MAN 314 Semester Test:

Chapter 2:

2.5 What is the philosophy of social science?

1. Ontology – What reality is

2. Epistemology – how can we know reality
3. Methodology / research strategy – best way to do research based on the ontological and
epistemological assumptions

2.6 Ontology:

Explains the nature of reality – what is reality?

 Are social phenomena objective and independent of social actors?

 Are social phenomena ‘made real’ from the perceptions of social actors?

1. Objectivism?
Ontological viewpoint that states that social phenomena and their meanings exist
independently of social actors.
Independent of people.
Objective
Observes facts.

2. Constructionism?
Argues that reality is constructed by people through social interactions.
Truth is subjective and can vary depending on culture, experience, and context.
Meaning is created through language, relationships, and shared understanding.

2.7 Epistemology:
How do we know that reality?

1. Positivism?
Based on the idea that knowledge should come from observable and measurable facts.
Relies on science, data, and statistics.
Researchers stay objective and independent from what they study.

E.g., Measuring customer satisfaction using surveys and numerical ratings.

2. Realism?
Believes that reality exists independently, but we may not fully understand it.
Combines both objective reality and human interpretation.
Accepts that there are hidden factors influencing what we observe.
 E.g., A drop in sales may be real (objective), but the reasons (customer feelings, perceptions)
require interpretation.

3. Interpretivism?
Reality is subjective (different for each person)
Focuses on meanings, feelings, and perspectives
Researchers interact with participants to gain deep insights
Uses qualitative methods (e.g., interviews, observations, case studies)

E.g., A positivist would measure sales, profits, and growth

An interpretivist would explore:
 How the owner feels about their business
 What success means to them
 Their personal experiences and challenges
Methods used:
 Interviews
 Focus groups
 Observations
 Open-ended questions

Aspect Interpretivism Realism Positivism

Understanding human Understanding reality (even if Measuring observable

Main focus
meanings & experiences not fully observable) facts

Subjective (multiple Objective reality exists but Objective and fully

View of reality
realities) imperfectly understood measurable

Nature of Based on reality + Based on observation

Based on interpretation
knowledge interpretation and measurement

Research
Qualitative Mixed methods Quantitative
approach

Research Interviews, observations, Surveys + interviews, mixed Experiments, surveys,

methods case studies data statistics

Role of Involved, interacts with Somewhat independent but Fully independent and
researcher participants acknowledges limits objective

Goal of Understand meanings and Discover laws, patterns,

Explain reality more deeply
research experiences and facts

2.9 Research strategies: Quantitative, Qualitative or Mixed

1. Quantitative research:
  Deductive approach
 Uses positivism and natural sciences
 Views social reality as an external, objective reality.

2. Qualitative research: rejects positivism and emphasizes:

 Inductive approach
 How individuals interpret their social world
 Social reality constantly shifts as individuals create it
 Words and images, when collecting data

3. Mixed methods:

2.10 Other influences on the conduct of business research:

1. Personal Values – beliefs or feelings/preferences

Can influence:
 Choice of research area
 Choice of literature to be reviewed
 Formulation of research questions
 Choice of research method
 Formulation of research design and data collection techniques
 Data collection
 analysis of data
 conclusions

Buchanan and Bryman (2007) identified six types of factors that influence the choice of
methods in organizational research:

1. Organizational (access, gatekeepers, internal politics)

2. Historical (previous research, norms in the discipline)

3. Political (power play, sensitivity, stakeholder interests)

4. Ethical (protection of participants, confidentiality, data protection)

5. Evidential (what type of evidence do you need? Stas/rich data)

6. Personal (researcher skills & training, preferences)

 2. The politics of business research:
Research is guided by hidden rules. In business research, studies are published after peer
review, often involving multiple revisions and a lengthy process.

3. Practical considerations:
Research approach depends on the question: use quantitative for causes, qualitative for
perspectives.

2.11 Criteria in business research:

1 Reliability:
 Determines whether results of study are repeatable
 Important in quantitative research
 E.g., IQ level tests should be more or less the same – reliable

2. Replication:
 When a study is repeated to test if its questionnaire is applicable and valid in a
different context

3. Validity:
 The integrity of the conclusions generated from the research
 Types of validity:
 Internal validity: Internal validity checks if a study’s claimed cause-and-
effect relationship is trustworthy—whether the independent variable
truly causes changes in the dependent variable.
 External validity: External validity is about whether study results can
apply to other people or settings beyond the research sample.
 Ecological validity: Ecological validity checks if research reflects people’s
real-life conditions. Lincoln and Guba suggest evaluating qualitative
research using:
 Credibility → believable findings (like internal validity)
 Transferability → applicable to other contexts (like external
validity)
 Dependability → consistent over time (like reliability)
 Confirmability → objective, not biased by researcher values

Chapter 3:

3.2 The nature of quantitative research:

 1. The main steps in quantitative research

3.3 The nature of qualitative research:

Chapter 4:

4.2.4 Problems with the quantitative/qualitative contrast

Table 3.2:
4.3.3 Different types of mixed methods design

Here’s a concise overview of the main types of mixed methods designs:

1. Convergent Parallel Design

o What it is: Quantitative and qualitative data are collected simultaneously, analyzed
separately, and then compared or merged.

o Purpose: To see if the two types of data converge or tell the same story.

o Example: Survey results on student satisfaction (quantitative) and interview insights

(qualitative) are compared to get a fuller picture.

2. Exploratory Sequential Design

o What it is: Qualitative data is collected first to explore a phenomenon, then

quantitative data is collected to test or generalize the findings.

o Purpose: To use qualitative insights to inform quantitative measurement.

o Example: Interviews with small business owners to identify challenges, then a survey
designed based on those insights to reach a larger population.

3. Explanatory Sequential Design

 o What it is: Quantitative data is collected first, followed by qualitative data to
explain or interpret the quantitative results.

o Purpose: To clarify why the numbers, look the way they do.

o Example: A survey shows low employee engagement scores, followed by interviews

to understand the reasons behind the scores.

4. Embedded Mixed Methods Design

o What it is: One method (qualitative or quantitative) plays a supportive role within a
study primarily guided by the other method.

o Purpose: To provide additional insights without fully integrating two equal methods.

o Example: In a primarily quantitative clinical trial, patient interviews are embedded

to understand personal experiences with treatment.

Chapter 6:

6.4 Searching databases:

1. Information sources on the internet (websites or literature from varsity library)
2. Electronic databases (e-journals)

6.5 Avoiding plagiarism

 Plagiarize- ‘taking’ the work of someone else and passing it off as your own.
 Cite the source
 It is possible to ‘self-plagiarise’ if you take your old work and reproduce it
 6.6 Referencing your work:
 Also sometimes called a ‘citation’ and the act of refencing is called ‘citing’
 When paraphrasing, add the surname of author and year of publication
IMMEDIATELY.

Chapter 7:

7.6 Developing suitable research questions:

 Research questions help you focus on what you want to know about your area of interest.
 Type of research question you ask depends on your planned research strategy/method –
your ontological and epistemological assumptions about how the social world should be
studied.
 Open ended research is risky – leads to collecting too much data and confusion
 Ask yourself:
7.7 Writing your research proposal:

7.8 Developing an integrated research proposal: