or ideological commitment in
every arena of learning. Some people value political agendas over truth. Other people
have strong commitments to particular viewpoints. For example, a writer who believes
that most large corporations are corrupt will write an analysis of a paper shortage with
different conclusions from a writer who believes that most large corporations are hon-
est. For some writers, the government is the problem, while for others, the government
is the solution. Because bias is often exhibited by an unrepresentative selection of facts,
together with a slanted interpretation, two conflicting positions may both appear to be
based on evidence.

Of course, these causes are often found in combination. For example, a literary critic who
believes that a novelist’s personal biography is irrelevant to the meaning of the novel will
probably differ from a critic who believes that the novelist’s biography is relevant. The
resulting articles (or books) would differ because of different assumptions, values, and
interpretations.
One important task to perform before you separate your research materials into support-
ing and opposing sources is to remember this: The opposing source might be right.
Give some serious thought to the arguments and evidence in the conflicting sources both
before and while you write your first draft. Even if you do not ultimately change your posi-
tion entirely, you might find yourself altering your views to some extent. In other words,
avoid falling into either-or thinking where you view sources merely as friend or foe. Allow
a careful consideration of each viewpoint before you choose your position.

Criticizing Opposing Sources

At the places in your research paper where it becomes useful to introduce an opposing
or conflicting source, you should provide an effective but fair response to the source. The
response will depend on the reason for the conflict. Here are some possible strategies for
criticizing a source:

• An error of fact. Emphasize the deficiency in the facts presented by the conflicting
source. There are three possibilities. (1) The facts are outdated and have been super-
seded by newer knowledge. (2) The facts are inaccurate (they may be partially right and
partially wrong), confused, or otherwise incorrect. (3) Not all the facts have been taken
into account, and the source’s argument involves incomplete evidence.
• A weakness in interpretation. Emphasize the reason for the difference in interpretation,
and show why your interpretation is stronger (or why the conflicting interpretation is
 Effective Use 137

weak). Reasons for differing interpretations are several. (1) The interpretations are based
on different assumptions. (2) The interpretations derive from different values. (3) The
source’s author is biased and is presenting an unfair or distorted argument (be careful
and fair in showing how the author is misguided). (4) There is an honest difference in the
meaning of the data or evidence.
• Failure to include a significant argument or fact. Conclusions based on incomplete evi-
dence or evidence selected in a biased way are open to criticism by arguing that if the
additional evidence had been included, the conclusion would likely have been differ-
ent. You may have read arguments where respondents to an argument say, “But this fails
to take into account the fact that—,” or “But this argument ignores the issue of—.” One
caution is relevant here, however. Take care that the omitted argument is truly significant
or central to the issue.
• A weak or unacceptable definition. Occasionally, a writer will create a definition that
is too inclusive, too exclusive, or in some other way, not acceptable. One type of unac-
ceptable definition commits the fallacy of begging the question: The definition is written
so that it presents a conclusion or eliminates the consideration of an opposing argu-
ment. For example, “I define mental processes as those thoughts of which we are con-
sciously aware. Therefore, by definition, there is no such thing as unconscious mental
processes.”
• An error of reasoning. Point out the error or fallacy. Possibilities include the following:
(1) A conclusion commits the fallacy of hasty generalization: generalizing from too lit-
tle evidence or evidence that is not representative. (2) Another fallacy of reasoning has
been committed. See the next section for some examples. (3) The assumptions behind
the argument are incorrect or objectionable.
• Faulty methodology. Professionals often criticize studies on this basis. Point out flaws in
the source of data, the failure of the data to be representative, the flawed design of the
study, or the error made during the investigation.

Avoid Criticizing a Source Unfairly

When you respond to the arguments that oppose your position in a paper, there are several
logical fallacies that you should be careful to avoid. Fallacies are errors of reasoning that
divert the argument from its paper focus. These fallacies occur most often when writers
attack conflicting sources:

• Argumentum ad hominem. Attacking the writer personally rather than arguing against
the writer’s ideas. For example, “No one but an ignorant fanatic would make such an
objection.” In that case, responding to the objection logically with good evidence should
be easy, so why resort to name calling?
• Genetic error. Rejects an idea because of its origin. For example, “We dismiss that
remedy for gout because it comes from folk medicine rather than modern science.” The
issue should not be from where it came but whether or not the remedy works.
• Appeal to prestige. Uses a person’s or organization’s fame as a substitute for evidence
or argument. For example, “These findings clearly disprove the objection because they
came from a presidential task force.” A good reputation (such as scholarly prestige) adds
138 Using Sources Effectively

to the credibility of an argument, but no amount of fame should ever be a substitute

for an argument or evidence. To claim superiority for one view over another based on
which side has the more famous advocates is sometimes metaphorically called a beauty
contents.
• Straw man. Presents an opposing position or evidence in such an unfair or exaggerated
way that it is easy to refute. For example, “Those who advocate raising the speed limit
believe that the thousands of resulting traffic deaths are an acceptable cost for getting
them to their hot tubs five minutes faster.” Caricaturing or misrepresenting an opposing
viewpoint is not merely unfair to the opponent; the act also diminishes your own cred-
ibility and, hence, the convincing power of your argument.
• Emotive language. Uses loaded words to appeal to the reader’s feelings instead of to rea-
son. For example, instead of presenting arguments or evidence to show why a proposal
is weak, the writer might say, “This plan will take us back to the nineteenth century.”
Notice that we learn nothing from this statement about the deficiencies of the idea.
Another use of emotive language is to employ single words or short phrases that carry
negative or positive connotations, depending on the writer’s attitude toward the data.
For example, “Some researchers are trapped by the fantasy that Theory Y explains moti-
vations, while others have been liberated by Theory Z.”

Review Questions
To see how well that you understand this chapter, attempt to answer each of the following
questions without referring to the text. (Write down your answers to make checking easier.)
Then check your answers with the text. If you missed something important, add it to your
answer.

1. What is the purpose of introducing a source?

2. Why is it important to establish the credibility of a source that you quote?
3. What is the function of an interpretive lead-in?
4. Explain the concept of finding multiple sources that agree as an indicator of source
credibility.
5. What are some strategies for criticizing an opposing source?

Matching Exercise

A. Logical fallacy D. Argumentum ad hominem

B. Genetic Error E. Appeal to prestige
C. Straw man F. emotive language

__________ 1. Mispresents an opponent’s argument by making the argument seem weak,

ridiculous, and easily refutable.
__________ 2. Attacks the person rather than attacking the argument.
__________ 3. Appeals to a person’s or organization’s fame for the argument’s credibility.
__________ 4. Uses words that carry strong negative or positive connotations to appeal to
the reader’s emotions rather than reason.
 Effective Use 139

__________ 5. Diverts the reader’s attention from the paper’s purpose with errors of
reasoning.
__________ 6. Rejects an argument because of its origin.

Mini-Research Project: Logical Fallacies

Thinking that they are adding more credibility to their argument, writers turn to the logical
fallacies in Chapter 8 as well as to many others. Search the Internet for definitions to the
following logical fallacies, and provide examples of their use in at least three cases.
Answers will vary.

A. Hasty generalization F. Transfer

B. Analogy G. Red herring
C. Post hoc fallacy H. Legitimate argument
D. Either . . . or fallacy I. Assumption
E. Biased language J. Syllogism

A Little Rhetoric: Procatalepsis

Because this chapter discussed and recommended using sources that disagree with your
thesis, a powerful rhetorical device that fits right in is procatalepsis (pro kat up LEP sis).
With this device, you raise an objection to the point you are making and then answer it. By
anticipating an objection and then answering it, you show the following:

• You are aware of the objection.

• Your position has been adopted even knowing the objection.
• The objection has a reasonable answer.

When you admit that an objection exists, you can clear the reader’s mind. That is, suppose
your reader is going through your argument but knows of an objection. That objection,
until surfaced and addressed, can block all of the great reasoning that you are presenting.
Raising the objection makes you appear fair; responding to it makes you appear knowl-
edgeable. Overcoming an objection makes your position twice as strong.

Example [Link].1
It might be objected here that not a penny should be spent on freeway art until all the pot-
holes are filled. This argument would be true except for the fact that the money allocated
for art comes from an entirely different budget.

Example [Link].2
Against this position, however, is the argument that even with an additional layer of cost
accounting, the budgetary pie is simply too small. To be sure, we are all eating from a
small pie, but the solution is not to bring in more pie servers; the solution is to waste less
of the pie.
140 Using Sources Effectively

Table 8.4 Lead-Ins for Procatalepsis

A possible objection to this is that On the other side of the issue,
However, someone might argue that Now, it could be said that
It is occasionally objected here that Of course, there is always the objection that

Example [Link].3
A common pushback to this idea is that until technology can overcome the mileage limita-
tions of storage batteries, electric cars will remain too impractical to be a popular choice.
However, as technology grows the mileage capabilities of electric cars, they will soon
become the car of choice for the future.

Now You Try

1. Write a sentence expressing an objection.
2. Use three different ways to introduce it using procatalepsis. You may use stems from the
table or your own inventions.
3. Write two more sentences expressing objections and using procatalepsis with different
stems from those that you used earlier.

Chapter 8 Review: Effectiveness

Directions: For each paragraph later, comment on what makes the passage ineffective and
say how it can be improved. (Note: This exercise uses APA citation style. If you use MLA
style, convert the citations appropriately.)

1. The telecommunications industry is in turmoil. “The Internet is threatening to make

long-distance phone calling free, for example” (Doe, 2024, p. 144). Also, the world
may soon go wireless.
2. In an article on natural hair care, Doe (2025) revealed that most commercial shampoos
are very damaging to hair. This proves that natural hair cleansers are better for you than
commercial shampoos.
3. Doe (2025) reported. “Clay soils need amendments to provide a loosening effect”
(p. 234). Doe (2025) added, “Water does not penetrate clay soils well” (p. 235). Another
thing Doe said is, “Sand therefore, can serve as a useful additive for soils of low perme-
ability like clay” (2024, p. 237).
4. Doe (2021) reported that credible information about various Internet hoaxes is avail-
able by “consulting the FakeOut Home Page, which is operated by the AECH (p. 144).
5. According to Gonzalez (2022), warnings about the danger of traveling to certain named
countries are occasionally issued by the United States federal government’s Department
of State, which decides “to issue travel warnings when the perceived danger of traveling
to certain cities or countries warrants the issuance of an official position directed at
the general public who might be traveling to the given country, perhaps on vacation”
(p. 251). The warnings are issued only after extensive analysis of all available pertinent
information Gonzalez continues: “The State Department recommends against travel to
 Effective Use 141

a country only when consideration of all relevant information that can be gleaned in
relation to the situation, including place, time, and potential actions against a target,
points to a credible threat” (p. 267).
6. In spite of government reassurances, however, Doe (2023) provided a devastating
counterargument, proving that there are no guarantees of safety with this product: “You
could be killed if you use it” (p. 222).
7. Increased noise can be a by-product of economizing. According to Doe (2024), “The
refrigeration compressor became noisier because of increasing its speed by reducing
the number of internal windings in order to save manufacturing costs. Ventilation air
noise increased as higher-speed fans (noisier in themselves) were used to push more
air through smaller, and hence cheaper, ducts, which then rattled from the air veloc-
ity. Less expensive mounting techniques produced whole room vibrations, hums, and
even thumps as equipment cycled on and off. We therefore experience today a whole
symphony of noise created by the desire to cut costs” (pp. 234–235).
9 Editing for Accuracy

Abstract
This chapter offers many tips and reminders about spelling, grammar, and other common
errors that can be missed unless attention is given to them. Included are several sugges-
tions for polishing your writing style to make it clearer and more effective. Updates on
APA and MLA styles are noted.

Be sure to porfread.
—Sign near a printer in an office

The learning objectives of Chapter 9 are as follows:

a. To ensure a neat, presentable paper by checking for errors in mechanics and spelling
b. To maintain authorial credibility by clearing up any grammatical errors
c. To strengthen your writing by more effectively interweaving your sources
d. To give writing the professional feel by remedying those common inelegancies of
style

The last, often sorely neglected, step in writing a research paper is editing—the final
cleanup where the typographical errors, misspellings, and grammatical mistakes are cor-
rected. Awkward or unclear sentences are revised, examples are added, and citations are
checked. This chapter offers some quick reminders about proper usage to assist you in your
final edit.

