CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
Academic performance of students remains a critical indicator of the quality and effectiveness of
the education system. Academic performance is the extent to which students have attained their
short or long-term educational goals. Yusuf and Bello (2016) defined academic performance as
an observable and measurable behaviour of a student within a specified period. Academic
performance, according to Leung and Lee (2012), refers to a student’s capacity for achieving
high grades and benchmark test scores in academic courses, particularly those that are a
component of the core academic curriculum.
Academic performance is undoubtedly a research after the heart of educators, teachers,
psychologists, policy makers, parents and guardians, social workers, etc. In their attempts to
investigate what determines academic outcomes of learners, they have come with more
questions than answers. Prior literature has shown that learning outcomes (academic
achievement and academic performance) have been determined by such variables as; family,
schools, society and motivation factors (Aremu and Jokan, 2003; Aremu and Oluwole, 2001).
Despite the seeming exhaustiveness of literature on the determinant of academic performance
of learners, there seems to be more areas of interest to be investigated. This becomes obvious in
view of the continuous interest of researchers; and continuous attention of government and
policy makers and planners.
Academic performance, especially of senior secondary school students has been largely
associated with many factors such as socio-economic status (SES) of parents, teacher quality,
school facilities, and individual abilities (Chinyaka and Mugwevi, 2020). Most students in senior
secondary schools in Nigeria are daily confronted with challenges of coping with academic
under serious emotional strains occasioned by long walk to school, poor school environment,
and being taught by unmotivated teachers. Couple with this, is an uncooperative-to-study
attitude of parents who more often toil to provide for the needs of the family. These would
definitely not augur well for academic success.
Parents play a crucial role in the academic success of their children. Naite (2021) revealed that
parents exert a significant influence on the academic performance of their children because of
their authority and they must shape and develop their children into motivated, inspired and
learned people. Parents lay the foundation for the desired social, moral, emotional, spiritual and
intellectual wellbeing of their children. Adedapo et’al (2013) reaffirmed that the training children
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receive from home is of greatest importance in their total personality formation and their
academic performance.
It has been observed that the falling academic standard and the influencing factors include the
economic status of the parent. Owing to the present economic situation in the country, many
poor parents are forced by circumstance to saddle the young ones with chores like hawking,
clearing the house and doing other menial jobs around the house before going to school and
after school hours. Domestic chores like these no doubt help to train the children and make
them realize that they can and should contribute their own quota to the general upkeep of the
family. However, when parents and guardians burden their children with work excessively,
leaving little or no study time for the children, their school work is bound to suffer (Akanle, 2007).
Danesty and Otediran (2002) lamented that street hawking among young school students have
psychologically imposed other problems like sex, networking behaviour, juvenile delinquent
behaviour, which takes much of the student school time that necessitated the poor academic
performance and drop out syndrome noticed among young school students. Nevertheless, they
also lamented that the maternal and paternal deprivation of the essential needs of the young
students have prompted their poor performance in public examinations, such as Junior
Secondary School Certificate (JSSC), West African Examination Council (WAEC) and National
Examination Council (NECO).
Socio-economic status may be defined in terms of economic and social aspects of one’s life. In
relation to that, Palta et al. (2015) mentioned that socio economic status is an economic and
sociological combined total measure of a person’s work experience, an individual’s or family’s
access to economic resources and social position in relation to others. Socio economic status is
a comprehensive measure that includes a person’s economic and social position in relation to
others based on income, education and occupation which influence access to resources
(Wikipedia, 2024). Therefore, socio economic status is a term used to describe the class standing
of an individual or group. It is measured by a number of factors including income, occupation
and education (Oakes and Rossi, 2013).
Education being an input-based commodity requires the provision that has to be acquired at a
cost. Parental level of income may have a direct influence on students’ academic performance.
Similarly, Kibai (2018) posited that children from poor backgrounds may lack school fees, books,
uniforms and other essential school materials and thus negatively affect their academic
performance. Drajea and O’sullivan (2020) also established that parents whose level of income
was high were able to give their children higher levels of academic support and vice versa.
