DI05000191 — Power System Operation and Management

UNIT 1: Power System Fundamentals and Representation

1.1 Structure of Generation, Transmission and Distribution System
A power system is the complete chain that carries electrical energy from the place it is produced to
the place it is used. It has three main stages: Generation, Transmission, and Distribution.
• Generation: Electrical energy is produced at generating stations (thermal, hydro, nuclear, solar,
wind) at a relatively low voltage, typically 11 kV to 25 kV, because generator insulation limits
how high the voltage can be built at the winding itself.
• Step-up transformation: A step-up transformer at the generating station raises this voltage to
transmission level (66 kV to 765 kV) to reduce current, and hence reduce I²R losses and
conductor size for the same power.
• Transmission: Bulk power is carried over long distances at high voltage through transmission
lines to a receiving-end substation near the load centre.
• Sub-transmission and step-down: At the receiving substation, voltage is stepped down (33 kV /
11 kV) and fed to sub-transmission and primary distribution networks.
• Distribution: Distribution transformers further step voltage down to utilisation level (415 V
three-phase / 230 V single-phase) for delivery to domestic, commercial and industrial
consumers.
Stage Typical Voltage Level Purpose
Generation 11 kV – 25 kV Produce electrical energy
Transmission 66 kV – 765 kV Bulk transfer over long distance, low loss
Sub-transmission 33 kV / 66 kV Carry power to load centre substations
Primary Distribution 11 kV Feed distribution transformers
Secondary Distribution 415 V / 230 V Deliver power to end consumer
Exam tip: This structure (Generation → Step-up → Transmission → Step-down → Distribution →
Consumer) is almost always asked as a block diagram — draw it neatly with voltage levels labelled
at each stage.

1.2 Single Line Diagram (SLD) of a Power System

A Single Line Diagram (SLD) represents a three-phase power system using a single line and
standard symbols, instead of drawing all three phases separately. Since a balanced three-phase
system behaves identically in each phase, one line is enough to represent the complete circuit.
Standard symbols are used for generator, transformer, transmission line, circuit breaker, bus and
load, so that the diagram is compact and easy to read for large systems.
 Fig 1.1 — Single Line Diagram of a Power System

Why SLD is used:

• Gives a quick, clear overall picture of power flow from generation to load.
• Shows the location of circuit breakers, transformers and protective equipment.
• Forms the base diagram from which the impedance/reactance diagram is derived for fault and
load-flow studies.

1.3 Impedance / Reactance Diagram

The impedance diagram is obtained from the SLD by replacing every component (generator,
transformer, line, load) with its equivalent circuit — showing EMF sources and series impedances
(resistance + reactance).
If only reactances are shown (resistance neglected, valid for transmission-level studies since X >> R
for lines and transformers), the diagram is called the Reactance Diagram. It is mainly used for fault
current and stability calculations.

Fig 1.2 — Reactance Diagram (per-phase equivalent circuit)

Steps to draw the reactance diagram from an SLD:

• 1. Represent the generator by its EMF behind its internal (synchronous/sub-transient)
reactance.
• 2. Represent each transformer by its leakage reactance.
• 3. Represent the transmission line by its series reactance (shunt capacitance neglected for short
lines).
• 4. Represent the load by an equivalent impedance (or omit for short-circuit studies).
• 5. Neglect resistance if only a reactance diagram is needed.
1.4 Single-Phase Representation of a Balanced Three-Phase System
In a balanced three-phase system, all three phases carry currents of equal magnitude, displaced 120°
from each other, and all impedances are identical per phase. Because of this symmetry, the behaviour
of one phase is an exact replica of the other two, only shifted in time.
This means the complete three-phase system can be analysed using just one phase (usually phase A)
and the neutral, with results for the other two phases obtained simply by a 120° and 240° phase shift.
This is called the single-phase (per-phase) equivalent representation, and it is the basis of the
impedance/reactance diagram.
Condition: this simplification is valid only for balanced systems — under unbalanced conditions
(unequal loads/faults), all three phases must be analysed separately (e.g., using symmetrical
components).