9.1 Why Cleanup Is Crucial

Those who study how objects (such as a red rose) convey meaning (as when someone
gives the rose to someone else) have noted that when airline passengers see stains on the
aisle carpet of the aircraft that they have just boarded, they conclude that the airline does
a poor job of maintaining the aircraft mechanically. That is, they transfer the idea of poor
cleaning to poor repair practices. Such a generalization is likely to be incorrect, but it
can easily affect whether the passengers choose that airline in the future. The passengers

DOI: 10.4324/9781032643779-9
 Editing for Accuracy 143

cannot see the maintenance performed on the plane, but they can see the spots on the
carpet.
The case is similar with writing. Readers cannot see you, the author, or know firsthand
about how carefully or conscientiously that you work, so they take cues about you—how
smart, how believable, how careful, how knowledgeable—from the writing itself, and par-
ticularly from the accuracy of the grammar, spelling, and mechanics. When readers see
misspelled words or incorrect punctuation (the equivalent of the airliner’s spots on the
carpet), they conclude that the writer is a careless or sloppy researcher and thinker too.
Despite the care taken to produce a thoroughly researched, and closely reasoned paper,
the content and the writer lose credibility. For this reason, accuracy is crucial if you want
to be taken seriously.
Some students object that it is unfair to judge a paper based on a few misspelled words
or mechanical errors. There are two responses to this reaction. First, it might indeed be
unfair, but it is the world in which we live, where readers are too busy, unable, or unwill-
ing to determine a writer’s competence despite what seems to be evidence to the contrary,
telling them that the writer just does not care enough to ensure accuracy. Second, it is not
unfair after all because a large part of meaning is conveyed through the expression—the
verbal clothing—of the ideas. And that includes the issue of whether the verbal clothing
has holes in the knees and stains on the pockets. In other words, form is content.
After all, would your opinion of this book’s acuracy and authroity be different if you
noticed a few sepling and grammatical errors was present here and their?

9.2 Check Your Spelling

The most obvious indicator of accuracy is spelling. The simple fact is that readers do not
trust writers who cannot spell. The most glaring of spelling errors is that of authors’ names
or the titles of works. Spelling these items correctly is simply a matter of copying. Writers
who cannot copy accurately are often viewed as either careless, ignorant, or incompetent
and are, therefore, unworthy of reading. If you wish your writing to be read with cred-
ibility, be extra careful about accurate spelling. Double-check the names and titles in the
bibliography.

DR. HARRIS’S PERSONNAL HORROR STORY

On an end of term review of a freshman comp class, one of my students wrote: “Thank
you so much, Professor Harris. I learned tons about writting and grammer.”

The other energetically waving red flag that puts readers off is the spelling of the same
word in several different ways. Even readers who may forgive misspelling a word repeat-
edly (the same way each time) are likely to be put off completely if they see the same word
in three or four different spellings. Such a usage reflects not only ignorance but careless-
ness. Even worse is spelling a source’s name wrong in several different ways. That causes
144 Using Sources Effectively

initial confusion (“Are Doe, Deo, and Doh three different authors or what?”) and an ulti-
mate frown.

Check for Ordinary Misspellings

Now that spelling checkers are a part of nearly every word processing program, spread-
sheet, and email client, there is little excuse for ordinary misspellings, such as questioneer
or alot. If your word processor does not the spell check as you type, be sure to run it before
you print off or email the final version to your instructor.

Check for Autocorrect Errors

Some word processing programs have an autocorrect feature that automatically substitutes
the correctly spelled word for a commonly incorrectly spelled version. For example, type
recieved into your word processor, and watch the word convert automatically to received.
This feature can be handy for helping you to avoid common mistakes. However, try typ-
ing The Application Delivery Network (ADN) has several benefits. If your word processor
is like ours, it changed ADN to AND. When you are typing along, no doubt you do not
necessarily notice these tiny subversions by your overly helpful software. During your final
proofreading, then, watch consciously for autocorrect errors.

Check for Confused Words

Misspellings can occur by confusing one word with another, similar word. These include
words that sound alike, such as to and too, or almost alike, such as then and than. Because
the substituted word is spelled correctly, the spelling checker in the word processor will
not flag it. Therefore, it is essential to perform a careful “human eyeball” proofreading.

Use American Spelling

There is sometimes a tendency among student writers to copy the conventions that they see
in a book or article that they are using as a source. This practice appears to explain why
many students use single quotation marks instead of double quotation marks for quota-
tions, and why they put commas outside the quotation marks—because the book that they
are quoting use commas in this way. Students do not realize that British conventions differ
from American conventions.
Similarly, a considerable number of words are spelled differently in British English than
they are in American English. A particular word processing spell checker using American
rules may or may not flag a British spelling. It is up to you to learn the most common spell-
ing differences and be consistent in using American versions. But remember that quota-
tions must be exact copies of the source.
Table 9.1 provides a brief list of example words with differences between American and
British English spellings.

9.3 Watch Your Grammar

An excellent way to improve your grammar skills is to look over a grammar review or com-
position book for 10 or 15 minutes a day until you cover all the areas about which you are
 Editing for Accuracy 145

Table 9.1 Examples of American and British Spelling Differences

American British American British
airplane aeroplane fiber fibre
analyze analyse labor labour
center centre liter liter
check cheque neighborhood neighbourhood
color colour organization organization
defense defense realize realise

unclear. Many of these books contain sections that focus on the most common errors, and
a look at those items might prove beneficial.
To give you a start, here are three of the most common grammar errors found in student
writing.

Comma Splice
A comma splice (sometimes called a comma fault) occurs when two complete sentences
are connected to each other using only a comma.

Example 9.3.1

Comma splices:
A. The leaves had a wax-like coating, the stems had thorns.
B. The sandy area eroded rapidly, however, the rocky hill showed little change.
C. A photograph of the footprint was presented as evidence, later, a plaster cast was intro-
duced as well.
D. The correlation between the two factors was not statistically significant, thus, there was
probably not a cause-effect relationship.

As several of the examples earlier show, a comma splice often occurs when the writer
mistakenly believes that an adverb (such as later, thus, however, then) can function as a
conjunction to join the two sentences with a comma.
Comma splices can be corrected in any of several ways. Consider these examples:

Example 9.3.2
Comma splice corrected with a period (two short independent clauses):

The leaves had a wax-like coating. [independent sentence] The stems had thorns. [inde-
pendent sentence]

Comma splice corrected with a semicolon (one sentence with two independent clauses
separated by a semicolon and joined with a conjunctive adverb):

The sandy area eroded rapidly; however, [conjunctive adverb] the rocky hill showed lit-
tle change.
146 Using Sources Effectively

Comma splice corrected with a coordinating conjunction (one sentence with two inde-
pendent clauses separated by a comma and joined with a coordinating conjunction):

A photograph of the footprint was presented as evidence, and [coordinating conjunc-

tion] later, a plaster cast was introduced as well.

Comma splice corrected by subordinating one of the sentences:

Because the correlation between the two factors was not statistically significant, [subor-
dinate or dependent clause] there was probably not a cause-effect relationship.
Or reversing the order but not losing the meaning:
There was probably not a cause-effect relationship because the correlation between
the two factors was not statistically significant.

Note that attempting to correct a comma splice by deleting the comma creates a fused
sentence.

NO: The leaves had a wax-like coating the stems had thorns. [fused sentence]

Fused Sentence
A fused (or run-together) sentence occurs when two complete sentences are written with-
out an indication of where one sentence ends and the other begins. Fused sentences occur
less frequently in original drafts; more commonly, they are introduced during revision,
where some writers remove commas that they deem unnecessary or, as mentioned just
earlier, attempt to correct a comma splice by removing the comma.

Example 9.3.3

Fused sentences:
A. The paper fed from the tray the printer began to squeak.
B. The original telescopic star photographs are in black and white the computer adds the
color.
C. Decision fatigue is not new it has become more of a problem as the choices available
increase.

Fused sentences can be corrected in all of the same ways used to correct comma splices:

• Subordinate one of the sentences to the other.

• Add a semicolon between the sentences.
• Add a period at the end of the first sentence.
• Add a coordinating conjunction between the sentences.
 Editing for Accuracy 147

What is missing from the list earlier? Commas! Remember, a fused sentence cannot be cor-
rected by adding a comma.

****CAUTION****
A fused sentence cannot, cannot, cannot be corrected by adding a comma. That cre-
ates a comma splice.

Example 9.3.4
Fused sentence corrected by subordinating one of the sentences:

After the paper fed from the tray [dependent or subordinate clause], the printer began to
squeak.

Or

The printer began to squeak after the paper fed from the tray [dependent or subordinate
clause].

Fused sentence corrected by adding a semicolon:

The original telescopic star image is in black and white; the computer adds the color.

Or

The computer adds the color; the original telescopic star image is in black and white.

Sentence Fragment
A fragment (sometimes referred to as an incomplete sentence) is a piece of a sentence
punctuated as if it were a whole sentence. Some writers use fragments intentionally for
effect, but in many cases, the fragments are unintentional and awkward. Often, the frag-
ment belongs to the sentence next to it.

Example 9.3.5
Example fragments that belong to adjacent sentences:

A. Minerals are added to bottled water to improve taste. After the water is purified.
B. Most current photo editing software provides saturation control. To improve color
intensity.
148 Using Sources Effectively

Sentence fragments are corrected either by changing the fragment into a complete sen-
tence or by attaching the fragment to the sentence to which it belongs.

Example 9.3.6
Fragment corrected by being changed into a sentence:

A. Minerals are added to bottled water to improve taste. This step occurs only after the
water is purified.
Fragment corrected by attaching it to the sentence to which it belongs:
B. Most current photo editing software provides saturation control to improve color
intensity.

Exercise 9.3 Grammar

In each case, identify the error as a comma splice, fused sentence, or fragment. Then,
rewrite the sentence, correcting the error.

1. Some early maps of the world were symbolic they were not used for navigation.
2. The cancer risk from this chemical is now in doubt. Although it remains controversial.
3. We should ask whether the sample was truly random, then we could better judge how
much confidence to put in the results.
4. The lighting fixtures were delivered by truck yesterday, about 4:00 in the afternoon, we
will install them tomorrow before the end of the day.
5. The boat’s hull is made from fiberglass, with a foam core. Making it unsinkable.

9.4 Watch Your Pronouns

Pronouns are parts of speech that refer to nouns. Pronouns include you, we, it, he, she, and
they. Incorrect use of pronouns is a common source of writing errors.

Pronoun Agreement
When you use a pronoun, it must agree in number (singular or plural) with the noun to
which it refers. A frequent error is to use a plural pronoun to refer to a singular noun. To
produce a grammatical construction, the noun and the pronoun must be either both singu-
lar or both plural. Note the following errors and their corrections:

Example 9.4.1
Original with error:

A. The company announced higher earnings. They will be increasing their dividend.

Improved versions:
B. The company announced higher earnings. It will be increasing its dividend.
C. Company executives announced higher earnings. They will be increasing the dividend.
 Editing for Accuracy 149

Example 9.4.2
Original with error:

A. We asked the committee for a delay, but they said no.

Improved versions:
B. We asked the committee for a delay, but it said no.
C. We asked the members of the committee for a delay, but they said no.

Pronoun Reference
Another frequent error is the use of a pronoun without any noun to which it can refer. An
isolated it or they makes writing unclear because your reader must guess about the thing
or person that you intend. Be careful, then, to supply a noun referent for each pronoun
that you use. And note that the unclear use of the pronoun they (when it does not refer to
a specified noun) can often be remedied by eliminating the pronoun altogether:

Example 9.4.3
Original with error:

A. A study reported on how salty soil affected crop yield. They found varying effects.

Improved versions:
B. A study reported on how salty soil affected crop yield. Researchers found varying effects.
C. Researchers studied how salty soil affected crop yield. They found varying effects.

