Basic Aerodynamics

UNIT: 01

Physics of the Atmosphere

Aviation
➢ Aviation is the science, art, technology, operation, and maintenance of aircraft used
for transportation, defense, training, recreation, and many other purposes.
➢ The word Aviation is derived from the Latin word "Avis," which means bird, as the
idea of human flight was inspired by birds.

Major Branches of Aviation

1. Civil Aviation – Commercial airlines, cargo operations, private flying, business

aviation, training, and charter services.
2. Military Aviation – Air force operations, defense, surveillance, transport, and combat
missions.
 Aerodynamics
➢ Aerodynamics is the branch of science that studies the motion of air and the
interaction between air and moving objects, especially aircraft.
➢ The word Aerodynamics is derived from two words:

• Aero = Air
• Dynamics = Motion or forces

Aircraft
➢ An aircraft is a vehicle or machine that is capable of flying in the Earth's atmosphere
by obtaining support from the air.
➢ Aircraft: -Any machine or object which drives through air.

MAJOR COMPONENTS OF A CONVENTIONAL

AIRCRAFT
The five major structural components are:

1. Fuselage – Main body of the aircraft that accommodates the cockpit, passengers,
cargo, and equipment.
2. Wings – Produce aerodynamic lift.
3. Empennage (Tail Unit) – Provides stability and control.
4. Powerplant – Produces thrust.
5. Landing Gear – Supports the aircraft during taxiing, take-off, and landing
6. Flight controls: - primary flight controlling surface are Elevators, Aileron, Rudder
7. Stabilizers: - vertical stability & horizontal stabilizer
Classification of Aircraft
 Flight Operations:
Aircraft taxiing
Taxiing is the controlled movement of an aircraft on the ground under its own
engine power. It occurs before take-off (taxi out) and after landing (taxi in).
During taxiing, the aircraft moves between the parking stand, apron, hangar,
and runway while following air traffic control (atc) instructions.
Towing of aircraft
Aircraft towing is the process of moving an aircraft on the ground without using
its own engines, by using a tow tractor (tug) or towbarless tug. It is commonly
performed to move the aircraft between the hangar, maintenance area, parking
stand, and runway.
Takeoff
take-off is the phase in which the aircraft accelerates on the runway until it
becomes airborne.
Climb
Continuous ascent from initial climb altitude to cruising altitude.
Cruise
cruise is the longest phase of flight where the aircraft flies at constant altitude
and speed.
Descent
controlled reduction of altitude before landing.
Approach
the aircraft aligns with the runway for landing.
Landing
landing is the controlled return of the aircraft to the runway.
Alphabets of aviation:-

A. Alpha
B. Bravo
C. Charlie
D. Delta
E. Echo
F. Fostered
G. Gulf
H. Hotel
I. India
J. Juliet
K. Kilo
L. Lima
M. Mike
N. November
O. Oscar
P. Papa
Q. Qubic
R. Romio
S. Shiara
T. Tango
U. Uniform
V. Vector
W. Whisky
X. X-Ray
Y. Yanki
Z. Zulu
 AERODYNAMICS:
• It is branch of science which deals with study of motion of air ,
interaction of air to any solid body.
• It is the study any flying object.
• It is the study of construction of aircraft and their parts and their
construction.
• There are two types of dynamics: -
a) Fluid dynamics
b) Gas dynamics