1.5 Per Unit (p.u.) System

The per unit value of any electrical quantity is defined as the ratio of the actual value to a chosen
base value of the same quantity, expressed as a decimal (no units).
Quantity in p.u. = Actual Value / Base Value
Base quantities are chosen for the system: Base kVA (or MVA) and Base kV are selected first
(usually equal to the rated values of the main equipment); Base Current and Base Impedance are then
derived:
Base Current, IB = (Base kVA) / (√3 × Base kV) [three-phase]
Base Impedance, ZB = (Base kV)² × 1000 / Base kVA = (Base kV)² / Base MVA
Advantages of the per unit system (very common viva/exam question):
• Removes the problem of different voltage levels on the two sides of a transformer —
impedance stays numerically the same when referred through an ideal transformer.
• Manufacturer-quoted impedances of machines and transformers are already close to a narrow,
standard p.u. range, making sanity-checks and comparisons easy.
• Simplifies calculations — no need to keep transferring impedances from one voltage side to
another using turns ratio.
• Reduces chances of errors caused by handling very large or very small numbers in ohms.

Changing the Base of a Given Per Unit Impedance

If an impedance is given in p.u. on one base and must be expressed on a new base, the following
formula is used:
Z p.u.(new) = Z p.u.(old) × (kVB,old / kVB,new)² × (kVAB,new / kVAB,old)

Solved Example
A transformer is rated 20 MVA, 11 kV / 66 kV, with leakage reactance 8% on its own rating. Find its
p.u. reactance on a system base of 100 MVA, 66 kV (HV side).
Solution:
• Given: X(old) = 0.08 p.u., Base(old) = 20 MVA, 66 kV; Base(new) = 100 MVA, 66 kV
• Since kV base is unchanged (66 kV on both), only the MVA ratio applies:
 X(new) = 0.08 × (66/66)² × (100/20) = 0.08 × 5 = 0.40 p.u.
Answer: The transformer reactance on the new base is 0.40 p.u.

1.6 Active Power, Reactive Power, Apparent Power and Power Factor
In an AC circuit with voltage V and current I with a phase difference φ between them, three types of
power are defined:

Quantity Symbol / Formula Unit Meaning

Active (Real) Power P = VI cosφ Watt (W), kW Actual power consumed /
converted to useful work
Reactive Power Q = VI sinφ VAR, kVAR Power exchanged with
inductive/capacitive elements,
does no real work
Apparent Power S = VI VA, kVA Total power supplied by the
source = vector sum of P and Q
These three are related by the Power Triangle, since S is the phasor (vector) sum of P and Q:

Fig 1.3 — Power Triangle

S = √(P² + Q²) P = S cosφ Q = S sinφ

Power Factor
Power factor (cosφ) is the ratio of active power to apparent power. It indicates how effectively the
supplied apparent power is being converted into useful (active) work.
Power Factor = cosφ = P / S
• Unity p.f. (cosφ = 1): purely resistive load, all supplied power is used as active power.
• Lagging p.f.: inductive load (motors, transformers) — current lags voltage, Q is positive
(absorbed).
• Leading p.f.: capacitive load — current leads voltage, Q is negative (supplied).
Low power factor is undesirable because it increases the current required for the same active power,
increasing I²R losses and requiring larger conductors and transformers — this is why power factor
improvement (via capacitor banks etc.) is important in power systems.

Quick Revision Sheet — Unit 1

Concept Key Formula
Base current (3-phase) IB = kVAB / (√3 × kVB)
Base impedance ZB = (kVB)² / MVAB
p.u. value Actual / Base
Change of base Znew = Zold × (kVBold/kVBnew)² × (MVABnew/MVABold)
Apparent power S = √(P² + Q²) = VI
Power factor cosφ = P / S

Most Likely Exam Questions — Unit 1

• Draw and explain a single line diagram of a power system. (Diagram-based, 4–7 marks)
• Explain the per unit system and its advantages. (Theory, 3–4 marks)
• Numerical: change of base of impedance / reactance (Application, 4–7 marks) — practice 3–4
such problems.
• Explain single-phase representation of a balanced three-phase system. (Theory, 3 marks)
• Define active, reactive and apparent power with the power triangle. (Theory + diagram, 3–4
marks)
• Draw the impedance/reactance diagram for a given SLD. (Diagram, 4 marks)