Indefinite Pronouns
Indefinite pronouns refer to unspecified nouns. In the sentence, “Someone dropped this
pen,” the indefinite pronoun someone does not refer to a specific person. By comparison,
in the sentence, “When Bill was here, he dropped his pen,” the pronoun he refers specifi-
cally to Bill. Indefinite pronouns include anyone, anybody, someone, somebody, everyone,
and everybody. All of these are singular and, therefore, to avoid an agreement error, must
be referred to by another singular pronoun. Note these errors and their corrections:

Example 9.4.4
Original with agreement error:

A. Everyone must make their own judgment about this.

Improved versions:
B. Everyone must make his or her own judgment about this.
C. Everyone must make a personal judgment about this.
150 Using Sources Effectively

Example 9.4.5
Original with agreement error:

A. If anyone misses the central point of the film, they can wait until the ending when it is
revealed.

Improved versions:

B. Anyone missing the central point of the film can just wait until the ending when it is
revealed.
C. The ending of the film reveals the central point to anyone who missed it earlier.

Note: The singular noun person is often used in an indefinite way also. Be careful to use a
singular pronoun to agree with it, or change from person to people.
The grammatical remedy of using “his or her” to agree with an indefinite pronoun is
not very elegant, especially if used frequently. A better solution is to use fewer indefinite
pronouns. Computer analysis of student and professional writing reveals that many student
writers use indefinite pronouns ten times more often than professional writers do. The
result can be writing cluttered with “he or she” and “his or her.” To use fewer indefinite
pronouns, substitute plural nouns relevant to the context. In many cases, you can write the
sentence without any pronouns. Note these examples:

Example 9.4.6
Acceptable but awkward:

A. When someone uses an industrial dishwasher, he or she must be careful not to be

scaled.

Improved versions:
B. When using an industrial dishwasher, the operator must be careful not to be scalded.
C. Operators of industrial dishwashers must be careful not to be scalded.

Example 9.4.7
Acceptable but awkward:

A. A person should always take his or her coat to a night baseball game.

Improved versions:
B. Baseball fans should always take their coats to a night game.
C. Baseball fans should always take a coat to a night game.
 Editing for Accuracy 151

Example 9.4.8
Acceptable but awkward:

A. Everyone should write his or her name on the test booklet.

Improved versions:
B. Test takers should write their names on the test booklet.
C. The test booklet should include the test taker’s name written on it.

Note: Many advocacy groups and publishers are promoting the use of the singular “they”
to be more inclusive and to avoid assumptions regarding gender.

Avoid the Ambiguous You

A final problem with pronouns is the use of you to refer to no one in particular. It is com-
mon in informal conversation to use you instead of the awkward and stiff use of one,
or even to replace someone or people, but that use is not acceptable in formal writing
because of the vagueness and possible confusion that can result.

Example 9.4.9

Vague and confusing:

A. When you pet your dog, you can see his tail wag.
B. Everyone knows that when you ransack a house looking for illegal drugs, you often take
the furniture apart.

Table 9.2 Indefinite Pronouns: The Golden Key Is Don’t

Indefinite pronouns can cause confusion, seem vague and even amateurish, and result in agree-
ment errors. One simple way to improve your writing, then, is to avoid them unless you have a
really good reason to use one. Instead, use a specific, vivid noun in place of the pronoun.

Awkward: Anyone who forgets his or her badge must sign in at the security desk.
Improved: Employees who forget their badges must sign in at the security desk.
Awkward: Everyone should turn his or her computer on early so that he or she will be read
for the start of his or her Web conference.
Improved: Web conference attendees should turn on their computers early so that they
will be ready in time for the start.
Awkward: A person who wants to renew his or her driver’s license should take his or her
Form 857 to window 6.
Improved: To renew a license, drivers should take Form 857 to window 6.
152 Using Sources Effectively

Not confusing but still vague and now awkward and stiff:

C. When one pets one’s dog, one can see his tail wag.
D. Everyone knows that when a person ransacks a house looking for illegal drugs, the per-
son often takes the furniture apart.

Improved:
E. Most dog owners know that when they pet their dog, the dog wags his tail.
F. When narcotics officers ransack a house looking for illegal drugs, they often take the
furniture apart.

Use you only to refer directly and specifically to your reader, not as a substitute for some-
one. Note also that while business writing continues to grow more informal and direct,
often using you or I, most academic papers are intended to be written at a more for-
mal level, from scholar to scholar. Consult your instructor to learn the level of formality
expected.

Exercise 9.4 Pronouns

Directions: Each of the following sentences contains an incorrect or ineffective use of
a pronoun. Rewrite each sentence, correcting the error or improving the effectiveness.

1. The organization has not yet released a statement, but they should do so soon.
2. Some hoaxes are very believable. When you first hear them, you are deceived
by the details, even though you realize later that the details cannot be checked.
3. A report was issued regarding the cause of the accident, in which they said it was
weather related.
4. The theft of the Web site’s database means that anyone who purchased an item
from the site has had their credit card information stolen.

If you need more tax forms, visit your local post office. They have a good supply.

9.5 Check for Common Errors

Here are several common mistakes, sometimes made simply from haste or lack of atten-
tion. A careful proofreading usually cleans these up.

Possessives
Nouns that become adjectives of possession are formed by adding an apostrophe and s to
the singular: for example, tonight’s weather, this student’s idea. Possessive plurals add an
apostrophe to the plural noun: for example, workers’ hat and men’s socks.
 Editing for Accuracy 153

Oddly, some possessive pronouns end in s but do not have apostrophes; they are con-
sidered possessive words in themselves: for example, its, his, theirs, and hers. Most often
confused are its and it’s. Its means “belong to it,” while it’s is a contraction for it is or it has.

Example 9.5.1
A. The label on the vitamin bottle lists its ingredients. [ingredients belonging in it]
B. It’s been an exciting research project. [it has been]
C. It’s an interesting theory, with many provocative elements. [it is]

Subject-Verb Agreement
A subject-verb agreement error often occurs when an intervening phrase causes confusion
about what the true subject of the sentence is. Especially problematic are prepositional
phrases beginning with of placed between the subject and the verb. When the subject is
singular and the object of the preposition is plural, an agreement error can occur.

Example 9.5.2
Subject-verb agreement errors because of intervening phrase:

A. This collection of software applications are on sale.

B. This green wire in the bundle of wires serve as the ground wire.

Corrected versions:
C. This collection of software applications is on sale.
D. This green wire in the bundle of wires serves as the ground wire.

Dangling Modifier
You will recall from grammar class that adjectives are usually placed right in front of the nouns
that they modify. For example, in the phrase wide-screen projector, the adjective wide-screen
is directly in front of the noun that it describes, projector. That is easy to keep straight. When
the adjective is a long phrase, the same rule applies. In the sentence, Drilling for oil in a previ-
ously unexplored area, the oil company took an enormous risk, the adjective phrase drilling
for oil in a previously unexplored area modifies the noun right after it, oil company.
A dangling modifier occurs when the noun following the adjective phrase is not the
noun that the writer intended for the phrase to modify. Look at these examples.

Example 9.5.3

Dangling modifiers:
A. Reading the novel at night, the headless zombies made me feel afraid.
B. Using laser thermography to measure temperature changes in the hive, the bees could
be studied in yet another aspect of their social collaboration.
154 Using Sources Effectively

Comment:
If we are to believe these sentences as written, headless zombies can read novels, and bees
use laser thermography—all because the wrong nouns follow the modifiers. To correct
dangling modifiers, put the right noun in the right place:

Corrected sentences:
C. Reading the novel at night, I felt afraid of the headless zombies.
D. Using laser thermography to measure temperature changes in the hive, the researchers
were able to study yet another aspect of the social collaboration of bees.

Remember that writing is not a game where you expect your reader to guess what you
mean. Writing is a communication tool, a channel for conveying meaning from your mind
to your readers’ minds. The more invisible the channel, the more direct and effective the
transfer of meaning.

Misplaced Modifier
A misplaced modifier is an adjective or adverb placed where it modifies the wrong part of
the sentence or where its modification is unclear. The most commonly misplaced modifier
is the word only, which belongs right next to the word that it should modify. As a mis-
placed modifier, it is usually put too early in the sentence.

Example 9.5.4

Misplaced only:
A. The research study only listed the data from the first six weeks of the experiment.
B. The photographer only developed the negatives after he read the news account of the
robbery.

In the examples earlier, the writer is telling us that the study “only listed the data,” by which
we conclude that the researchers did nothing else with it, such as analyze it; and the pho-
tographer “only developed” the negatives, leaving us to wonder why he did not print them
also. When only is placed in front of a verb, it emphasizes limited action. Note the differ-
ence when only is placed where it should be:

Example 9.5.4, continued

Corrected versions:
C. The research study listed only the data from the first six weeks of the experiment.
D. The photographer developed the negatives only after he read the news account of the
robbery.

Affect and Effect

Because these two words are common in academic writing, and because they are com-
monly confused, we should clearly identify their differences. The main source of error is
 Editing for Accuracy 155

Table 9.3 Effect and Affect

Effect Verb to make happen “How can we effect a solution?”
Effect Noun influence “I hope this will have a positive effect.”
Affect Verb to influence “Will this addition affect the final cost?”
Affect Noun exhibited emotion “Her affect did not change when she heard it.”

Table 9.4 Informal and Unprofessional Expressions

Needs Improvement Improved Comment
In this quotation it says Here, John Doe says Use the writer’s name
The author is trying to say The author [or Doe] says Try implies possible failure
In today’s society Today Avoid wordy expressions
This proves This shows [or indicates] Proves is usually too strong
This article talks about John Doe discusses Articles don’t talk
In this quote, he says In this quotation, he says Quote is a verb, not a noun
This is a common ad Advertisement Avoid informal truncations
We don’t know the effects yet We do not know the effects yet Avoid contractions
And this, I feel, is important This is important Feel feels irrational; think!
I may be wrong about this, [delete the sentence] Don’t apologize for your ideas

that affect and effect share the same meaning related to influencing an outcome, but in
these uses, affect is a verb while effect is a noun.

Example 9.5.5
A. How will a change in procedure affect the reliability of the data?
B. What effect will a change in procedure have on the reliability of the data?

EXERCISE 9.5 COMMON ERRORS CHECK

Directions: Each of the following sentences contains at least one error. Rewrite each sen-
tence, correcting the error(s).

1. Computer backup should only be performed at midnight.

2. Trying to decide on a new approach to the novel, the dead spider in the barn suggested
a possibility to Jan.
3. In the first section of the article, the authors describe their experimental design; but they
did not mention the source of the isotopes. Hint: See Chapter 4 on historical present
tense.
4. Its been a long time since we discussed the disclaimer on the label, together with it’s
implications.
5. How will the runoff from the upper area effect the water quality of the bay?

Informality
Your instructor may have told you that research papers should be written in a formal style,
which means that your writing must be more accurate and more careful than everyday
156 Using Sources Effectively

speech. For example, formal writing avoids colloquial expressions (e.g., “bite the bul-
let”), vagueness (“different people have different ideas”), and incorrect grammar (“every-
one loses their coats”). In addition, some common expressions should be avoided because
they are unprofessional (see the following table).

Review Questions
To see how well that you understand this chapter, attempt to answer each of the following ques-
tions without referring to the text. (Write down your answers to make checking easier.) Then
check your answers with the text. If you missed something important, add it to your answer.

1. Why is careful proofreading and cleanup described as “crucial”?

2. Explain the meaning of the expression “Form is content.”
3. What is an autocorrect error? How can it be remedied?
4. Define a comma splice and give an example. Then show at least two ways to cor-
rect it.
5. Define a fused sentence and give an example. Show at least two ways to correct it.
6. Explain the common pronoun agreement error with indefinite pronouns. Then give an
example of the error and its correction.
7. Define tense shift and give an example, followed by a remedy. Hint: See Chapter 4.

A Little Rhetoric: Distinctio

The meaning and use of distinction can easily be determined by adding the letter n to the
word. This device is about distinction. Distinctio presents a specific definition of an other-
wise vague or controversial word or idea.

Example [Link].1

A. Doe (2025) claimed that the remedy to the traffic bottleneck will be coming soon; but
by soon she meant there would be a delay of at least three years.
B. The new tax is aimed at automobiles with poor fuel economy—that is, vehicles that get
less than 20 miles per gallon.
C. The advertisement says that you can get a bottle of the vitamins “free.” And, as always,
“free” comes with an asterisk. Here the asterisk tells us that “free” means the customer
must pay processing, shipping, and sales tax, all adding up to more than 15 dollars.