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Parental education may also influence students’ academic performance. Ahmad (2013) posited
that educated parents provide intellectual, economical, psychological and emotional support to
their children who in turn make them to be more comfortable and adjusted in their learning
development. Ahmad (2013) also stated that parents with a good educational background would
be in a good position to be second teachers to their children. Therefore, parents with good
education provide a most conducive home environment for their children to study.
The nature of parent occupation may affect the performance of a student significantly too. This
is supported by Ajayi et’al (2020) who revealed that occupation of parents to an extent
determined the level of resources which parents will be able to invest in their children’s
education. Thus, parental occupation is considered to determine access to learning
opportunities and resources for children. Parents with high-income occupation levels have
better occupation and resources to offer material support for their children's education. Also,
students of parents with occupations that give them time to attend to the child's education in
terms of helping with assignments tend to perform better than those whose parents barely have
time to assist them.
Ipay (1996) in the same vein reiterated the effects of the economic status of parents on the
Nigerian child. According to him, poverty syndrome imposed by economic crunch,
maladministration, corruption and emergency closure of firms, has imposed hardship among
parents/workers. They in turn have not been able to provide adequately for the basic
fundamental, social and academic needs of the students. Many students have abandoned school
to engage in commercial sex or child labour to make ends meet to support self and others. By
this, they spend more time on these activities than schooling; this has a terrible effect on their
academic performance in their school work and public examination.
School sector (public or private) and class size are two important structural components of
schools in which the economic status of parent would determine the one they could afford.
Private schools tend to have both better funding and smaller class sizes than public schools. The
additional funding of private schools leads to better academic performance and more access to
resources such as computers which have shown to enhance academic achievement (Crosnoe,
Johnson, Elder, 2004; and Eamon, 2005). Smaller class sizes create more inmate settings and
therefore can increase teacher-student bonding which has also been shown to have a positive
effect on students’ success. Students from low economic backgrounds who attend poorly
funded schools do not perform as well as students from higher economic classes (Crosnoe et al.,
2004; Eamon, 2005). This trend is posing huge problems to parents, government, political
parties and stakeholders in education.
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As it was revealed that the quality of parents-income and home background of a student goes a
long way to predict the quality and regularity of the satisfaction and provision of a child’s
functional survival and academic needs, another major factor to be considered when it comes to
student academic performance are the school factors. It has been established that the
educational process of development of a child takes place in the physical, social, cultural, and
psychological environments (Lawrence and Vimala 2012). According to Lawrence and Vimala
(2012), a suitable setting is crucial for a child’s learning to be successful. Both the home and the
school offer the correct stimuli for the learning process. The majority of the student’s time is
spent in school, where the environment has a different impact on learning thanks to the curricula,
instructional methods, and peer relationships.
As the school is where children spend the most of their time, the teacher should ensure a
healthy environment there. Since children adopt the values and customs of the social group they
live in, a healthy social environment is essential for their growth. Kids can express their interests,
preferences, and views freely in a positive social setting. The development of good, healthy, and
sensible behaviors and attitudes in children depends on the classroom environment. The school
environment encompasses both tangible and intangible resources, such as teachers, students,
relationships, subjects, and instructional methods. Enhancing learning and fostering students’
pride in their schools and enthusiasm in continuing their education are all benefits of a healthy
and appealing school environment (Afuwape and Adeyi, 2019).
Belanger (2011) argues that learning is more than just imparting knowledge, and that learners’
aspirations to learn, their curiosities, and their preference to increase their own competency are
all greatly influenced by the communities in which they live. Not merely, the setting in which
people live or learn has an impact on how people learn throughout their educational lives,
Nwizu (2013) asserts that a student’s capacity to think critically is greatly influenced by the
environment in which they acquire knowledge.
