Switchgear & Protection — Unit 3

SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION

UNIT 3
Transmission Line & Feeder Protection

GTU Diploma Electrical Engineering | Semester 5 | Subject Code: DI05009011

12 Hours | 27% Exam Weightage — HIGHEST WEIGHTED UNIT

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 Switchgear & Protection — Unit 3

1. Introduction
This unit is the exam's single biggest scoring zone (27%) and also the most PRACTICAL — 4 of your 11 lab
experiments (Practical 6, 7, 11 and part of 3) come directly from this unit. A transmission/feeder is protected mainly
by overcurrent relays (radial, simple, cheap) at distribution level, and by distance relays + pilot/carrier schemes (fast,
unit-type) at higher transmission voltages where speed and selectivity both matter for system stability.

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2. Radial Feeder — Overcurrent & Earth-Fault Protection

Radial feeder: a feeder fed from ONE end only — power flows in a single direction, source to load. Simplest
network topology to protect.

Fig 3.1 — Time-graded overcurrent protection of a radial feeder

Both phase overcurrent AND earth-fault relays are used together at each point: phase OC relays (fed from line CTs)
catch phase-to-phase faults; a separate earth-fault relay (fed from a residual CT connection — the vector sum of the
three phase CTs, which is zero under normal balanced conditions) catches phase-to-ground faults, and can be set
MUCH more sensitively than phase OC relays since normal load imbalance is small.
• Why a separate E/F relay is more sensitive: phase relays must be set above maximum load current (which can be
large); the E/F relay's residual current is near-zero in normal service, so it can be set to a low pickup (e.g. 20-
30% of CT rating) and still remain stable — catching high-resistance earth faults that a phase relay would never
see.

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3. Methods of Discrimination

Fig 3.2 — Current, Time, and Current-Time discrimination

Method How it works Limitation

Current discrimination Relays graded by pickup CURRENT only — Works only where there's
relay nearer source set to pick up only at a higher appreciable impedance between
current than downstream relay could ever pass the two points (so fault current
clearly differs by location); poor
discrimination when fault levels
are close

Time discrimination All relays have the SAME current setting but Simple, but tripping time for
graded TIME delays — farthest relay fastest, each faults near the source becomes
step back +0.3-0.5s large in a long series of feeders
(cumulative delay)

Current-Time (IDMT) Combines both: inverse time-current characteristic Most widely used in practice —
discrimination + individual TMS grading — relay closer to a the right balance of speed +
severe fault naturally operates faster even with selectivity; still needs careful
similar settings PSM/TMS coordination

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4. Rules for Setting IDMT Relays — Radial Feeder Example

Plug Setting (current) rule

• Set ABOVE maximum expected load current (with margin, typically 1.25-1.3x full load) so the relay does not
mal-operate on normal overload/starting current.
• Set well BELOW minimum fault current for the zone, so the relay is sensitive enough to positively detect every
fault in its zone.

Time Setting (TMS) rule

• Relay farthest from the source (nearest the load end) is given the SHORTEST possible time — often
coordinated with a fuse or the fastest safe setting.
• Each relay moving toward the source is given a time step (grading margin) above the relay immediately
downstream — typically 0.3-0.5s, to allow for downstream CB opening time + relay overshoot + safety margin.
• Grading is normally done at MAXIMUM fault current for each pair of relays — if selectivity holds at max fault
current, IDMT curves (being more spread apart at lower current) automatically stay selective at lower fault
currents too.

PSM = Fault current (secondary/relay side) / Plug setting current

t (Normal Inverse) = 0.14 / (PSM^0.02 − 1)
TMS required = Desired operating time / t (at TMS = 1)
Grading margin between adjacent relays = CB opening time + relay overshoot + safety margin (≈0.3-
0.5s)

Worked example — sample radial feeder

Two relays in series: Relay B (downstream, nearer fault) and Relay A (upstream, nearer source). Both CT ratio
200/1A, both Plug Setting 100%. Fault current for a fault just beyond B = 3000A. Desired operating time for Relay B
= 0.3s (fastest safe setting). Grading margin = 0.4s, so Relay A's desired time for the SAME fault = 0.7s.
• Relay pickup = 1A (100% of 1A secondary)
• Fault current (secondary) = 3000/200 = 15A
• PSM = 15/1 = 15
• t at TMS=1 (Normal Inverse) = 0.14/(15^0.02 − 1) = 0.14/0.0570 ≈ 2.46s
• TMS for Relay B = 0.3/2.46 ≈ 0.122
• TMS for Relay A = 0.7/2.46 ≈ 0.285
Do this exact style of problem (two or three relays in series, given fault current + desired grading margin, find each
TMS) 3-4 times — it is the single highest-value practice for this whole subject.