Table 9.5 Phrases for Distinctio

by _ I mean assuming we define _ as
for this purpose, _ refers to meaning _
that is which is to say
and here, _ is understood to mean in this case, _ must be taken to mean
 Editing for Accuracy 157

Chapter 9 Review: Error Check

Directions: For each following sample, identify any errors of spelling, mechanics, and
grammar and any stylistic shortfalls. Correct each error identified.

1. After recieving instructions from the judge about the parts of the law that effected the
case, the jury room was opened and deliberation began. At first, the members of the
jury was confused. They only talked quietly to the person next to him, but soon you
could see them interacting animatedly with everyone in the room.
2. Here, Doe and Smith (2009) are trying to say that there research revealed a tendency
for people to engage in inconsistent eating behavior when dieting. One person bought
a six-pack of diet soda and a large bag of corn chips, another bought three diet-sized
TV dinners, and eats them all at one time.
3. Its been many years since anyone could drive down the freeway without constantly
applying their brakes. The irony is, as Doe (2010) reveals, once lane capacity is reached,
adding more cars to the road decreases the number of cars per hour the road can han-
dle the traffic load has passed a tipping point.
4. I could be wrong about this, but I feel that John Doe has interpreted line 36 of the poem
incorrectly. “The quiet rustle of distantly near leaves” can be analysed more easily by
thinking of a real forest. Where someone is using a chain saw. In a real forest, the sound
of a chain saw does indeed have a “distantly near” sound.
5. Electronic interactivity with learning materials is, of course, a major emphasis of mod-
ern instructional design theory, however, creating interactive print materials is also an
affect of the emphasis on active learning. Merely adding visuals is not enough. You
know how, when you get bored watching those PowerPoint presentations, you tune out
the speaker? Participants need to participate.
10 Jump-Starting Your Writing

Abstract
This chapter presents several tools to help you get a feel for how sources can interact with
your own ideas and with each other. Sample writing patterns (sometimes called templates)
are explained, together with some other useful techniques.

Tell me you love me and I’ll be happy for an hour;

write me a note that says you love me
and I’ll be happy every time I read it.
—Young woman to her boyfriend

The learning objectives of Chapter 10 are as follows:

a. To synthesize writing by interweaving ideas and sources into an integrated tapestry

b. To use transition of thought, focus, and logic to ensure a clear and effective argument
c. To implement flow patterns that give sense and order to writing

The best persuasive writing and the best research-based writing feature a clear structure,
a logical order, and a reasoned presentation. Good writers know that they must work to
take their readers with them along the journey of presentation, analysis, and commentary.
If they do not, they know that their readers will lack understanding, lose interest, and stop
reading. And the issue grows more complex when research-based writing is involved.
Working with sources in an effective way is challenging to all of us.
Fortunately, there are many useful techniques and patterns that you can use that will
help you right away to improve the structure and effectiveness of your writing.

10.1 Synthesis Writing
The first chapter of this book mentioned synthesis writing, especially in connection with
your participation in the Great Conversation, where scholars interact with each other’s

DOI: 10.4324/9781032643779-10
 Jump-Starting Your Writing 159

ideas and move civilization forward. Let’s take a closer look at what synthesis writing is all
about and how you can do it well.

A Definition of Synthesis Writing

Synthesis writing incorporates the ideas of others but goes beyond them to present a unique
central idea. That is, you rely on research to find sources who have written about the sub-
ject, and you come to an understanding that they together have helped you to formulate,
but that provides a unique perspective. This perspective becomes your argument, central
idea, thesis—or rather, synthesis. You have likely heard that saying (it used to be considered
wise, but now it is just a worn-out cliché): “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.”
Ideally, that is what synthesis writing is (but without the cliché).

Tapestry Versus Quilt Writing

Some writers of research papers believe that all that they need to do is cite once source
after another and they are done. This style of writing is like sewing a quilt: The quilt is made
up of various, often unrelated, patches. When the writer of the research paper uses sources,
they are just sewn together.

Example 10.1.1

Quilt-style notes:
Introduction: America’s state and interstate highway system includes some of the
worst-maintained roads in the developed world. What can be done to rem-
edy this?
Body: Smervits (2015) says to raise taxes to pay for road improvements. Frimpson (2014)
says to privatize the system and have toll roads. Doax (2017) says to charge motorists a
fee per mile of driving to raise funds and discourage unnecessary trips.
Conclusion: The issue is complicated, with many proposed solutions. Smervits’s proposal
is likely, though unwanted by most motorists; Frimpson’s proposal is unlikely because
of millions of toll booths; Doax’s solution has already been proposed and was met with
substantial anger and hostility.
Now, do not get us wrong. We actually like quilts. They just are not a good model for
research papers because little actual thinking is required or shown by the writer of the
research paper. Readers want to see what the writer has done with the ideas. Even if
someone tries to pretty up the stitching with “Interestingly, Doe says,” and “Surpris-
ingly, Smervits replies,” the result is still a set of sewn-together patches that reveal little
analysis, evaluation, or there is that word again: synthesis.
A better analogy is to say that synthesis writing is like weaving a tapestry. Those beautiful
draperies hanging on the walls of castles and palaces are composed of many threads,
160 Using Sources Effectively

interwoven into a picture telling a story that none of the threads by themselves could
have produced.
Let’s see what that means for our topic:

Example 10.1.2

Tapestry-style notes:
Introduction: America’s state and interstate highway system includes some of the
worst-maintained roads in the developed world. What can be done to rem-
edy this?
Body: Smervits (2015) says to raise taxes in order to pay for road improvements. (But does
every solution have to mean “raise taxes”?) Frimpson (2014) says to privatize the system
and have toll roads, thus there would be no need for a tax increase. (But aren’t tolls
equivalent to taxes? Same effect on the pocketbook.) Doax (2017) says to charge motor-
ists a fee per mile of driving to raise funds and discourage unnecessary trips. These
technical difficulties would need to be overcome: how to measure, and how to report.
And Smervits (2015) had already pointed out that motorists reacted with rage when the
scheme was proposed to them. Frimpson’s (2015) solution meets with hostility, espe-
cially among the young.

[More discussion and interaction among sources]

But all of these involve getting more money from the motorist. Why not be a little practi-
cal and a little creative and use existing resources to accomplish the same thing without
the need to raise taxes or fees? The first approach, suggested by Kronk (2015), is to lobby
the federal and state governments to assign 100% of gasoline tax revenue to the state
department of roads. Kronk says, “Instead of raise taxes, use taxes” (p. 254). Sound odd? As
Bongo (2014) notes, many states (and the federal government, too) “dip into their highway
trust fund accounts all the time,” promising to pay the money back “someday” (P. 176).
[Discussion and sources supporting this point]
Another approach made by Kronk (2015) is to extend the use of the Army Corps of
Engineers, which already works on billions of dollars’ worth of construction projects. But
I am thinking that we should not stop with that. My thesis is this: Use the military to build
infrastructure, using the Army Corps as a guiding model. The logistics are already known
and in place.
[More sources and discussion]

Comment:
Notice how the paper planner makes use of the sources—criticizing some, considering
others, letting some sources criticize others.
And then the grand synthesis: The tapestry planner adopts one source writer’s idea and
then modifies another source writer’s idea. Combining and modifying ideas creates a
unique thesis. As we have noted before: Your thinking is the star.
 Jump-Starting Your Writing 161

Table 10.1 Quilt Making Versus Tapestry Weaving

Quilt Making Tapestry Weaving
Does says, and Smith says, but Arp disagrees. Doe says, but Jones qualifies Doe, while Brown
Doe also says, and Smith adds. adds an additional benefit to Doe’s list. Jones is
Arp doesn’t seem to care about this last nearly correct. His analysis added to Brown’s
point. In conclusion, there are many view- causes me to think that the best answer is.
points to this issue.

Sources are not that collection of butterflies pinned to the backing behind a shiny sheet
of glass, to be admired but never touched. Instead, sources are tiles in a mosaic that you
must create. Each plays a unique and important part in creating the overall communication
(thesis, definition, description) that you produce for your readers.

Tapestry Weaving and Your Reader

When you present an essay supporting a central idea—that is, a persuasive essay—your
readers expect you to have done much of the thinking for them, leaving them the final
assessment of your argument. If all you do is present a string of quotations with little or
no analysis, your readers will feel cheated. Readers expect both your analysis of each
researcher’s points and the conclusions that you have made as a result of your research and
thinking. We have not changed our minds from when we said in Chapter 1, so we will say
it yet once more, “Your thinking is the star.” Show your readers what you have got.

10.2 Steering Wheels
One of the challenges of writing, whether ordinary papers or research papers, is to take
your reader with you. In other words, you must let your reader know when, for example,
you change directions by presenting an objection or by shifting from past history to pre-
sent day or by adding a new subtopic. Similarly, showing the logical flow of your thinking
helps your reader follow the discussion.
This section includes techniques to enable your reader to stay with you. You have already
been introduced to several rhetorical devices, one at the end of each chapter, in the sec-
tion A Little Rhetoric. Here are some additional techniques to give your writing clarity and
a smooth flow.

Parataxis and Hypotaxis

Parataxis (pare uh TAK sis) combines several sentences by using coordinating conjunctions.
There are only seven coordinating conjunctions: and, or, for, nor, so, but, yet. When two
or more sentences are joined by coordinating conjunctions, they receive equal emphasis.
The reader sees the sentences as equally important thoughts. The benefits of parataxis are
that it is easy to write and easy to read. That is why Jonathan Swift’s novel Gulliver Travels
162 Using Sources Effectively

can have an average length of 38 words and still be read by young readers. Swift connects
many easy sentences with and and or, and so on.
The drawback of parataxis is that the coordinating conjunctions cannot show the rela-
tionship between sentences very well. That is, many times, the idea in one sentence is the
reason for the idea in the next sentence. Or one sentence concedes something before mak-
ing a related claim. Or one sentence positions another in time.
Hypotaxis (high po TAK sis) attaches a subordinating conjunction to a sentence to show
a logical relationship among sentences and their ideas. Hypotaxis shows that one idea,
expressed in the independent or main sentence, is more important than another (the one
with the subordinating conjunction attached) and that one idea supports or qualifies or
positions another, more important, idea.
Just as business managers have subordinates who support them in various ways,
so sentence have other sentences—subordinates with subordinating conjunctions—to
support them.

Example 10.2.1

Note the difference:

A. The human brain can process only a limited amount of new information in a
given time, and cognitive overload will result when too much information arrives
at once.
B. The human brain can process only a limited amount of new information in a given time,
because cognitive overload will result when too much information arrives at once.
C. Because the human brain can process only a limited amount of new information in a
given time, cognitive overload will result when too much information arrives at once.

Comment:
In Example A, the ideas in both sentences are presented as equally important because
they are connected by a coordinating conjunction. In Example B, the second sentence is
now presented as a support idea, answering the question Why? of the first sentence’s idea.
In Example C, the second sentence is now presented as the more important idea, and the
first sentence answers the question Why?

Example 10.2.2
A. Investigators wanted to isolate the source of the illness, so they took swabs of the
entire ship.
B. Investigators wanted to isolate the source of the illness when they took swabs of the
entire ship.
C. Because investigators wanted to isolate the source of the illness, they took swabs of the
entire ship.

Comment:
Example A connects the sentences with a coordinating conjunction, showing that their
ideas are equally important. Example B shows that the first sentence contains the more
 Jump-Starting Your Writing 163

Table 10.2 Example Subordinating Conjunctions

Reason (in Condition (only Concession Manner (how) Place (location) Time (when)
support of) when) (admitting)
because assuming that although as if where after
in order that if granting that as though wherever before
since on condition even though until
so that provided that though in the manner when
unless while in the way of whenever
until even if while

important idea, and the second sentence answers the question When? Example C presents
the second sentence as the more important one with the first sentence supplying a reason
for the events of the second sentence.
Table 10.2 lists many of the subordinating conjunctions useful for showing how one idea
impacts another by using hypotaxis.