The location of a school whether urban, semi-urban, or rural plays a pivotal role in determining
students’ academic performance. This concern has attracted the attention of many educators
and researchers, particularly in developing countries like Nigeria, where systemic inequalities in
the distribution of resources are common. According to Ememe (2018), various institutional and
environmental factors such as the quality of teaching staff, class size, infrastructure, and access
to learning materials are key determinants of student achievement. These factors are not
uniformly distributed across locations, which often results in significant disparities between
urban and rural schools.
The environment in which a child is raised strongly influences their cognitive and academic
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development. Okonkwo (2016) argues that students in rural areas are disproportionately affected
by poor educational outcomes due to the unequal distribution of both material and human
resources necessary for effective teaching and learning. Schools in rural communities often face
challenges such as inadequate classrooms, lack of laboratories and libraries, poor road networks,
and limited access to electricity and digital technologies. These deficiencies create an
unconducive learning environment and place students at a distinct disadvantage compared to
their urban counterparts.
Urban areas, on the other hand, tend to provide students with greater exposure to educational
and developmental opportunities. Ajeh (2009) explains that society is divided into upper, middle,
and lower socio-economic classes, with the upper and middle classes often concentrated in
urban areas enjoying better access to quality education, mass media, libraries, and
extracurricular activities. These advantages facilitate more robust academic development. Urban
students are also more likely to be supported by educated parents, who can provide homework
assistance, enforce academic discipline, and engage with school activities. Additionally,
proximity to learning centers, tutorial services, and educational interventions gives urban
learners a significant academic edge.
However, urban schools are not immune to challenges. The high rate of enrollment in many
urban public secondary schools often leads to overcrowded classrooms, pressure on facilities,
and the implementation of shift systems to manage congestion (Okeke, 2013). This overcrowding
can reduce the effectiveness of teaching and compromise student-teacher interactions. Despite
these issues, urban schools generally perform better academically than their rural counterparts,
largely due to more consistent access to qualified and motivated teachers, as well as better
access to educational infrastructure (Ememe, 2018).
One of the most crucial environmental factors influencing academic achievement is the quality
of the teaching staff. In many rural secondary schools, there is a shortage of qualified teachers,
and staffing is often characterized by low morale, poor training, and irregular attendance.
Conversely, urban schools typically attract more qualified teachers due to better living
conditions, proximity to professional development opportunities, and the availability of support
services. The shortage of qualified educators in rural areas contributes significantly to the
performance gap observed between rural and urban students.
In the Nigerian context, particularly in places like Akinyele Local Government Area of Oyo State,
the disparities are evident. While some schools are located in relatively developed areas with
moderate access to resources, many others are situated in remote or underdeveloped
communities where infrastructure is poor and educational support is minimal. These schools
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struggle with limited teaching staff, inadequate learning materials, poor maintenance of facilities,
and insufficient government support. Moreover, students in these areas often come from low-
income households, further compounding the educational disadvantages they face.
Thus, both school location and socio-economic background exert a combined and interacting
influence on students’ academic outcomes. Urban students benefit from exposure to better
learning conditions, professional teachers, and parental support, while rural students are often
hindered by systemic neglect, limited resources, and socio-economic hardship. Understanding
the extent and nature of these influences is essential for developing targeted interventions that
promote equity in education and ensure that all students, regardless of location, have the
opportunity to succeed academically.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Despite government efforts to enhance public education in Nigeria, student performance in
public secondary schools remains subpar, particularly in core subjects, as shown by WAEC and
NECO results in Oyo State. While previous studies have examined either parental socio-
economic status or school factors, few have explored their combined impact, especially in rural
or semi-urban areas like Akinyele LGA. Many public schools in the area face challenges such as
poor infrastructure, overcrowded classrooms, lack of learning materials, and unmotivated staff.
These issues, along with socio-economic hardships at home, may significantly hinder student
achievement. However, their joint effect on academic performance in Akinyele LGA remains
under-researched.