Physics
➢ Mass:- The quantity of matter in that object.
Unit of matter is Kg and lb (Pounds)
1 lb = 0.4556 Kg
➢ Weight :- It is measure of pull of gravity acting on a mass of object.
F= ma (by Newton’s second law)
wt = mg ( g= 9.8 m/s2 =322 Ft/s2)
➢ Attraction:-It is a force acting mutually between particles of matter
which tends to drawn them together.
➢ Momentum: - It is the product of mass and velocity of that object.
P= mv
➢ Force = It is a intensity of stimulance or intensity of input. Its unit is
Newton (N) or Pound (lb).
Force =Rate of change of momentum
We measure a trust of an engine in pound (lb).
➢ Work:- It is done where a resistance is overcome by force acting through
measurable distance .
Its unit is Nm or Joule.
W= F*s
work done is a scalar quantity. Because product of 2 vector
quantity is scalar.
➢ Energy:- Energy is capacity to do work
1. Potential energy = m*g*h
2. Kinetic energy K.E = ½ m*v 2
➢ Power :- A rate of work done. It’s unit is Watt (W) or J/s.
1 Hp = 550 lb/s = 33000 lb/m
=375 m lb/hr (m= miles )
=746 watt (W)
➢ Torque = Force acting along distance which creates twisting and tries to
make something rotate .
T=F*d
Torque=Force*Distance
 PRESSURE
1. Atmospheric pressure is the force exerted by the weight of the air
pressing down on the Earth's surface.
2. Since weight is a force, when this force acts over a given area, it
produces pressure. The relationship between force, pressure, and area is:
3. Force (F) = Pressure (P) × Area (A)
F=P×A
4. Atmospheric pressure is commonly expressed in pounds per square
inch (psi).
5. Under standard sea-level conditions, the atmospheric pressure is 14.7
psi.
6. Atmospheric pressure is measured using an instrument called a
barometer.
7. A mercury barometer consists of a glass tube filled with mercury, and it
measures atmospheric pressure in inches of mercury (inHg or "Hg).
8. In aviation, altimeters and many U.S. weather reports use inches of
mercury (inHg) as the standard unit of atmospheric pressure.
9. Many modern aircraft instruments and meteorological systems also
express atmospheric pressure in millibars (mb) or hectopascals (hPa),
which are SI metric units. (1 hPa = 1 mb)
10. Atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude.
 Density
➢ Density is defined as the mass per unit volume of a substance. In
aviation, air density refers to the amount of air contained within a given
volume.
➢ Since air is a compressible mixture of gases, its density changes with
variations in pressure and temperature.
Effect of Pressure on Density

• When air is compressed into a smaller space, its pressure increases,

causing more air molecules to occupy the same volume.
• As a result, higher pressure produces higher air density.
• For example, if one container has twice the air pressure of another
identical container, the air in the first container is twice as dense and
occupies only half the volume for the same quantity of air.

Laws Governing Air Density

1. Density is directly proportional to pressure.

i. Higher Pressure → Higher Density

ii. Lower Pressure → Lower Density

2. Density is inversely proportional to temperature.

i. Higher Temperature → Lower Density

ii. Lower Temperature → Higher Density
 Humidity
• Humidity is the amount of water vapour present in the atmosphere.
• The amount of water vapour that air can hold depends on its
temperature.
• Warmer air can hold more water vapour, while colder air can hold
less.

Types of Humidity

1. Absolute Humidity

• Absolute humidity is the actual mass (weight) of water vapour present

in a unit volume of air.
• It is usually expressed in grams per cubic metre (g/m³).

2. Relative Humidity (RH)

• Relative humidity is the percentage ratio of the amount of water vapour

actually present in the air to the maximum amount the air can hold at the
same temperature and pressure.
• 100% Relative Humidity indicates that the air is fully saturated and
cannot hold additional moisture.

Effect of Humidity on Air Density

• Air density decreases as humidity increases, provided the temperature

and pressure remain constant.
• This is because water vapour is lighter than dry air. When water
vapour replaces some of the heavier gases (mainly nitrogen and oxygen),
the overall air becomes less dense.

Effect of Humidity on Aircraft Performance

• On humid days, the air is less dense, which results in:

➢ Reduced engine performance.

➢ Reduced propeller efficiency.
➢ Reduced wing lift.
➢ Increased take-off distance.
➢ Reduced climb performance.

• Therefore, aircraft generally require a longer runway for take-off on

humid days than on dry days.
 Specific Gravity (SG)
1. Specific Gravity (SG) is the ratio of the density of a substance to the
density of water at a specified temperature.
2. It indicates whether a substance is heavier or lighter than water.