Transitions
Transitions are the glue that holds together the sentences, paragraphs, and larger sections
of nearly all writing. Transitions, when used well, keep your readers focused, understand-
ing, and able to follow your thoughts as you move from one to another. Missing or inad-
equate transitions create confusion.
A period at the end of a sentence signals to the reader that a complete thought has been
delivered. Because the thought has been completed, the reader immediately wonders,
“Okay, how is the next sentence going to be related to that one that just finished?” A tran-
sition answers this question. Similarly, a new paragraph marker, such as an indentation or
blank line, signals the end of a thought unit, often the end of the development of a topic
sentence. So the reader thinks, “Okay, got that. Where are we going next? Another exam-
ple? New topic? Objection answered?” Again, a transition answers these questions.
There are three types of transition: transitions of logic, transitions of focus, and transitions
of thought.

Transitions of Logic
Transitions of logic consist of words or phrases that convey “logical intent”—that is, they
show the logical connection between two ideas. Because there are several possible logi-
cal connections (such as time, purpose, contrast), there are several categories of transi-
tions of logic. Table 10.3 lists many of these transitions, arranged by category and listed
as milder or stronger. (Note that there is some double listing because of the different ways
that words can be used.) The usual advice for incorporating logical transitions into your
writing follows.

• Use transitions between paragraphs to signal connections (addition, contrast, and so

forth) between idea segments. Use transitions within paragraphs to signal a change from
one sentence to another or from one section of the paragraph to another.
164 Using Sources Effectively

Table 10.3 Transitions of Logic

Milder Stronger
Addition a further x next additionally first, second
also nor again further
and other besides furthermore
and then then equally important in addition
another too finally, last moreover
Comparison a similar x just as . . . so too comparable likewise
another x like in the same way similarly
Contrast and yet rather alternatively nevertheless
but still at the same time nonetheless
but another though conversely notwithstanding
or yet even so on the contrary
otherwise for all that on the other hand
however otherwise
in contrast still
instead though this may be
Place beyond nearby adjacent to in the front
here there at that point on the other side
in the back opposite to
Purpose because of this x to do this for that reason to this end
for this purpose with this object
Result and so then accordingly in consequence
so as a result therefore
consequently thereupon
hence thus
Time after now at last immediately
afterward recently at length meanwhile
before shortly at that time presently
earlier soon currently subsequently
first, second, third then eventually thereafter
later today finally
next tomorrow

• Use sufficient transitions to provide coherence (holding together, like glue) and continu-
ity (making the thought process easy to follow).
• Avoid using too many strong transitions. Be careful to avoid littering your writing with
however and nevertheless. Use strong transitions sparingly.
• Transitions become stronger when they are placed at the beginning (or end) of a sen-
tence and milder (or less strong) when they are moved into the sentence. Generally,
moving transitions into the sentence is the better choice.

Example 10.2.3
Stronger at the beginning:
A. Another example of a succulent plant is the barrel cactus.
B. However, American gold jewelry is less pure than European.
 Jump-Starting Your Writing 165

C. Therefore, the argument is shown to be invalid.

D. Finally, the problem of contamination is an issue that must be addressed.

Milder moved inside:

E. The barrel cactus is another example of a succulent plant.
F. American gold jewelry, however, is less pure than European.
G. The argument is therefore shown to be invalid.
H. The problem of contamination is a final issue that must be addressed.

Note the difference a logical transition makes as it alerts the reader about the direction that
the next sentence will take:

Example 10.2.4
No transition: Questions were raised about the medicine’s side effects. It became clear that
the side effects had not yet been identified.

A. Questions were raised about the medicine’s side effects. As a result, it became clear
that the side effects had not yet been identified.
B. Questions were raised about the medicine’s side effects before it became clear that the
side effects had not yet been identified.
C. Questions were raised about the medicine’s side effects. Moreover, it became clear that
the side effects had not yet been identified.

Comment:
Example A presents the second sentence as a consequence of the action of the first sen-
tence. Example B merely positions the first sentence as earlier in time than the action of
the second sentence. In Example C, the second sentence is positioned as an added issue to
the one raised in the first sentence.

Example 10.2.5
No transition: Inattentional blindness causes us to miss seeing objects that are not the focus
of our interest at the time. We form incorrect generalization based on our overly focused
perception.

A. Inattentional blindness causes us to miss seeing objects that are not the focus of our
interest at the time. Because of this, we form incorrect generalization based on our
overly focused perception.
B. Inattentional blindness causes us to miss seeing objects that are not the focus of our
interest at the time. Similarly, we form incorrect generalization based on our overly
focused perception.
C. Inattentional blindness causes us to miss seeing objects that are not the focus of our
interest at the time. After this, we form incorrect generalization based on our overly
focused perception.
166 Using Sources Effectively

Table 10.4 Transitions of Focus

Moving General Moving Specifics
in sum for example
in general for instance
in short an example
on the whole specifically
in other words in particular
all of this leads to for one thing
from this we see that is
we can infer a case in point
this means a typical situation
from this as illustrated by

Comment:
Example A relates the second sentence to the first as an effect caused by the first. Example
B positions the second sentence as an analogous idea whose content is similar to that of
the first sentence. Example C positions the second sentence as a related event in time,
occurring after the action of the first sentence.
Notice, then, how much power over your writing and over your reader’s attention that
you have. Choosing one transition of logic over another can have a profound effect on the
direction of the discussion. To repeat: Take your reader with you. And to do that, use transi-
tions of logic to reveal the relationships that you have in mind.

Transitions of Focus
Transitions of focus are similar to transitions of logic, but they deserve their own category
because of the crucial role that they play in helping the reader to understand the move-
ment of the discussion from general to specific and back.
One of the keys to powerful, effective, persuasive writing is to move back and forth
between reasonable generalizations and the specific reasons and evidence that support
the generalizations. For example, many paragraphs include a topic sentence that makes a
general statement or claim and then support it with specific details. Details include exam-
ples, reasons, data, descriptions, or some other specific clarification. Transitions of focus
supply the cues that let the reader know whether the next sentence or paragraph will offer,
for instance, an example or a conclusion.
Table 10.4 shows example transitions of focus. Using them where appropriate will be
useful, but the more important thing is to reveal to your readers some sense that you are
moving from general to specific (or from claim to support, if you prefer).

Example 10.2.6
From general to specific, with explicit transition of focus:

Doe (2025) noted that a problem with human factors in experiments is that when people
are asked to measure their behavior, they change it. For example, when dieters begin to
 Jump-Starting Your Writing 167

use weight-loss food supplement and keep track of their weight, they often lose weight
as a result of wanting the (often expensive) product to work.

Example 10.2.7
From general to specific, without explicit transition of focus:

The experiment was more successful than Doe (2025) had anticipated. Everything seemed
to support the hypothesis. The data were good; there were few outliers; the calibration of
the instruments checked out. Even the second and third runs yielded compatible results.

Example 10.2.8
From specific to general, with explicit transition of focus:

Ignaz Semmelweis proposed that if doctors would wash their hands after handling corpses
in the morgue and before examining women in the maternity ward, fewer women would
contract childbed fever and die. He was denounced by doctors too proud to wash their
hands. When William Hervey revealed what he had learned about the circulation of
blood, his theory was rejected. And when two doctors from Australia announced that
stomach ulcers were caused by a bacterium, not by stress, their idea was met with mock-
ery and scorn. From all these and many more cases, we can see that the history of medi-
cal progress has been one of overcoming opposition to new ideas.

Example 10.2.9
From specific to general, without explicit transition of focus:

The more features we get on a car we buy, the more expensive it is. The more toys
we have—TVs, cell phones, cars, boats, personal computers—the more time, effort,
and expense we have to maintain them. The more possessions we have, the more we
become slaves to them.

Transitions of Thought
Transitions of thought join transitions of logic, and transitions of focus provide the connec-
tions among the sentences, paragraphs, and sections of your writing. Although transitions
of logic and focus provide the logical connections between ideas, transitions of thought
create a continuity of idea, linking the subject of one sentence or paragraph with the next.
Transitions of thought are created by several techniques.

Keyword Repetition
You will recall from learning about conduplicatio in Chapter 3 that the thought from one
sentence can be carried over to the next by repeating a key term in the new sentence. Even
though conduplicatio repeats the key term at the beginning of the next sentence, keyword
repetition repeats the key term anywhere in the new sentence, as long as it is clear about
the idea that remains under discussion.
168 Using Sources Effectively

Example 10.2.10
Note in this example how you determine which idea that you want to continue by using
keyword repetition.

First sentence: The new virus is a grave concern among the doctors at the Centers for Dis-
ease Control and Prevention (CDC).
Possible second sentence: The CDC has declared the southern states to be especially at risk
[focus on CDC action].
Possible second sentence: The doctors announced today that they are working on [focus
on doctors].
Possible second sentence: There is an urgent concern to develop a vaccine for the virus
[focus on virus].
Possible second sentence: Such concern is rare among the CDC staff [focus on the degree
of concern].

Example 10.2.11
Take the reader with you by using transitions of focus:

First sentence: According to Doe (2025), the general did consult his advisors before making
the decision, but he did not take their advice.
Possible second sentence: His advisors were used to this treatment, although they resented it.
Possible second sentence: The decision did not take into account the loss of the rear guard,
and therefore resulted in the loss of the supply train.
Possible second sentence: Determining what to do next, the general thought, was his job
alone as a leader.

Synonyms
A synonym is a word that means something similar to another word. A synonym does not
mean exactly the same thing as another word, but the meaning is close enough that it is
recognized as a replacement for the other word. Synonyms are useful not just for variety
but also for refining the meaning of the original word.

Example 10.2.12

Compare:
A. One class of pain-relieving drugs, the NSAIDs, is not recommended for people with
impaired kidney function. Fortunately, other pain-relieving drugs are available for
those persons. Alternatives include acetaminophen, one of the many over-the-counter
pain-relieving drugs.
B. One class of pain-relieving drugs, the NSAIDs, is not recommended for people with
impaired kidney function. Fortunately, other medicines are available for those persons.
Alternatives include acetaminophen, one of the many over-the-counter painkillers.
 Jump-Starting Your Writing 169

Example 10.2.13
A. If a contract existed that clearly named the requirements for reinforcing the wall,
you would have a strong claim. Such a contract would be powerful evidence in
court.
B. If a contract existed that clearly named the requirements for reinforcing the wall,
you would have a strong claim. Such a document would be powerful evidence in
court.

Comment:
You probably recognize conduplicatio in the first sentence. That is a fine, clarifying choice.
The second sentence uses the synonym document, possibly to emphasize the difference
between a written contract and an oral agreement.

Example 10.2.14
According to Doe (2025), the debate continued over whether to charge for the Web site’s
information or to let the content be free.

Pronouns and Possessive Pronouns

An excellent way to show continuity of thought from one sentence to the next is to use a
pronoun instead of repeating the noun.

Example 10.2.15
First sentence: The new virus is a grave concern among the doctors at the Centers for Dis-
ease Control and Prevention (CDC).
Possible second sentence: It is spreading rapidly in four states.

Example 10.2.16
First sentence: According to Doe (2024), the general did consult his advisors before making
the decision, but he did not take their advice.
Possible second sentence: As a result, he gave an order that resulted in the loss of the sup-
ply chain.

When the discussion involves something belonging to or associated with the noun in the
previous sentence, you can show continuity of though by using a possessive pronoun.

Example 10.2.17
The main character is not a deep, introspective thinker. Instead, his failure to act results
from a narcissistic self-absorption.
170 Using Sources Effectively

Table 10.5 Pronouns and Possessive Pronouns

Pronouns Possessives
I mine
me my
you your
yours

he his
him
she her
her hers
we our
us ours
they their
them theirs
it its

Demonstrative Pronouns and Adjectives

Demonstrative pronouns and demonstrative adjectives create emphasis on a noun for
which they substitute. They produce a pointing-out effect:

Example 10.2.18
After just a few minutes’ investigation, we discovered that the company has no secure fire-
wall on its computer network. That is the problem.

