Evolution Lesson Summary

Evolution
Terminologies

Term Definition
Evolution The processes that have transformed life on earth from its earliest forms to
the vast diversity that characterizes life on earth today.
The Theory of Evolution Regarded as a scientific theory since various hypotheses relating to
evolution have been tested and verified over time
Gene A segment of DNA/a chromosome that codes for a characteristic
Genetic variation This includes a variety of different genes that may differ from maternal and
paternal genes resulting in new genotypes and phenotypes.
Mutation A sudden change in the sequence/order of nitrogenous bases of a nucleic
acid
Phenotype This is the external, physical appearance of an organism. The phenotype is
determined by the genotype.
Useful mutations Can be advantageous to the organism and are passed on from parent to
offspring

Prior Knowledge (Revision)

Classification: The process of sorting or grouping living organisms into groups and subgroups based on
their shared similarities, differences, and evolutionary relationships

For human evolution: know the difference between a family name, a genus and a species.

Family name: Hominidae

How scientific names are written:

Genus species

Homo neanderthalensis

Homo sapiens

Evidence for Evolution

1. Fossils: mineralised remains of past living organisms in rock. The fossils are used to see how
organism have changed from the past to now.
• Transitional fossils Shows intermediate characteristics between two genera/species. It has
characteristics common to both the ancestor species and the descendant species that
follows. (NB for this section)

Homologous structures Pertain to the structures that show similar morphology and anatomy but
have different functions, believed to have developed from a common
ancestor (Forelimbs)
Common ancestor An ancestor that two or more descendants have in common (vestigial
limbs)

1 Evolution Lesson Summary

 2. Biogeography: study of the distribution of organisms in space and time. It examines how living
things are spread across different regions of the Earth and how past and present factors shape
these patterns
3. Genetic evidence used for evolution is based on mutations (protein synthesis and genetics) This
evidence is used to indicate how closely organisms are related. Scientists state that organisms are
closely related and are likely to have a common ancestor if they have:
• Identical DNA structure (Central dogma) = common anscentresy
• Similar sequence of genes
• Similar portions of DNA with no functions
• Similar mutations. Mitochondrial DNA is used as evidence for human evolution. The
mutation within the mitochondrial DNA is used as markers.
• Meiosis links to evolution = Variation

Sources of variation (CRRRM)

• Crossing over and Random arrangement are two processes in meiosis that deals with
genetic variations.
• Random fertilisation
• Random mating
• Mutation

Continuous variation Discontinuous variation

Type of variation within a population in which there is The type of variation in a population with no
a range of intermediate phenotypes intermediate phenotypes

**Know the difference between the types of variation, namely continuous and discontinuous variation (be able to distinguish)

Hypothesis Theory

2 Evolution Lesson Summary

A tentative explanation of a phenomenon that Explanation of an observation that is supported
can be tested and may be accepted or rejected by facts, models and laws

Theories of evolution
Term Definition
Acquired characteristic Is a characteristic that an offspring is not born with, but which develops/is
acquired through the course of its lifetime; a characteristic not controlled
by a gene.
Inherited characteristic Is a characteristic that an offspring is born with, having been inherited from
one of the parents; a characteristic controlled by a gene.

Lamarckism (Lamarck’s theory)

Lamarck’s Theory: Organisms change during their lifetime in response to their environment and pass
these changes on to their offspring. These inherited changes accumulated over many generations, causing
species to evolve.

1. The Law of use and disuse - Body parts (structures) that are used frequently become larger and
stronger in the following generations, while body parts (structures) that are not used become
smaller or disappear.
2. Law of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics - characteristics acquired during an organism's
lifetime could be passed on to its offspring.

Example used:

• Giraffes constantly stretched their necks to reach leaves high in trees = believed that their necks
became longer through repeated use
• Giraffes with longer necks, acquired by stretching during their lifetime, passed these longer
necks on to their offspring, resulting in each generation having progressively longer necks.

Rejection of Lamarcks’ theory:

• Organisms do not evolve because they were determined to change but changes took place
randomly due to mutations
• Acquired characteristics cannot be inherited i.e., the phenotype cannot affect the genotype as
discovered later by Mendel.

Guiding questions when Lamarck’s theory is applied to a new situation:

• What was the original characteristic?

• What was the challenge?
• What did the organism do/what characteristic was then acquired?
• What was the result?
• What happened to this acquired characteristic?
• What was the result of this?

3 Evolution Lesson Summary

Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection

Hypothesis: Individuals (offsprings) within a species show genetic variation, and those with favourable
inherited characteristics are more likely to survive when faced with environmental changes or
competition. These individuals reproduce and pass their favourable alleles to their offspring, so over
many generations the favourable characteristics become more common in the population, leading to
evolution.

• “survival of the fittest” – where “fittest” does not mean the strongest, but the best suited to the
environment

Term Definition
Artificial selection/selective The breeding of organisms over many generations in order to achieve a
breeding desirable phenotype
Natural selection The process by which organisms best suited to survival in the
environment achieve greater reproductive success, thereby passing
advantageous characteristics onto future generations

Punctuated equilibrium refers to a form of evolution characterised by long periods of little or no

change followed by short periods of rapid change

Speciation
Definition: Process whereby new species are formed from the original population

Biological species concept; a group of organisms with similar characteristics that interbreed with one
another to produce fertile offspring.

Geographical isolation and reproductive isolation mechanisms, isolate the gene pool of a species
resulting with formation of new species

Geographical speciation

Definition: When part of a population becomes isolated from the parent population due to physical
barriers preventing them from breeding with each other. Over many generations, the separated
populations evolve independently through natural selection until they become different species that can
no longer interbreed to produce fertile offspring.

4 Evolution Lesson Summary

Process of geographical speciation

1. A population is separated by a geographical barrier and splits into two populations.

2. The two populations cannot mate and so gene flow between the two populations stops.
3. The two new species may mix but are genetically unable to breed with each other because of
evolutionary changes.
4. The two populations are exposed to different environmental conditions and selective forces.
5. Natural selection works independently on both populations simultaneously
6. The two populations become different from the original population both genotypically and
phenotypically.
7. Even if the populations were to come together again, they would not interbreed with one another
and therefore would have become different species

Reproductive isolation:

Definition: When two populations cannot successfully reproduce with each other, preventing the
exchange of genes.

Mechanism of reproductive isolation

1. Prevention of fertilisation: Example -very small and large dogs cant mate, small female will not
be able to give birth normally
2. Species-specific courtship behaviour: Example -male birds doing specific dances to attract
female partner)
3. Breeding at different times of the year: Example: butterflies breeding at different seasons
4. Plant adaptation to different pollinators: plants adapted to insects, wind and birds for
pollination
5. Infertile offspring: Example -when donkeys and horses mate they produce mules who are
infertile
All five mechanisms of reproductive isolation prevent gene flow between populations. This allows populations to
evolve independently through natural selection and other evolutionary processes, eventually leading to the
formation of new species (speciation).

Example of Evolution in Present Times: Insecticide Resistance in Mosquitoes

Some mosquitoes naturally have genetic variations that make them resistant to insecticides used to control
their populations. When insecticides are sprayed, the non-resistant mosquitoes die, while the resistant
mosquitoes survive and reproduce. They pass the resistance allele to their offspring, resulting in each new
generation containing a higher proportion of insecticide-resistant mosquitoes. This is an example of
evolution by natural selection, as the population changes over time in response to its environment.
Practice Question 1 (15)

Insects on islands without trees are likely to be wingless because flying is dangerous for them in an area
with strong winds.

5 Evolution Lesson Summary

A certain island was once covered with tall trees. Over the years, there has been deforestation in some
areas of the island. On this island, insects called stoneflies, have undergone natural selection. Some have
wings and some do not have wings, depending on the area where they are found.

The diagram below shows stoneflies with and without wings.

Scientists wanted to determine the relationship between the presence of tall trees and the wings on the
stoneflies.

• They selected six locations, of which three had tall trees and three were without trees.
• Using a specialised net, they collected thousands of stoneflies in each location.
• The samples were labelled according to the area of collection.
• These samples were all collected in the morning during summer.
• The number of stoneflies with wings and without wings at each location was counted and
recorded.
1. Identify the:
a. Independent variable (1)
b. Dependent variable (1)
2. State TWO factors that were kept constant during the investigation. (2)
3. State TWO ways in which the reliability of this investigation was ensured. (2)
4. Explain why it would be expected that more stoneflies will have no wings in the areas without trees.
(4)
5. Describe how Lamarck would have explained the evolution of stoneflies without wings in the areas
without trees. (5)

Practice Question 2 (8)

Male long-tailed widowbirds have extremely long tail feathers that they use in mating displays to attract
females.

Scientists conducted an investigation to determine the relationship between the length of the male long-
tailed widowbird's tail and its mating success.

A total of 27 male long-tailed widowbirds was sampled and divided into 3 equal groups.

The tail feathers of the birds in each group were treated in the following way:

6 Evolution Lesson Summary

 • Group 1 – Cut short
• Group 2 – Made longer by adding artificial feathers
• Group 3 – Left unchanged

The 3 groups of male long-tailed widowbirds, along with female long-tailed widowbirds, were released
into an environment suitable for mating.

Each time a pair mated successfully they produced a nest and all the nests were counted.

The average number of nests produced by each group was calculated and used as an indication of mating
success.

The results are shown in the table below.

GROUP AVERAGE NUMBER OF NESTS PRODUCED

1 0.5
2 2.5
3 1

1. Name the:
a. Reproductive isolating mechanism that occurs in long-tailed widowbirds. (1)
b. Independent variable in this investigation (1)
2. Explain why 27 long-tailed widowbirds were used in the investigation instead of only 3. (2)
3. Explain why Group 3 was included in the investigation. (2)
4. State a conclusion for this investigation. (2)

Human Evolution
Mind map of what we will tackle:

7 Evolution Lesson Summary

Homo sapiens:

• Evolutionary history of 6 million years

• Biologically complex species
• Enormously successful – colonised lands and environments across plant
• Self-reflective (concepts of life and death, think about we think about)

Type of evidence Evidence for human evidence

Fossil record Anatomical features of fossils are examined, compared and placed in sequence
from most simple to more complex. Transitional species are those that display
characteristics in-between those that it follows and those that it precedes.
Transitional species may also share some characteristics with each of these two
groups.
Genetic evidence Similarities and differences between the genetic composition (DNA) of species
shows relatedness between species and their possible evolution from a common
ancestor.
Cultural evidence The increasing complexity of items such as artefacts and tools are an indication of
the development of intelligence, communication and complex societies of the
human

The table below summarizes the different fossils discovered as evidence for human evolutions. The
ones with the stars are South African.

8 Evolution Lesson Summary

9 Evolution Lesson Summary
Phylogentic tree: a diagrammatic/schematic form that shows the evolutionary relationships within a set
of organisms or groups of organisms.

• Phylo = organism’s phylum group

• genetic = from the genes/relationship between the genes

10 Evolution Lesson Summary

 1. Fossil (anatomical) evidence
Key Concept: Humans did NOT evolve from modern apes. Instead, humans and modern African apes
(chimpanzees and gorillas) share a common evolutionary ancestor that lived millions of years ago.

Similarity Description / Importance

Large brains Humans and apes have large brains relative to their body size, allowing
them to process information, learn, remember and solve problems.
Forward-facing eyes Both have two eyes at the front of the head, giving binocular (3D) vision,
(Binocular vision) good depth perception and colour vision for judging distances accurately.
Freely rotating arms The shoulders allow the arms to rotate freely, making it easier to swing
between branches, reach for food and perform a wide range of movements.
Long upper arms Apes have long forelimbs for climbing and swinging, while humans share this
(Forelimbs) feature as evidence of a common evolutionary ancestor.
Rotating elbow joints The elbow can bend and rotate, allowing the hands and wrists to move easily
for grasping, carrying and handling objects.
Flat nails instead of Humans and apes have flat nails that protect the sensitive fingertips,
claws improving touch and the ability to handle objects carefully.
Opposable thumbs The thumb can touch the other fingers, allowing a strong grip and precise
handling of tools and other objects.
Upright posture Humans stand fully upright, while apes can stand upright for short periods.
This frees the hands for carrying objects, using tools and performing other
tasks.
Sexual dimorphism Males and females differ in features such as body size and strength. These
differences are often linked to competition for mates.
No tail Humans and apes do not have tails, unlike many other primates such as
monkeys and baboons.
Diurnal Humans and apes are active during the day and usually rest or sleep at night.

Anatomical difference between African apes and humans

Feature Modern Humans African Apes

Posture Fully upright (bipedal) Mostly quadrupedal; upright only briefly
Walking Walk on two legs Walk mainly on four limbs (knuckle-walking
in chimpanzees and gorillas)
Foramen Under the skull in a forward Towards the back of the skull/backward
magnum position position
Brain Larger (≈1 300–1 500 cm³)/large Smaller (≈350–600 cm³)/small cranium
size/cranium cranium
Skull Rounded with high forehead Sloping forehead
Face/Jaw Flatter/smaller, less prognathous Projects forward/ large, more prognathous
Brow ridges Reduced Prominent
Chin Present Absent
Canine teeth Small Large
Dental Parabolic (rounded)/small, semi- U-shaped/long, regtangular
arcade/Palate circular
shape
Arrangement of Small gaps between teeth Big gaps between teeth
teeth

11 Evolution Lesson Summary

 Cranial ridges none Across top of cranium
Pelvis Short and broad Long and narrow
Spine S-shaped C-shaped
Legs Longer than arms Arms longer than legs
Feet Arched; big toe aligned with others Grasping feet; big toe often divergent
Hands Shorter fingers for precision grip Longer curved fingers for climbing
** The differences between modern humans and African apes are frequently tested in structured questions worth 6–10 marks. Be
able to compare features such as posture, brain size, pelvis, spine, limbs and the position of the foramen magnum.

**Remember the role of the foramen magnum. Humans: directly underneath the skull → indicates an upright, bipedal posture.
African apes: further towards the back of the skull → suited to a mainly quadrupedal post

Why Did These Changes Occur?

Scientists believe these changes occurred because natural selection favoured individuals better adapted to
changing environments.

For example:

Adaptation Advantage
Upright posture Better view of predators; hands free to carry food and tools
Larger brain Improved thinking, planning and communication
Smaller teeth Diet changed; less need for large canines
Precision grip Better tool manufacture and use
Longer legs More efficient walking over long distances

Bipedalism

Definition: Bipedalism is the ability to walk on two legs.

It is one of the defining characteristics of humans

Advantages of Bipedalism

• Hands free to carry food

• Hands free to carry babies
• Better tool use
• Better visibility over tall grass
• More energy-efficient walking over long distances
• Better heat regulation (less body surface exposed to direct sunlight)
Exam tip; Explain why adaptations were advantageous.

Exam questions often ask for the advantage of a feature, for example:

• Bipedalism → hands free for carrying food, babies and tools.

• Larger brain → improved learning, planning and problem-solving.
• Opposable thumb → precise grip for making and using tools.

Practice Question 3 (2)

12 Evolution Lesson Summary

 Fossil evidence for humans may be interpreted in different ways. One possible model of human

evolution is shown below.

1. State the number of genera represented in the diagram (1)

2. Name the most recent common ancestor of the Homo genus. (1)
3. Which species went extinct first? (1)

2. Cultural Evidence
Cultural evidence shows how humans thought, behaved and interacted with one another.

As Homo sapiens evolved, they did not only change physically, they also became more intelligent,
creative and social.

Homo sapiens means "Wise Human" or "Wise Person".

Modern humans showed evidence of:

• adapting the environment instead of simply adapting to it

• advanced tool-making
• symbolic thought
• planning for the future
• communication

13 Evolution Lesson Summary

• cooperation within communities

Examples of Cultural Evidence

Cultural Evidence What it shows

Art Ability to think symbolically and express ideas
Body decoration Personal identity and aesthetics
Advanced tools Planning, problem-solving and innovation
Burial rituals Spiritual beliefs and respect for the dead
Language development Communication and sharing knowledge
Traditions and customs Passing knowledge between generations
Values, ethics and morals Development of complex societies
Domestication Ability to control plants and animals

Evidence of Symbolic Thought

One of the most important developments in human evolution was the appearance of symbolic thinking.

Symbolic thought: The ability to use objects, pictures, language or actions to represent ideas.

Examples include:

1. paintings
2. engraved stones
3. jewellery
4. decorated tools
5. burial ceremonies

This suggests humans were capable of:

• imagination
• planning
• abstract thinking
• religion or spirituality

South African Cultural Evidence

Blombos Cave (South Africa)

14 Evolution Lesson Summary

One of the most important archaeological sites in the world is Blombos Cave, located on the southern
coast of South Africa.

Scientists discovered:

• engraved ochre pieces

• shell bead jewellery
• finely made stone tools

These artefacts are approximately 70 000 years old.

They were discovered by archaeologist Christopher Henshilwood.

Why is this important?

These discoveries show evidence of:

• symbolic behaviour
• planning
• creativity
• communication

Although these artefacts do not directly prove that people were thinking exactly as we do today, they
strongly suggest that complex thinking had already developed.
** Fossils cannot tell scientists when humans first began thinking symbolically.

European Cultural Evidence

15 Evolution Lesson Summary

The famous Lascaux Cave contains cave paintings dating back approximately 16 000 years.

These paintings demonstrate:

• artistic ability
• symbolic thinking
• communication
• planning

However...South African discoveries (70 000 years old) show that symbolic behaviour occurred long
before similar evidence was found in Europe.

Why is Cultural Evidence Important?

It shows that humans developed:

• intelligence
• communication
• creativity
• cooperation
• technology

These characteristics allowed Homo sapiens to survive and spread across the world.

16 Evolution Lesson Summary

 3. Genetic Evidence
Genetic evidence uses DNA to study relationships between humans and determine where modern humans
originated

Instead of studying bones, scientists study:

• DNA
• mutations
• inheritance patterns

DNA acts like a record of human ancestry.

Types of DNA Used

Scientists mainly use:

EXAM TIP: High mitochondrial DNA diversity does not mean a
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) population is more evolved.

Unlike normal DNA, It indicates that: the population has existed for longer, has accumulated
more mutations, and is likely to be closer to the ancestral human
Mitochondrial DNA: population.

All modern human populations are equally evolved; evolution does not
• is found inside mitochondria
have a "more" or "less" evolved endpoint. This is a common
• is inherited only from the mother misconception that examiners often test.
• does not undergo recombination
• changes very slowly through mutations

Because it changes slowly, scientists can trace family history backwards over thousands of generations.

**Grandmother = Mother = Child (mtDNA passes only through mothers)

Why is mtDNA Useful?

Since mitochondrial DNA:

• remains relatively unchanged

• accumulates mutations slowly

scientists can compare DNA from people around the world.

People who share older mutations are more closely related to ancient populations.

The Out of Africa Theory

The Out of Africa Theory states that Homo sapiens evolved in Africa and later migrated to the rest of the
world, replacing earlier hominin populations.

This theory is supported by:

17 Evolution Lesson Summary

 • fossil evidence
• anatomical evidence
• genetic evidence

Why Did Humans Leave Africa?

Scientists believe Homo sapiens migrated because of:

➢ searching for food

➢ following animals
➢ climate change
➢ curiosity and exploration
➢ improved hunting technology
➢ better tools and weapons

Why Were Homo sapiens Successful?

Compared to other hominins, Homo sapiens had:

➢ better communication
➢ improved tools
➢ greater intelligence
➢ better cooperation
➢ ability to adapt quickly

These advantages allowed them to:

➢ survive new environments

➢ compete successfully
➢ eventually replace many earlier hominin populations.

Evidence Supporting the Out of Africa Theory

Evidence Explanation

Fossils The oldest Homo sapiens fossils are found in Africa.

Genetic studies African populations show the greatest genetic diversity.

Mitochondrial DNA mtDNA can be traced back to African maternal ancestors.

Ancient mutations The oldest human genetic lineages occur in Africa, including among Indigenous southern
African populations.

Genetic evolution vs Cultural Evolution

Genetic Evolution Cultural Evolution

Involves changes in DNA Involves changes in behaviour
Passed on through genes Passed on through teaching and learning

18 Evolution Lesson Summary

Controlled by natural Controlled by communication and practice
selection
Takes many generations Can happen very quickly
Affects populations Can occur within an individual's lifetime and spread through groups
Permanent genetic change Behaviour can change rapidly (e.g. fashion, language, technology)
Explained by Darwin's theory Resembles the inheritance of acquired behaviours through social learning
of natural selection (historically contrasted with Lamarckian ideas, though it is not genetic
inheritance)

Practice Question 4 (19)

**Use evidence together.

Scientists draw conclusions about human evolution by combining fossil, anatomical, genetic and cultural
evidence. No single type of evidence tells the complete story.

Investigating Cultural Evolution

An archaeologist investigated four caves containing evidence of early Homo sapiens.

Cave Age of Artefacts (years) Stone Tools Jewellery Cave Art Burial Site
A (South Africa) 70 000 ✓ ✓ ✗ ✗
B (France) 16 000 ✓ ✗ ✓ ✓
C 35 000 ✓ ✗ ✗ ✓
D 10 000 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

The archaeologist wanted to determine whether cultural complexity increased during human evolution.

1. State the:
a. Aim of the investigation. (2)
b. Independent variable. (1)
c. Dependent variable. (1)
2. Which cave provides the oldest evidence of symbolic behaviour?
Give ONE reason. (2)
3. Explain why jewellery is regarded as evidence of symbolic thought. (3)
4. Which TWO pieces of evidence suggest that Homo sapiens developed complex societies? (2)
5. Why can't fossils alone determine when humans first developed symbolic thinking? (2)
6. Using the information provided, explain why the discoveries at Blombos Cave are important. (4)
7. Give ONE limitation of using cultural evidence to study human evolution. (2)

Practice Question 5

Investigating Mitochondrial DNA and the Out of Africa Theory

Scientists collected mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) samples from four human populations around the
world.

They determined the average number of unique mitochondrial DNA mutations found in each population.

19 Evolution Lesson Summary

 Population Location Average number of mtDNA mutations
A Southern Africa 94
B East Africa 89
C Europe 61
D Asia 57
The scientists proposed the following hypothesis:

Modern humans originated in Africa before migrating to other parts of the world.

1. State the:
a. Aim of the investigation. (2)
b. Hypothesis being tested. (2)
c. Independent variable. (1)
d. Dependent variable. (1)
2. Why did scientists use mitochondrial DNA instead of ordinary nuclear DNA? (3)
3. Identify the population that is most likely to contain the oldest human genetic lineages. (1)
4. Explain why African populations generally contain more mitochondrial DNA variation than
populations outside Africa. (4)
5. Draw a conclusion from the results. (2)
6. Apart from genetic evidence, name TWO other types of evidence supporting the Out of Africa
Theory. (2)

20 Evolution Lesson Summary