Specific Gravity = Density of Substance ÷ Density of Water

Hydrometer – Used for liquids such as aviation fuel, lubricating oil, and
battery electrolyte.

Examples

Substance Specific Gravity Observation

(Approx.)
Water 1.00 Reference
substance
Aviation Gasoline 0.68 – 0.74 Floats on water
(Avgas)
Jet Fuel (Jet A-1) 0.78 – 0.84 Floats on water
Engine Oil 0.85 – 0.95 Floats on water
Mercury 13.6 Sinks in water
 Viscosity
Viscosity is the measure of a fluid's resistance to flow due to internal friction
between its molecules. In simple words, viscosity indicates how easily or
difficultly a fluid flow.

Types of Viscosity

1. Dynamic (Absolute) Viscosity

• It measures the internal resistance of a fluid to flow.

• SI Unit: Pascal-second (Pa·s)

2. Kinematic Viscosity

• It is the ratio of dynamic viscosity to fluid density.

Examples
Fluid Viscosity
Water Low viscosity (flows easily)
Petrol Low viscosity
Engine Oil High viscosity
Honey Very high viscosity
 Newton’s Laws of motion

1)Law of inertia: - An object at rest remains at rest, and an object in motion

continues to move in a straight line at constant velocity unless acted upon by an
external unbalanced force.
Aircraft Example

• An aircraft parked on the runway remains stationary until engine thrust

is applied.
• During flight, an aircraft continues moving forward due to inertia unless
forces such as drag or pilot control inputs change its motion.

2) Law of momentum: - The rate of change of momentum of a body is

directly proportional to the applied force and occurs in the direction of that
force.
Force (F) = Mass (m) × Acceleration (a)

F = ma

Aircraft Example

• Increasing engine thrust causes the aircraft to accelerate along the runway
during take-off.
• A fully loaded aircraft accelerates more slowly than a lightly loaded
aircraft when the same engine thrust is applied.

3)Law of action: -Every action has equal and opposite reaction

Aircraft Example

• A jet engine pushes hot exhaust gases backward (action).

• The gases push the aircraft forward with an equal and opposite force
called thrust (reaction).
 Pascal’s law
Pressure applied to a confined fluid is transmitted equally and undiminished in
all directions throughout the fluid and acts at right angles to the walls of the
container.

Applications in Aviation

Pascal's Law is used in the aircraft hydraulic system to operate:

• Aircraft brakes
• Landing gear extension and retraction
• Flaps and slats
• Flight control surfaces
• Nose wheel steering
• Cargo doors and actuators
 BOYLE'S LAW

At constant temperature, the pressure of a fixed mass of gas is inversely

proportional to its volume.

This means that when the pressure increases, the volume decreases, and vice
versa, provided the temperature remains constant.

Applications in Aviation

• Operation of aircraft pneumatic systems.

• Cabin pressurization.
• Oxygen cylinders.
• Shock absorbers (oleo struts).

CHARLES LAW
(a) Constant Volume : At constant volume, the pressure of a gas is directly
proportional to its absolute temperature (Kelvin). (P∝T)
Example

• Heating a sealed gas cylinder increases its pressure.

• Aircraft oxygen cylinders exposed to high temperatures.

(b) Constant Pressure: At constant pressure, the volume of a gas is directly

proportional to its absolute temperature (Kelvin). (V∝T)
Examples

• Hot air balloons.

• Thermal expansion of gases.
• Expansion of heated air inside balloons.

Applications in Aviation

• Aircraft tire pressure changes with temperature.

• Cabin air conditioning and pressurization.
• Gas expansion in pneumatic systems.
• Fuel tank venting due to temperature changes.
 Atmosphere
The atmosphere is the layer of gases surrounding the Earth, held in place by
the Earth's gravitational force. It protects life on Earth, supports weather and
climate, and provides the air necessary for breathing and aircraft flight.

The atmosphere contains the gases required for combustion, respiration,

weather formation, and the generation of lift, making it essential for aviation.