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5. Parallel Feeder Protection — Directional Relays

Fig 3.3 — Why parallel feeders need directional protection

A plain (non-directional) overcurrent relay only measures MAGNITUDE — it cannot tell which direction the current
is flowing from. On a radial feeder that's fine, because current can only ever come from one direction. But the
moment two feeders run in PARALLEL between the same two buses, a fault on one feeder can be fed from BOTH
ends — from the source directly, and from the healthy parallel feeder via the load-end bus. A non-directional relay at
the load end of the faulted feeder would see this back-feed current and might incorrectly trip, disconnecting a feeder
that should stay in service.

Directional overcurrent & earth-fault protection

• A directional element is added using a POLARISING quantity — usually the bus voltage (or, for earth-fault, the
residual/zero-sequence voltage) — as a phase reference.
• The relay only allows tripping when the fault current's phase, relative to the polarising voltage, indicates the
fault is in the FORWARD (intended, into-the-line) direction.
• At the load end of each parallel feeder, the directional relay is set to look back toward the source (i.e. it should
NOT trip for fault current arriving from the healthy parallel feeder side) — this restores correct selectivity.

Common problems with overcurrent relays (why we eventually need distance/unit

protection)
• Fault current magnitude depends heavily on system operating condition (generation in/out of service, network
configuration) — a setting correct for one condition may mal-operate or fail to operate under another.
• Difficult to maintain good selectivity AND fast speed together on long series/ring/interconnected networks —
time-grading accumulates delay toward the source.
• Non-directional relays cannot handle multi-source or ring systems at all without added directional elements.
• CT saturation at high fault currents can distort the measured current and cause mis-operation or mis-grading.
• Relay settings need re-coordination whenever the network topology changes (new feeder added, source
changed) — inflexible for a growing/changing grid.

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6. Distance (Impedance-based) Protection of Transmission Lines

Overcurrent protection struggles on long high-voltage transmission networks because fault current doesn't vary
cleanly with distance the way it does on a simple radial feeder (multiple sources, interconnections). Distance relays
solve this by measuring impedance (Z = V/I) instead of just current — since line impedance is proportional to length,
the relay directly estimates HOW FAR AWAY the fault is.

Stepped distance characteristic

Fig 3.4 — Three-zone stepped distance protection

Zone Typical reach Typical time delay Purpose

Zone 1 80-85% of protected line Instantaneous (~20- Primary protection for the bulk of the
50ms) line — kept under 100% deliberately,
to avoid overreaching into the next line
due to CT/PT/relay measurement
errors

Zone 2 ≈120% of protected line ≈0.3-0.4s Covers the last 20% of the protected
(remaining 20% + ~50% of next line (which Zone 1 deliberately
line) excludes) + acts as backup for the start
of the next line

Zone 3 Full backup — 100%+ of the next ≈1.0s Remote backup protection for the
line section entire next line, in case its own primary
protection or breaker fails

Problems and limitations of distance relays

• Arc resistance at the fault point adds an extra resistive component to the measured impedance -> makes the fault
appear farther away than it actually is (under-reach), especially serious for a plain impedance-circle
characteristic.
• Power swings (system oscillations after a disturbance) can temporarily bring the measured impedance INTO a
distance relay's zone -> risk of false tripping during a swing that is not actually a fault.
• Zone 2/3 reach must be carefully coordinated with the NEXT line's length -> mistakes cause either under-reach
(missed backup) or over-reach (nuisance tripping) into further sections.
• Infeed/outfeed effect at multi-terminal lines and tapped loads distorts the impedance seen, complicating accurate
zone setting.
• Requires healthy, accurate CT and PT signals — CT saturation or PT fuse failure can cause mal-operation or
failure to trip.

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7. Pilot Wire & Carrier-Current Protection

Both are UNIT (differential-style) protection schemes for a transmission line — they compare conditions at BOTH
ends of the line simultaneously via a communication channel, giving instantaneous, 100%-selective tripping without
needing time-grading with neighbouring sections.

Pilot wire protection

Fig 3.5 — Pilot wire (differential) protection principle

• Uses a dedicated metallic pilot cable (or now increasingly fibre-optic) laid alongside the line to carry the
comparison signal between the CTs/relays at each end.
• Compares actual current magnitudes (circulating-current or voltage-balance schemes) — internal fault
unbalances the comparison and both ends trip instantly.
• Practical limitation: pilot cable length/economics — becomes expensive and signal-degraded over very long
lines, so mainly used for shorter lines/cable circuits.

Carrier-current protection

Fig 3.6 — Carrier-current protection principle

• Uses the HV line conductor ITSELF as the communication medium — no separate pilot cable needed, so it's
economical even for very long transmission lines.
• A high-frequency carrier signal (50-400 kHz) is superimposed on the power-frequency line current via coupling
capacitors (often the same CVT used for metering) and blocked from entering the substation by a line trap (a
tuned filter) at each end.
• Only the PHASE ANGLE relationship of the currents at the two ends is compared (not magnitude) — internal
fault: currents effectively in phase -> trip; external/through fault: currents out of phase -> carrier signal
BLOCKS tripping (carrier-blocking scheme) or, in permissive schemes, must be received to ALLOW tripping.
• Directional comparison carrier schemes are commonly combined with 3-zone stepped distance relays at each
end for a complete, fast, and selective EHV line protection package.