Example 10.2.19
Jane Doe argued that the newest solution to the authorship controversy is mostly an exer-
cise in confirmation bias rather than a finding of new evidence (pp. 141–142). This is the
same point that she made two years earlier about a different (p. 256).
Because many sentences contain more than one noun, confusion over which noun is
being referenced can occur with demonstrative adjectives:

Example 10.2.20
The power went off in the restaurant just after the man’s boss began to yell at him for invit-
ing him to such an extravagant place. The man soon concluded, “This was a mistake.”
Here, the reader is not sure whether this refers vaguely to the entire evening, the choice of
restaurants, or asking the boss to lunch. The better use of demonstrative words is to use them
as demonstrative adjectives, where the pointedness of the pronoun is retained while the clar-
ity of reference is established by adding a synonym or repetition of the noun to which it refers.

Example 10.2.21
The power went off in the restaurant just after the man’s boss began to yell at him for inviting
him to such an extravagant place. The man soon concluded, “This restaurant was a mistake.”
 Jump-Starting Your Writing 171

Table 10.6 Demonstrative Pronouns and Adjectives

Pronouns Adjectives
this this x
that that x
these these xes
those those xes

10.3 Using Flow Patterns

Flow patterns make an easy but effective way to improve the logical flow of your writ-
ing, as they provide you with a framework for a clear and orderly presentation of your
ideas and those of your sources. Try these out, and once you get the feel for the way
ideas connect and flow, you can create your own patterns with your own words and
writing style.

Patterns With Because

A good place to start with flow patterns is with the idea of because. Statements that
begin with because provide the reasons, details, clarification, or evidence that let the
reader know why what has just been presented is worthy of belief. Your research papers
must present evidence-based and reason-based conclusions, not just your opinion or
the unevidenced opinion of your sources. Your because statements let your reader
see the evidence and reasons that persuaded you (or your sources); your readers are,
therefore, also invited into the argument so that they can decide if your conclusions
are credible.
Why is this practice so important? Imagine this dialogue between student and profession
in a literature class:

Professor: Why doesn’t Hamlet act sooner?

Student: He is depressed from lack of sunshine.
Professor: And what in the play leads you to that conclusion?
Student: It is just how I feel.

Or this dialogue between a student and a professor in a psychology class:

Professor: Whas the experiment successful in supporting the hypothesis?

Student: Yes.
Professor: Why?
Student: It is just how I feel.

To lead others to adopt your conclusion (your thesis), especially if it means changing their
minds, requires much more than “It is just how I feel.” Civilization was not built on “That is
my opinion; take it or leave it.” Civilization was built on “Here’s a advance in knowledge,
and here is why it is true.”
172 Using Sources Effectively

Table 10.7 A Key to Persuasive Writing

One of the most important tools in the writer’s persuasive toolbox is the word because and
its adjuncts, which signal that reasons or evidence are about to be presented that will support the
writer’s argument or thesis. Words that signal coming reasons include the following:
because since for the reason caused by as evidenced gives rise to brings about
that by

Patterns with because (or other causal word or phrase) can begin with the reason
statement(s):

Example 10.3.1
A. Because the firmware on the motherboard included delay loops, the computer could
not run as fast for which the CPU designed.
B. Because the British soldiers in the Revolutionary War wore red coats, they were called
“redcoats.”
C. Because allergies are often made worse in dry, dusty climates such as this one, and
because this area has frequent dust-blowing winds, we are considering relocating.
D. [APA style] For the reason that he was the only researcher aware of the statistical anom-
aly, Doe (2022) was asked to present his findings at a conference in Maui.
E. Because the company waited too long to launch a product test, and because many of
the results were ignored, the product that entered the market was anything but ready to
compete.

Patterns with because can include the reason statement(s) after the conclusion statement:

Example 10.3.2
A. [APA style] Writing in Auto Repair Monthly, Doe (2024) noted that consumers are using
oil-change discount coupons more than ever because of the high cost of synthetic oil
used in newer cars.
B. [MLA style] Jane Doe recounts that the ancient manuscript was accepted as authentic
because carbon-14 dating supported the presumed age of the document (98).
C. [APA style] Doe (2024) argued that the saying “Never fail, never learn,” is correct
because we analyze our failures and learn from them, while we just relax when we
succeed (p. 56).
D. [APA style] Wang (2025) disagreed with Doe because many corporations analyze their
successes as well as their failures (pp. 174–176).

Conditional (If-Then) Patterns

If-then patterns form one of the basic logical relationships between ideas. The truth or
occurrence of one statement, the conclusion, is dependent on the truth or occurrence of
another statement, known as the condition. The condition statement is identified by the
conditional word if, and the conclusion statement is identified by the word then. The state-
ments can occur in either order.
 Jump-Starting Your Writing 173

Example 10.3.3
A. If the economy continues to be weak, then the Fed will maintain low interest rates.
B. If the driver accidentally leaves the proximity key in the car, then the car doors will not lock.
C. If you want to hear and feel the lowest bass sounds, you will need to get a subwoofer.
D. The questions and notes will not match the page numbers unless you have the earlier
edition of the book.
E. You will need to get a subwoofer if you want to hear and feel the lowest bass sounds.

Comment:
Note that the then in if-then patterns is often implied rather than stated, as in Sentence C
in the example earlier. Unless also implies a conditional, as in Sentence D earlier; and the
if-then order can be reversed, as in Sentence E earlier.
Sometimes, more than one condition must be fulfilled before a conclusion can operate. In
such cases, the pattern is if-and-if-then.

Example 10.3.4
A. If the experimental design of this study is strong, and if the data collected are reli-
able and interpreted accurately, then we will be required to alter the conclusions of
our report.
B. If the growth rates of these redwoods continue at present levels, and if the borer worms
remain under control, then this section of the park will be suitable for public recreation
in about ten years.

If-then patterns can be elaborated by finishing the conditional argument. That is, if x is true,
then so is y. Then what happened? Was x true, making y true?

Example 10.3.5
A. If they refuse our offer, then we can go to our second choice; but they seem to be inter-
ested in selling the house, so let’s continue the negotiations.
B. [APA style] If what Doe (2024) said about the proposed power plan is true, then it
would make sense to cancel it. But his facts are all outdated, so we will need better
evidence before we decide against it.
C. If several people report that the switch breaks easily, then we might have a quality con-
trol problem, but so far we have received only two complaints about the switch, so we
do not need to consider a recall at this point.
D. If we want to prevent flooding on the north expressway, then we will need to build a
larger drainage culvert; but the cost of such a job would be more than a million dollars,
so we will have to put that project off for at least a year.

Concession Patterns
Concession patterns are useful for positioning your argument in the context of previous,
similar, or even opposing ideas that you acknowledge. Concession patterns allow you to
argue that your idea is valid in spite of these other ideas or arguments.
174 Using Sources Effectively

Table 10.8 If-Then Patterns and Variants

If . . . then When . . . then
If . . . and if . . . then When . . . then . . . however . . . therefore . . .
If . . . then . . . and . . . so Whenever . . . then it seems that . . . however
. . . thus . . .
If . . . then . . . and . . . so When . . . and when . . . then . . .
Unless . . . then Supposing . . . then . . . otherwise . . .

Example 10.3.6
A. [APA style] Even though Doe (2019) studied the social behavior of kangaroo rats, the
number and types of observation were limited.
B. [MLA style] Although Jessie Yu (2024) argues that the protagonist in the story suffers the
cold and desolation of a desert night (223), it is still true that the next morning, he is
glad to have had the adventure.

Example 10.3.7
Although . . . and although . . . nevertheless . . . because . . .

A. [APA style] Although for several years the results of the Doe experiment was contested,
often acrimoniously (Sanchez 2020), and although there was even some move to pre-
vent his team from publishing additional studies (Cheng, 2021), nevertheless Brown
(2023) wrote that most researchers now credit Doe and his team for “opening up a new
vista for research” because of their pioneering efforts (pp. 123–124).
B. [MLA style] Although John Doe has written an influential book on the motivations of
Harvey Glugg, and although his conclusions were widely accepted for many years (see
Brown 17–44), nevertheless there now seems to be a movement away from some of his
ideas because of the discovery of a new, annotated manuscript (Ma 144).

Comment:
Notice in the two examples above how the writer blends two or three sources together,
positioning them logically in relation to each other’s ideas.
Many more low patterns exist, and you can create your own limited only by your imagina-
tion. Use Table 10.2 (Example Subordinating Conjunctions) and Table 10.3 (Transitions of
Logic) to help you combine elements. Table 10.9 gives a few additional ideas.

10.4 Using Patterns with Sources

This section provides example patterns of expression that will give you some thoughts
about how your own ideas and the ideas of sources can be presented. There are many,
many possible patterns for each strategy; the patterns presented here represent only a
small sample. Use them to help you get a feel for a few of the ways that you can build your
sources together into a smooth, flowing paper. You do not need to use the exact phrases;
 Jump-Starting Your Writing 175

Table 10.9 Example Concession Patterns and Other Flow Patterns

Example Concession Patterns Examples of Other Flow Patterns
Even though . . . After . . . but before . . . this . . .
Although . . . Since . . . therefore . . . or else . . .
Although . . . nevertheless . . . because . . . While . . . it is necessary . . . because

Table 10.10 Informal Versus Scholarly Phrasing

Informal Better
My position is The position that is best supported by
In my opinion It would seem [appear] that
I agree with Doe has the better argument [case, idea]
I feel These arguments lead to
I think The evidence shows

feel free to vary them. The patterns here accompany the introductory strategies covered in
Chapter 4 and the effective-use strategies discussed in Chapter 8.

Use Scholarly Phrasing

Remember those discussions about the Great Conversation? To show that you are part of
that dialogue, phrasing your ideas in relation to your source’s ideas should be done in a
collegial manner. Take a look at Table 10.10, and you will see what we mean. For example,
saying, “My position is . . .” sounds isolated, as if the writer is staking a claim to an idea
without reference to or the support of the ideas of others. If, on the other hand, the writer
had said, “The position that is best supported by the evidence is . . .” then the claim is show
to be derived from the writer’s thinking about the evidence—the evidence found in sources
as well as personal thought.
Scholars tend to be reserved in their writing, seldom claiming, for instance, that they
have proved a case. Similarly, in presenting their ideas, they are usually circumspect and
careful in their claims. As you study the following table, take another look at the table
Interpretive Lead-Ins in Chapter 8.

The Source Supports Your Position

Many, if not most, of the sources that you use will provide evidence or reasons in support
of the idea that you are advancing. (See Table 4.2 on Introductory Verbs for more introduc-
tory support verbs.)

Example 10.4.1
A. [APA style] This point is supported by Ishii (2020), who said . . .
B. [MLA style] Yoki Ishii shares this conclusion, and offers another example, writing . . .
C. A major argument in favor of this idea has been supplied by Ishii, who says . . .
D. Providing evidence in support of this finding is a study by Ishii (2020) . . .
176 Using Sources Effectively

You Agree With the Source

Instead of positioning the source as a support for your idea, you sometimes might want to
say that you agree with the source.

Example 10.4.2
A. Ishii seems to have the concept down clearly, saying . . .
B. Ishii sums it up best, by noting the key idea . . .
C. Ishii (2020) offered the most logical reason for the experiment’s results . . .
D. Ishii came to the same conclusion, saying . . .

The Source Disagrees With Your Position

As mentioned in Chapter 8, it is important to take opposing arguments into account in your
paper to show that you are aware of them and have an answer to them.

Example 10.4.3
A. Ishii, however, takes the opposite view, saying that . . .
B. On the other hand, Ishii disagrees, because . . .
C. Yoki Ishii objects to this point, citing the fact that . . .
D. On the other side of this issue is Ishii . . .

You Rebut a Source That Opposes Your View

Opposing views should always be answered in a fair and straightforward way. Review
Chapter 8, Section 5 to remind yourself how disagreements should and should not be
handled.

Example 10.4.4
A. While Doe disagrees with this idea, the evidence indicates otherwise. For example, Sith
notes that Doe is assuming X, but that assumption is incorrect because . . .
B. Doe (2024) takes the opposite view, saying X is true and Y is false. Doe is mistake in
this, however, because recent new evidence from Smith (2025) shows that the actual
facts support Y because . . .
C. Doe is on record supporting the idea that. . . . However, such a proposal fails to account
for . . .
D. Doe objects to this argument, saying. . . . I admit that this point would bear substantial
weight, except for the fact that it overlooks . . .