Composition of the Atmosphere

The Earth's atmosphere is composed of the following gases:

Gas Percentage
Nitrogen (N₂) 78%
Oxygen (O₂) 21%
Argon (Ar) 0.93%
Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) 0.04%
Other gases (Neon, Helium, Krypton, etc.) 0.03%

Water vapor is also present and varies from 0% to 4%, depending on weather
conditions and location.

Functions of the Atmosphere

• Provides oxygen for living organisms.

• Protects the Earth from harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
• Burns up most meteoroids before they reach the Earth's surface.
• Regulates the Earth's temperature.
• Produces weather phenomena such as clouds, rain, and wind.
• Provides the air required for aircraft lift and engine combustion.

Importance in Aviation

The atmosphere is essential for aircraft operation because it:

• Generates lift over the wings.

• Supplies oxygen for combustion in aircraft engines.
• Affects aircraft performance, including lift, drag, and engine efficiency.
• Influences weather conditions, visibility, and flight safety.
• Determines air pressure, temperature, and air density, which are
critical for aircraft performance calculations.
Layers of the Atmosphere

1. Troposphere (0–11 km)

• Lowest layer of the atmosphere.
• Weather phenomena occur here.
• Temperature decreases with altitude.
• Upper Boundary: Tropopause (~11 km), which separates the
Troposphere from the Stratosphere.

2. Stratosphere (11–50 km)

• Contains the ozone layer.
• Temperature increases with altitude.
• Upper Boundary: Stratopause (~50 km), separating the Stratosphere
from the Mesosphere.

3. Mesosphere (50–85 km)

• Meteors burn up in this layer.
• Temperature decreases with altitude.
• Upper Boundary: Mesopause (~85 km), separating the Mesosphere
from the Thermosphere.

4. Thermosphere (85–600 km)

• Temperature increases sharply with altitude.
• Contains much of the ionosphere.
• Auroras occur here.
• Gradually transitions into the Exosphere.

5. Exosphere (Above 600 km)

• Outermost atmospheric layer.
• Extremely thin air.
• Gradually merges into outer space.
• Many satellites orbit in this region.
 Layer Altitude Pressure Temperature Approx.
Range Trend Trend Temperature
Troposphere 0 – 11 ⬇️ ⬇️ Decreases +15°C to -56.5°C
km Decreases with altitude
rapidly
Tropopause ~11 km ⬇️ ➖ Nearly -56.5°C
Continues Constant
to
decrease
Stratosphere 11 – 50 ⬇️ ⬆️ Increases with -56.5°C to 0°C
km Decreases altitude
gradually
Stratopause ~50 km ⬇️ ➖ Nearly 0°C
Continues Constant
to
decrease
Mesosphere 50 – 85 ⬇️ Very ⬇️ Decreases 0°C to -90°C
km low with altitude
pressure
Mesopause ~85 km ⬇️ ➖ Coldest -90°C
Extremely Region
low
pressure
Thermosphere 85 – ⬇️ ⬆️ Increases Up to 1500–
600 km Nearly rapidly 2000°C (or higher)
vacuum
Exosphere Above ⬇️ Very High but Can exceed
600 km Almost extremely thin air 2000°C
zero
pressure
International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)
The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) is a standard atmospheric
model established by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
to provide uniform reference values for temperature, pressure, density, and
altitude. It serves as the standard atmosphere for aircraft design, performance
calculations, instrument calibration, and flight operations.

Standard Sea-Level Conditions (ISA)

Parameter Standard Value
Sea-Level Pressure 1013.25 hPa (1013.25 mb)
29.92 inHg
14.7 psi
Sea-Level Temperature 15°C (288.15 K)
Air Density 1.225 kg/m³
Speed of Sound 340.3 m/s (661 knots)
Gravitational Acceleration 9.80665 m/s²

ISA Temperature Lapse Rate

• Temperature decreases at a standard lapse rate of:

1. 6.5∘C per 1000 m or

2. 1.98∘C per 1000 ft

This rate is valid from sea level to 11 km (36,089 ft) in the Troposphere