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8. Typical Protective Schemes by Voltage Level

(power circuit = the primary HV equipment being protected; control circuit = the CT/PT + relay + trip-coil wiring
that operates it)

Voltage level Typical power circuit protection Typical control circuit / relaying

11kV distribution feeder VCB, CT (e.g. 400/1A), sometimes ring-main- Numerical IDMT overcurrent + earth-
unit with SF6 load-break switches fault relay (non-directional for radial,
directional for ring/parallel), local trip
battery 110V DC

66kV sub-transmission SF6 CB, CT + CVT at each end, line trap for IDMT/directional OC-EF as primary
line carrier at short lines, OR 2-zone/3-zone
distance relay with carrier-aided
tripping for longer/critical lines;
backup by time-graded OC

400kV EHV transmission SF6 CB (often 2 or 1.5 breaker bus scheme for Duplicated (Main-1 + Main-2)
line reliability), CVT, line trap, coupling capacitor numerical distance protection with
carrier/fibre-based directional
comparison teleprotection; breaker-
fail protection; auto-reclose scheme
Notice the pattern as voltage rises: protection gets FASTER (instantaneous unit schemes replace simple time-graded
OC), more REDUNDANT (duplicated Main-1/Main-2 protection, breaker-fail backup), and more communication-
dependent (carrier/fibre teleprotection) — because the consequence of slow/failed clearance at EHV (system-wide
instability, cascading blackout) is far more severe than at 11kV (one local feeder out).

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9. Fault Characteristics of Renewable Sources & Protection

Challenges

Fig 3.7 — Conventional generator vs inverter-based fault current

A conventional synchronous generator behind a fault behaves like a decaying but LARGE current source (5-10x
rated current initially, set by its sub-transient/transient reactance) — this is the assumption almost all classical
protection (OC pickup margins, distance relay reach) is built on. Solar and wind, however, connect through power-
electronic INVERTERS, which behave completely differently under fault.

Key differences (Inverter-Based Resources, IBR)

• Fault current is deliberately LIMITED by the inverter's own control/thermal protection — typically only 1.0-1.5
times rated current, regardless of how severe the actual fault is.
• Negative-sequence and zero-sequence fault current contribution is very small/negligible — this breaks classical
directional and unbalance-based protection elements (many of which rely on negative-sequence current to sense
direction/type of fault).
• The fault response is determined by the inverter's PROGRAMMED control algorithm, not by physical machine
impedance — meaning it can vary by manufacturer and firmware, unlike a synchronous generator's predictable
physics-based behaviour.
• Reduced fault current -> reduced fault VOLTAGE DIP too (since source impedance is effectively higher) -> can
affect distance relay accuracy, especially on short lines where the healthy fault voltage signal is already small.

Protection of transmission/distribution networks with renewables

• Overcurrent relay pickup settings may need to be lowered/adaptive, since a nearly all-inverter-fed network may
never produce the high fault current classical OC relays were sized to detect confidently.
• Directional and distance elements relying on negative-sequence quantities need alternative or supplementary
logic (e.g. positive-sequence based, voltage-based, or communication-assisted schemes) where wind/solar
penetration is high.
• Communication-assisted (pilot/carrier/differential) unit protection is increasingly preferred for renewable-rich
networks/collector systems, since it doesn't depend on fault current magnitude the way traditional OC/distance
protection does.
• Adaptive protection — settings that automatically adjust based on real-time generation mix/network
configuration — and Integrated Protection & Control via SCADA are the modern answer to a grid whose fault
behaviour changes hour to hour with renewable output (this connects directly to Unit 5's 'Adaptive Protection'
topic).

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Quick Revision Table — Unit 3 at a Glance

Topic One-line takeaway to remember

Radial feeder Power flows one direction only — simplest to protect with plain (non-directional)
OC/EF relays

E/F relay sensitivity Residual current ≈0 in normal service -> can be set far more sensitive than phase OC
relay

3 discrimination methods Current / Time / Current-Time(IDMT) — IDMT is the practical default

IDMT setting rule Farthest relay = fastest; each step toward source adds ~0.3-0.5s grading margin

PSM/TMS calc PSM = fault current/pickup; TMS = desired time / curve time at TMS=1 — PRACTICE
THIS

Parallel feeder Fault can be fed from BOTH ends -> needs directional relays using a polarising voltage

Distance relay zones Zone1=80% instant, Zone2=120% ~0.3-0.4s, Zone3=full backup ~1s

Distance relay problem Arc resistance -> under-reach; power swings -> false trip risk

Pilot wire Dedicated cable, compares magnitude — good for shorter lines

Carrier current Uses the line itself, compares phase angle only — economical for long EHV lines

Voltage-level pattern Higher voltage -> faster + more redundant + more communication-dependent protection

IBR fault current Limited to ~1.0-1.5pu, negligible negative/zero sequence -> breaks classical relay logic

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