You Respond to a Source That Presents an Incontrovertible Objection

You will not always have every argument and every piece of evidence on your side. How-
ever, you can still acknowledge the objection and let your readers know that you have
taken it into account when coming to your conclusion. Admitting the truth or cogency of
an objection actually makes your argument stronger because it makes your reader trust that
you are being fair. And a trustworthy voice is a persuasive voice.
 Jump-Starting Your Writing 177

Example 10.4.5
A. [APA style] Doe (2025), however, emphasized that the cost of these devices is prohibi-
tive for most consumers. This cost is, in fact, a major concern that we share. Even so,
the benefits definitely outweigh the cost.
B. [MLA style] What John Doe says is true, even if somewhat exaggerated (26). There is
no way around these undesirable secondary consequences. It is an unfortunate fact,
everyone agrees, but the benefits far outweigh the costs.
C. That some people are allergic to the new medication or suffer from other side effects
was well established even at the clinical trials. So there is no news in the new criticism.
The drug can and does have serious side effects in some people. It remains on the mar-
ket and in popular use because of the many lives that it saves.

The Source Implies Something Without Stating It

Writers often leave some conclusions to their readers—implications that the writer may
think of as obvious, or perhaps, what is implied could be offensive.

Example 10.4.6
A. Here, Hernandez appears to imply that. . . . Perhaps Hernandez is concerned that stat-
ing this explicitly would result in . . .
B. Behind Hernandez’s statement, however, is the clear implication that . . .
C. Left unsaid but clearly implied by Does is that . . .

The Source Makes an Unstated Assumption

Writers on scholarly topics often have an audience in mind that shares much of their work-
ing knowledge. In such cases, they assume that their readers share certain assumptions.
Sometimes, however, someone will attempt to draw conclusions from presented evidence
or reasons that involve assumptions that should have been but are not stated. Pointing
these out when appropriate can help make or break an argument.

Example 10.4.7
A. Hernandez’s point, as stated, would seem at first glance to be unobjectionable. If we
read between the lines, on the other hand, we can discern that Hernandez is clearly
assuming that . . .
B. The success of the plan necessarily rests on the assumption—unstated by Hernandez—
that . . .
C. Better results, yes, but assuming that. . . . However, such an assumption is left unstated
by Hernandez.

Introducing Common Knowledge

You will recall that in Chapter 6, common knowledge was defined as “whatever an edu-
cated person would be expected to know or could locate in an ordinary encyclopedia.”
You might have thought at the time, “There is much information in an encyclopedia.” You
178 Using Sources Effectively

are right. And that means that you will not always know whether or not your reader recog-
nizes common knowledge when you present it.
For example, it is common knowledge that high-bypass turbofan jet engines are more
efficient and less noisy than low-bypass or no-bypass engines. But the person sitting at your
elbow might not know that.
All this is to say that if you are unsure that some of your readers will recognize common
knowledge, introduce it as such. There are many ways.

Example 10.4.8
A. It is commonly remarked that . . .
B. Most people have heard the saying . . .
C. An idea that we often hear mentioned is that . . .
D. It is commonly known that . . .
E. It is, of course, well known that . . .
F. A typical objection to this is . . .
G. A regular comment made about this is . . .
H. When this topic is raised, the standard question is always . . .
I. The usual comment made about this is . . .
J. We seem to hear every day that . . .
K. It is widely recognized that . . .
L. It is commonly believed . . .
M. Everywhere on social media people are talking about . . .

Introducing Conflicting Views

When introducing conflicting views, structure the conflict in a clear and understanda-
ble way.

Example 10.4.9
A. A debate still rages over X. Wong argued that . . . while Smith commented that. . . . And
both have their supporters and detractors. Sanchez supported Wong with the [reason/
evidence] that . . . while Chang supported Smith, showing that. . . . LaPointe has argued
that the controversy over X misunderstands X, rejecting Wong and Smith, together with
their allies. Further research, however, and applying LaPointe’s reasoning together with
a little additional evidence, revealed that Wong and Smith are both right, depending on
how we define . . .
B. Wong and Smith take opposing views. Each cites evidence, Wong using data from . . .
and Smith providing fact from. . . . On the whole, Smith appears to have the better argu-
ment because . . .
C. This issue is, to be sure, controversial. Wong stakes out a position in favor of X, while
Smith is firmly opposed. Wong says . . . and Smith replies with. . . . Jones claims there
is no easy solution because . . .
 Jump-Starting Your Writing 179

Review Questions
To see how well you understand this chapter, attempt to answer each of the following
questions without referring to the text. (Write down your answers to make checking easier.)
Then check your answers with the text. If you missed something important, add it to your
answer.

1. How would you define synthesis writing?

2. Explain the difference between quilt writing and tapestry writing.
3. Define parataxis and give two examples.
4. Define hypotaxis and give two examples.
5. What is the purpose of using subordinating conjunctions?
6. Define transitions of logic, and give two examples in sentences.
7. What is the concept behind transitions of focus?
8. Define transitions of thought, and write an example of each type.
9. What are flow patterns, and how do they help you position your sources?
10. What is scholarly phrasing, and how does it differ from ordinary phrasing?

Chapter 10 Activity: Synthesis Exercise

Directions: From each pair of paragraphs, choose the one with the best synthesis of sources.

1. First example:
A. Researchers Demirell and Aydin (2019) found that female students reported higher
self-efficacy than their male peers and linked this finding to the number of books
that students read. Specifically, secondary students who read more than seven
books each year had higher self-efficacy “regarding the planning aspect of writing”
(Demirel & Aydin, 2019, p. 109). This finding is corroborated by Villalon and Asso-
ciates (2015) in that “girls display greater agreement with the epistemic conception
of writing, and perform better on writing tasks than boys” (p. 669). Female students
read more, plan more, and appreciate writing tasks more. Therefore, this team has
suggested that female students showed better writing performance.
B. Demirell and Aydin (2019) found that female students reported higher self-efficacy
than their male peers and linked this finding to the number of books that students
read. Specifically, secondary students who read more than seven books each year
had higher self-efficacy “regarding the planning aspect of writing” (Demirel & Aydin,
2019, p. 109). Researchers have suggested that the best writers are those who are
exposed to higher levels of written language, reading, and planning before they
write (Demirel & Aydin, 2019).
2. Second Example
A. LaBarbera and Hetzel (2015) analyzed responses from a large sample of private reli-
gious schools and found that the teachers reported relatively high levels of job sat-
isfaction despite notable levels of stress and that the practice of spiritual disciplines,
180 Using Sources Effectively

especially prayer, was positively associated with job satisfaction. Although private,
religious schools surely face unique stressors, it would seem that the daily stressors
of teaching in public schools, with generally larger classes and students who often
come from homes with incomes at poverty levels, would be every bit as great, and
perhaps greater. Therefore, in the present study, an investigation parallel to that
of LaBarbera and Hetzel (2015) was conducted with public-school teachers who
identify as religious (Christian) to examine job satisfaction levels, the nature of the
stressors that these teachers commonly experience, and the use of spiritual disci-
plines in relation to stress and job satisfaction, with the hope of gaining insight into
public-school teachers’ experience and ascertain ways to better support them.
B. At the end of the second year of the COVID-19 pandemic, a Gallup Poll of full-time
workers found that 44% of K–12 educators reported feeling somewhat or very dis-
satisfied with their jobs—the highest measure of dissatisfaction among major work
domains, surpassing even the level of health workers (31%) (Querolo & Ceron,
2022). As in many dimensions of life, the pandemic seemed to exacerbate trends
that have existed for many years; once the pandemic waned in 2023, teacher dissat-
isfaction reduced to 34% (Merrimack College, 2023). Nevertheless, dissatisfaction
remained higher than a historic average of around 25% that had been previously
reported for the period of 1986–2012 (Edweek Research Center, 2022), although
Yarrow (2009) reported that 40% of teachers expressed that they were “disheart-
ened” (versus 37% “contented” and 23% “Idealists”). It seems fair to infer that for
decades, large numbers of teachers have struggled with job satisfaction and that this
dissatisfaction has only increased in recent years.

Chapter 10 Activity: True or False

1. __________ Parataxis attaches a subordinating conjunction to a sentence to show a
logical relationship between sentences and their ideas.
2. __________ Hypotaxis attaches a subordinating conjunction to a sentence to show a
logical relationship between sentences and their ideas.
3. __________ This sentence is an example of hypotaxis: Because students with high
self-efficacy are better writers, teachers should cultivate higher self-efficacy in their
students.
4. __________ This sentence is an example of parataxis: Because physically active people
burn more calories, their weight is easier to maintain.
5. _________ These words are examples of subordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, for,
so, nor, yet.
6. __________ These words are examples of coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, for,
so, nor, yet.
7. __________ Of the two transitions, and so is stronger than consequently.
8. __________ That is is more general than in short.

Chapter 10 Activity: More Flow Patterns

Directions: Fill out each pattern later with appropriate content so that the sentence makes
logical sense.
 Jump-Starting Your Writing 181

Example:

Prompt X is Y because Z.

Filled out: The repair of the generator is necessary because without it, we will have no
power.

1. Because X, and because Y, therefore Z.

2. If X, then Y because Z.
3. When X, then Y. However, Z. Therefore A.
4. Assuming X, then Y and Z.
5. If X, then Y. Otherwise Z because A.
6. Even though X, nevertheless Y because Z.
7. Because X, then Y unless Z.
8. Because X, then Y because Z.
9. Because X, then Y unless Z.
10. After X but before Y, Z.
11. X is possible, unless Y, as determined by Z.
12. While X, then not Y. But because Z, X is not likely.

A Little Logic: Conditional Syllogisms

We saw the use of if-then flow patterns in Section 10.3 earlier. Some formations of an
if-then statement create a logical argument known as a conditional syllogism. When the
statements argue logically that if X happens, Y must happen, the argument must proceed
according to a certain form in order to be logical. That is, there are valid and invalid ways
to complete the syllogism.
The if statement, the conditional, is known as the antecedent, and the then statement
is the consequent. There are two valid and two invalid ways to argue using this syllogism.

Example [Link].1
First valid method: Affirm the antecedent first and then affirm the consequent.

A. If the odometer reads more than 20,000, so the car needs to be serviced.
B. If the batteries are dead, the flashlight will not work. And the batteries are dead, so the
flashlight will not work.

Example [Link].2
Second valid method: Deny the consequent first, then deny the antecedent.

A. If the odometer reads more than 20,000 miles, the car needs to be serviced. But the car
does not need to be serviced, so the odometer does not read more than 20,000.
B. If the batteries are dead, the flashlight will not work. But the flashlight dos work, so the
batteries are not dead.
182 Using Sources Effectively

Example [Link].3
First invalid method: Affirming the consequent first, then affirming the antecedent.

A. If the odometer reads more than 20,000 miles, the car needs to be serviced. And the car
does need to be serviced, so the odometer must read more than 20,000 miles.
B. If the batteries are dead, the flashlight will not work. And the flashlight does not work,
so the batteries are dead.

Comment: The fallacy of affirming the consequent is clear in these examples. In A, the
odometer reading more than 20,000 miles is not presented as the exclusive reason for the
car needing service. It might need a 10,000-mile service, the check engine light might be
on, the engine could have developed rough running, the brakes might be fading, and so
on. In B, the same logic holds. Yes, if the batteries are dead, the flashlight will not work,
but there might be other reasons that it does not work: a burned-out bulb, faulty switch
corroded insides, and so on.