1.3 Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of parental socio-economic status
and school factors on students’ academic performance in public secondary schools. Specifically,
the study seeks to:
i. Examine the relationship between parental socio-economic status and students’ academic
performance in public secondary schools, focusing on how income level, educational
background, and occupation of parents shape learning outcomes.
ii. Determine the extent to which school infrastructural facilities influence academic
performance, particularly the availability of classrooms, libraries, laboratories, and teaching
materials.
iii. Assess the role of teacher quality on student academic achievement, considering teacher
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qualifications, experience, competence, and commitment to effective teaching.
iv. Investigate the effect of class size and school population on students’ academic performance,
analyzing how overcrowding or manageable class sizes contribute to learning effectiveness.
v. Explore the combined and interactive effects of socio-economic status and school factors on
student academic outcomes, rather than examining them in isolation.
vi. Identify disparities in academic performance between students from different socio-
economic backgrounds and how these differences are either reduced or widened by the
school environment.
vii. Provide evidence-based recommendations for policy makers, school administrators, and
parents on how to address socio-economic and school-related challenges that hinder
student academic success.
viii. Contribute to the body of knowledge on educational inequality in Nigeria, with a specific
focus on how home background and school context jointly influence academic achievement
in public secondary schools.
1.4 Research Questions
The following research questions are raised for the study:
1. What is the socio-economic status of parents of students in public secondary schools in
Akinyele Local Government Area, Oyo State?
2. What is the relationship between the socio-economic status of parents and student
academic performance in selected public secondary schools in Akinyele Local
Government Area, Oyo State?
3. How do school-related factors influence student academic performance in selected
public secondary schools in Akinyele Local Government Area, Oyo State?
1.5 Hypotheses
The null hypotheses formulated to guide the research questions are:
H01: There is no significant relationship between parental socio-economic status and student
academic performance in selected public secondary schools.
H02: There is no significant relationship between school factors and student academic
performance in selected public secondary schools.
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1.6 Significance of the Study
The findings will be valuable to several key stakeholders in the education sector.
i. Educational policymakers will benefit from the study by gaining evidence-based
insights into the socio-economic and institutional challenges that affect
academic outcomes. This will enable them to design more targeted interventions
and allocate resources more effectively to schools in disadvantaged areas.
ii. School administrators and teachers will also find the study useful in identifying
internal school factors that influence student’s academic performance.
iii. Parents and guardians, especially those in low-income communities, will benefit
from increased awareness of how their socio-economic status and home support
impact their children’s learning. This could encourage more parental involvement
in education, regardless of income or education level.
iv. Researchers and academics will find the study a useful addition to existing
literature, particularly because it addresses a gap by focusing on the combined
effects of home and school environments in a rural and semi-urban Nigerian
context.
v. Finally, students themselves stand to benefit as the findings of the study may
lead to improved learning conditions, better support systems, and more inclusive
education policies tailored to their needs.
1.7 Scope of the Study
The study will be conducted in 10 selected public secondary schools in Akinyele Local
Government Area. It will focus on SS2 students, parents, and teachers. The scope includes socio
-economic variables such as income, education, and occupation, and school-related variables
such as infrastructure and teacher quality.
1.8 Operational Definition of Terms
The following are the definitions of the terms used in this study:
Student Academic Performance: This refers to the measurable outcomes of students’ learning
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activities, assessed through scores in examinations, class tests, and overall grades in core
subjects such as Mathematics, English, and Science in public secondary schools.
Socio-Economic Status (SES) of Parents: This represents the social and economic standing of
students’ parents or guardians, measured by indicators such as income level, educational
qualification, and occupational status.
School Factors: These are institutional elements within the school environment that influence
student learning. For this study, it includes teacher quality, availability of learning materials,
classroom size, infrastructure, and school leadership.
Parental Educational Attainment: This refers to the highest level of formal education completed
by a student’s parent or guardian, categorized as no formal education, primary, secondary, or
tertiary education.
Teacher Quality: The professional competence of teachers as reflected in their academic
qualifications, teaching experience, subject mastery, and ability to deliver effective instruction.
Infrastructure: Refers to the fundamental programs and services required for an organization to
function properly. This study’s primary focus was on the school’s physical infrastructure,
including the lab, library, administration building, restrooms, and classrooms.