Example [Link].4
Second invalid method: Denying the antecedent is clear in these examples. If an argument
is constructed with a conditional statement, and that statement is then denied, the argu-
ment must come to a stop. The premise of the argument is not true, so nothing can be con-
cluded. Conclusions must be drawn from true premises. Here, in A, the same alternative
possibilities apply: The car might need a 10,000-mile service, the check engine light might
be on, the engine could have developed rough running, the brakes might be fading, and
so on. Similarly, in B, the same faults might keep the flashlight from working: a burned-out
bulb, faulty switch, corroded insides, and so on.
If you or your sources use conditional syllogisms, make sure that they are constructed as
valid arguments.
Index

Note: Page numbers in italics indicate figures, and page numbers in bold indicate tables on the
corresponding pages.

abstract 18 bibliography 34 – 35
accuracy: editing for 123 – 157; test 27; word blended structure of sources 130 – 132
meanings for, checking 36 – 37 Boolean operators 23, 23
adjectives, demonstrative 170, 171 British spelling versus American spelling
adverbs, sentential 127 144, 145
affect and effect 154 – 155, 155 built-in quotations 57 – 58
American spelling versus British spelling
144, 145 character, intentional plagiarism and 98
analogies 36 citations: for avoiding plagiarism 11; benefits
anaphora 29 – 30 to readers 10; common knowledge and
APA-style paper: blended quotations 131; 100 – 102, 103; effective use of sources
built-in quotations 57; ellipsis dots in and 10 – 11; guidelines for 99 – 103, 100;
quotations 65; interrupt quotations 59; information 99, 100; in-text 63, 63;
introductory phrases 52, 54 – 56; leave out matching with references 134; myths
source’s words 60; long quotation boundary and facts about 103 – 107; as respect for
markers 112 – 113; non-text information knowledge workers 10; self-citation 99 – 100
boundary markers 118, 118; paraphrasing cleanup 142 – 143
72, 73, 76 – 80; quote phrases 61; second close reading 35 – 38
boundary marker, creation of 116 – 117; comma splice 145 – 146
set-off quotations 56, 57; short quotation common errors: affect and effect 154 – 155,
boundary markers 111, 112; square brackets 155; dangling modifier 153 – 154; informality
in quotations 66 – 68; summarizing 85, 86; 155 – 156, 155; misplaced modifier
unquoted source boundary markers 114, 154; possessives 152 – 153; subject-verb
115; vicious abstraction 50 agreement 153
apt phrase 106 – 107 common knowledge: citations and 100 – 102,
argument: analysis of 35 – 36; reasoned, 103; definition of 100, 177; sources to
understanding 8; strengthening 6 introduce, using 177 – 178; types of 100 – 101
artificial intelligence (AI) 96, 97 concession patterns 173 – 174, 175
audience 17 – 18 conditional (if-then) patterns 172 – 173, 174
autocorrection, of spelling errors 144 conditional syllogisms 181 – 182
conduplicatio 46
background information myths 107 conflicting views 178
because, flow patterns with 171 – 172, 172 confused words 144
bibliographic information 32 – 33 context: effective use of sources and 5 – 6
184 Index

controversies: effective use of sources and 7 – 8; indefinite pronouns 149 – 151, 151
locating 46; mini-research project 46 informality 155 – 156, 155
converted words myths 106 informal phrasing 175
copyright infringement, plagiarism and information: background 125 – 126;
105 – 107 bibliographic 32 – 33; literacy 8; need of 18;
credibility of sources 124 – 125 purpose of 35; types of 19
cryptomnesia 75 intentional plagiarism 95, 96, 97 – 99
intentional plagiarizers 98 – 99
dangling modifier 153 – 154 interest: effective use of sources and 6
data protection 44 Internet sources 24; context of individual
deep Web 26 pages, understanding 25 – 26; invisible Web,
demonstrative adjectives 170, 171 using 26; reliable sites, searching 25; results
demonstrative pronouns 170, 171 25; World Wide Web myths 103 – 104
diction 17 interpretation 11 – 12
dictionaries, avoid quoting 21 interpretation sandwich 128, 128
digital object identifier (DOI) 33 interpretive lead-ins 127 – 129, 129
distinctio 156, 156 interrupt quotations 58 – 59
drafts: saving 44 in-text citations 63, 63
introductory strategies: colon use and 52, 54;
E-A-R test 27 – 28
lead-ins for 51, 52; phrase use 54 – 56; for
editor 96
quotations 50 – 56; verbs for 52, 53; verb
effect and affect 154 – 155, 155
tense 54 – 56
ellipsis dots, in quotations 64 – 65
invisible Web 26
encyclopedia myths 104
engagement: effective use of sources and 9 – 10 keyword repetition 167 – 168
error checking 157
expertise test 27 labeling system 38 – 39
expressions, informal and unprofessional 155 ladder of generalization 24
learning process, writing as 3
fair use myths 104 librarians 21
flow patterns: with because 171 – 172, links 25
172; concession patterns 173 – 174, 175; logic, transitions of 163 – 166, 164
conditional (if-then) patterns 172 – 173, 174 logical fallacies 139
focus, transitions of 166 – 167, 166 logical signals 37
friend’s permission myths 105 long quotations: avoiding 132 – 133; marking
fused sentence 146 – 147 the boundaries of 112 – 113, 112
Golden Rule 98 marking the boundaries 110 – 122; of long
grammar, editing 144 – 148; comma splice quotations 112 – 113, 112; for non-text
145 – 146; fused sentence 146 – 147; sentence information 117 – 118, 118; in problem cases
fragment 147 – 148 115 – 122; second boundary marker, creation
Great Conversation 4 – 5, 12, 17, 20, 158, 175 of 116 – 117; of short quotations 111 – 112,
111; of unquoted source 113 – 115, 114
helper 96
metabasis 91, 91
hypophora 119 – 121; lead-ins for 120
misplaced modifier 154
hypotaxis 161 – 163
MLA-style paper: blended quotations 131;
if-then patterns 172 – 173, 174 built-in quotations 57, 58; ellipsis dots 65;
images 36 historical present tense for 58; interrupt
incontrovertible objection 176 – 177 quotations 59; introductory phrases 52,
 Index 185

54, 56; leave out source’s words 60; long possessives 152 – 153; pronouns 169, 170
quotation boundary markers 113; non-text primary sources 19 – 20
information boundary markers 118, 118; proactivity 45
paraphrasing 72, 73, 76 – 78; quote phrases procatalepsis 139; lead-ins for 140
61, 62; second boundary marker, creation of pronouns 169, 170; agreement 148 – 149;
117; set-off quotations 57; short quotation demonstrative 170, 171; indefinite 149 – 151,
boundary markers 111, 112; square 151; possessive 169, 170; reference 149;
brackets in quotations 67, 68; summarizing you, ambiguous use of 151 – 152
85; unquoted source boundary markers proofreader 96
114 – 115; vicious abstraction 50; Works public domain myths 103
Cited page for 34 punctuating quotations 62 – 70
myths of citation: background information purpose indicators 41 – 42
107; converted words 106; encyclopedia
104; fair use 104; friend’s permission 105; quilt writing 159 – 160, 161
named source 105 – 106; paraphrased quotations: abuse of 47 – 50; built-in 57 – 58;
paper 104 – 105; public domain 103; test cautions about 48 – 49; choosing 48;
for avoiding 107; tiny theft 106 – 107, 107; combined with summarizing 131; compared
World Wide Web 103 – 104 with paraphrasing and summarizing
87 – 89, 88; ellipsis dots in quotations
named source myths 105 – 106 64 – 65; exactness of 40; fallacy of vicious
new ideas: effective use of sources and 7 abstraction, avoidance of 49 – 50; file,
non-text information, marking the boundaries keeping 40; interrupt 58 – 59; introductory
for 117 – 118, 118 strategies for 50 – 56; introductory verbs
note-taking practices 38 – 41 52, 53; long, avoiding 132 – 133; long
quotations, marking the boundaries of
online searches 22 – 23 112 – 113, 112; phrases 61 – 62; punctuating
ordinary misspellings 144 62 – 70; rules of 63; set-off 56 – 57; short
overuse of one source, avoiding 133 – 134 quotations, marking the boundaries of
111 – 112, 111; square brackets in 66 – 68;
paragraph 134; first sentence of 18
strategies of 58 – 62
paraphrased paper myths 104 – 105
paraphrasing 71 – 80; cautions about 79 – 80; references: management software 34; matching
compared with quotations and summarizing with citations 134; pronoun 149
87 – 89, 88; definition of 72; guidelines for related terms 24
74; method of 75 – 79; reasons for using relationships of sources 42, 42
72 – 74; rules for 74 – 75; time of usage 72 – 74 reliability test 28
parataxis 161 – 163 research-based writing 3 – 5; Great
password protection 44 Conversation and 4 – 5, 12, 17, 20, 158, 175
persuasion: effective use of sources and 9; long research papers: audience and 17 – 18; purpose
and short sources and 132 of 16; requirements for 16
plagiarism: avoidance of 94 – 109; citation for rhetorical question 108 – 109
avoiding 11; citation guidelines for 99 – 103, run-together sentence 146 – 147
100; copyright infringement and 105 – 107;
definition of 94 – 95; implications of 95; scare quotes 64
intentional 95, 96, 97 – 99; protection against scholarliness 18 – 19; varieties of 19
false charge of 44 – 45; self-recycling and 97; scholarly phrasing 175, 175
tutor use and 96; unintentional 96, 97; see search log, tracking 22
also citations; myths of citations search tools 23
positioning sources 41 – 43, 175 – 176 secondary sources 19 – 20
186 Index

second boundary marker, creation of 116 – 117 square brackets, in quotations 66 – 68, 66; sic
section headers 18 with 68
self-citation 99 – 100 subject-verb agreement 152 – 153
self-recycling 97 subordinating conjunctions 162 – 163, 163
sentence: first, of paragraph 18; fragment summarizing 80 – 87; cautions about 87;
147 – 148; fused 146 – 147 combined with quotations 131; compared
sentential adverbs 127 with quotations and paraphrasing 87 – 89,
set-off quotations 56 – 57 88; definition of 80 – 81; guidelines for 82;
short quotations, marking the boundaries of method of 82 – 87; reasons for using 81 – 82;
111 – 112, 111 source limitations on 87; time of usage
Simple Rule see marking the boundaries 81 – 82
skills: writing 3 synonyms 24, 168 – 169
sneer quotes 64 synthesis writing 158 – 161; definition of 159;
sources 5 – 8; blended structure of 130 – 132; tapestry versus quilt writing 159 – 161, 161
boundaries markers for incorporating
see marking the boundaries; choosing, tapestry writing 159 – 161, 161; reader and 161
proper 21; close reading to understand theft, reporting 44; tiny theft myths
35 – 38; collecting 31 – 33; credibility of 106 – 107, 107
124 – 125; criteria for incorporating 88; of thesaurusitis 89 – 90
disagree, identifying 135 – 136; discussing/ thinking: about use of sources 11; process,
applying 127 – 130; effective use of see writing as 2 – 3
sources, effective use of; evaluation of thought, transitions of 167
26 – 28; Great Conversation and 4 – 5, tiny theft myths 106 – 107, 107
12, 17, 20, 158, 175; ineffective use transitions: of focus 166 – 167, 166; of logic
of 132 – 134; Internet 24; introductory 163 – 166, 164; of thought 167; use of 163
strategies for 123 – 127; long and short trust: effective use of sources and 8 – 9
132; opposing views of 176; opposite, tutor, plagiarism and 96
criticizing 136 – 137; organizing 33 – 34;
uniform resource locator (URL) 33
patterns with, using 174 – 178; positioning
unintentional plagiarism 96, 97
41 – 43; preparing 31 – 46; primary 19 – 20;
unprofessional expressions 155
reasonable claims about 129; relationships
unquoted source, marking the boundaries of
of 42, 42; saving 32, 44 – 45; scholarliness
113 – 115, 114
in 18 – 19, 19; secondary 19 – 20; selection
of 18 – 21; support and 11; unfair criticism, verbs: introductory 52, 53; tense 54 – 56
avoidance of 137 – 138; uses of, outline vicious abstraction: fallacy of, avoidance of
of 42 – 43, 43; variety of 22; see also 49 – 50
individual entries
sources, effective use of: argument and 6, 8; words: leave out 59 – 60; variants of 24
citing 10 – 11; context and 5 – 6; controversies World Wide Web myths 103 – 104
and 7 – 8; engagement and 9 – 10; interest and writing: to develop lifelong skills 3; flow
6; keeping up-to-date and 7; new ideas and patterns 171 – 174; as learning process 3;
7; persuasion and 9; trust and 8 – 9 research-based 3 – 5; synthesis 158 – 161; as
spelling errors: American versus British thinking process 2 – 3; see also marking the
144, 145; autocorrect 144; confused boundaries
words 144; editing for 143 – 144; ordinary
misspellings 144 you, ambiguous use of 151 – 152