Physical Metallurgy of Light Metals

and Alloys
(Code: MMT 403)

Module-III: Magnesium Alloys and Titanium Alloys

1
 Physical Metallurgy of Light Metals and Alloys

Syllabus

2
Titanium Alloys: Introduction
Titanium Alloys
Titanium Alloys: Introduction
➢Titanium and its alloys are widely used as structural materials in
the aerospace and chemical industries because of their lower
density combined with high strength and corrosion resistance.
➢The low density of titanium, 4.5 g/cc, as compared with
approximately 7.8 g/cc for steels and superalloys, offers the
possibility of substantial reductions in airframe weight and
increased thrust/weight ratios of their jet engines.
➢As shown in Fig. 20.13, the tensile strength/density ratios of
titanium alloys are considerably higher than those of steels and
aluminum alloys at ordinary temperatures. The yield
strength/density ratios of titanium alloys are also higher than
those of steels and aluminum and magnesium alloys.
➢It is because of this property that titanium alloys have been
widely used instead of iron or nickel-based alloys in aerospace
applications.
FIG. 20.13 Comparison of short-time tensile strength and tensile strength/density ratio
for titanium alloys, three classes of steel, and 2024-T86 aluminum alloys included for
annealed alloys with less than 10 percent elongation or heat-treated alloys with less
than 5 percent elongation.
Titanium Alloys
➢In addition, the high melting point of the metal (1670oC) places
titanium among the refractory metals, making it attractive for
many high temperature applications.
➢However, the chemical behavior of the metal normally limits
the application of titanium alloys to low to moderately elevated
temperatures.
➢At low temperatures, titanium passivates and becomes almost
completely inert to most mineral acids and chlorides.
➢At high temperatures, on the other hand, titanium oxidizes
quickly and its properties are greatly altered by the adsorption of
oxygen interstitials from the air.
➢It should be noted that heating titanium in air results not only
in oxidation but also in dissolution of oxygen and nitrogen in the
surface layers of titanium, causing solid-solution hardening of the
surface.
Titanium Alloys

➢The thickness of the “air contaminated layer” depends on the

temperature as well as the dissolution time.
➢Normally, this layer is removed by machining or other means
prior to using the alloy because the presence of the air
contaminated layer reduces the fatigue strength and ductility.
➢Pure titanium undergoes an allotropic transformation at about
882oC; it changes from the close-packed hexagonal crystal
structure to the body-centered cubic crystal structure.
➢The high-temperature bcc phase, called the beta phase, has a
lattice parameter of 0.332 nm at 9270C and a density of about
4.35 g/cc.
➢For the low-temperature hcp phase, called the alpha phase, a
0.29503 nm, c 0.468312 nm, and c/a 1.5873. The room
temperature density of is 4.507 g/cc.
Titanium Alloys

Characteristics of Titanium
Titanium Alloys
Titanium Alloys

β (BCC)

882oC

α (HCP)
Titanium Alloys
Titanium Alloys
Titanium Alloys
Titanium Alloys

➢The beta to alpha transformation in pure titanium occurs very

easily and cannot be suppressed by rapid quenching.
➢Because of this, it is widely believed that the transformation is
a diffusionless martensitic transformation, rather than one that
is diffusion controlled.
➢Figure 20.14 shows a proposed mechanism by which the bcc
structure transforms to hcp.
➢In order to form the hexagonal cell, it is necessary to change
the angle ABC from 70°32 to 60°.
➢This can be accomplished by a shear on the (112) plane and in
the 111 direction of the bcc structure.
➢Additional contraction and expansion of the cell edges, plus
displacement of the center atom, will then result in the
formation of the hcp structure.
Titanium Alloys

The diffusionless transformation of titanium to titanium. (A) A bcc

unit cell of titanium; (B) an array of the cells shown in (a), with a
potential hcp cell outlined; (C) shear of the cell in (B) into the hcp
cell of titanium.
Titanium Alloys
➢The allotropic phase transformation temperature of titanium
depends strongly on the amount and nature of the alloying elements.
➢Some alloy additions tend to raise the transformation temperature.
These are called alpha (α) [Link] lower this temperature
and are called beta (β) stabilizers.
➢Among the former elements, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and
aluminum are the most important; their phase diagrams are shown
in Fig. 20.15.
➢Carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen are rapidly absorbed by titanium
when the metal is hot, and consequently some of these elements are
expected to be present in all of the commercial grades of titanium.
➢In addition, all of these elements harden and solution strengthen
titanium. Aluminum has significant solubility in both alpha and beta
phases, and because of this, it strengthens both phases.
Titanium Alloys
The elements that lower the transformation temperature and
stabilize can arbitrarily be divided into two classes:
(1)those that undergo eutectoid transformations, such as chromium,
iron, copper, nitrogen, palladium, cobalt, manganese, and
hydrogen, and
(2)those that are isomorphous with at high temperatures and form
equilibrium phases at ordinary temperatures.

Among the latter are molybdenum, tantalum, vanadium and

niobium. These elements have limited solubility in the alpha
phase.
In general, beta stabilizers impart solid-solution hardening to the
beta phase but, in contrast with the alpha stabilizers,
affect the alpha phase very little.
Titanium Alloys

➢Consequently, a combination of alpha and beta stabilizers

➢can be added to the two-phase alpha and beta alloys, in order to
strengthen both phases.

➢Zirconium and hafnium are called sister elements of titanium

because they are isomorphous with both the alpha and beta phases.
Titanium Alloys
Effect of Alloying Elements on Phase Stability
Titanium Alloys
Titanium Alloys
α-Stabilizer
Titanium Alloys
α-Stabilizer
Titanium Alloys
α-Stabilizer
Titanium Alloys
α-Stabilizer
Titanium Alloys
β-Stabilizer
Titanium Alloys
β-Stabilizer
Classification of Titanium Alloys
➢Commercial titanium alloys are classified as “α or near alloys,” “
α+β ” and “β” alloys.
➢Table 20.4 gives a summary of some of these alloys. The table also
lists different grades of commercially pure titanium.
➢It should be noted that the various grades of pure titanium
depend on the impurity content, most notably oxygen and iron.
➢Higher purity grades contain lower levels of interstitials and have
lower strength, hardness, and transformation temperatures than
lower purity grades.
➢As shown in Table 20.4, the yield strength of the unalloyed grades
vary from 170 MPa to 485 MPa, depending on the impurity and
interstitial contents.
➢Unalloyed grades of titanium account for about 30 percent of total
titanium production, as compared with 45 percent for the most
widely used Ti-6Al-4V, and 25 percent for all other remaining alloys.
Titanium Alloys
Classification of Titanium Alloys
Titanium Alloys

Half Alloy
Typically worldwide:
•30% CP-Ti
•45% Ti-6Al-4V
•25% Other
The Alpha Alloys
The Alpha Alloys
➢Alpha alloys contain alpha stabilizers such as Al and Sn, singly or in
combination, and are hcp at ordinary temperatures.
➢Aluminum has a strong solid-solution hardening effect on
➢titanium, as may be seen in Fig. 20.17, but it also reduces the
ductility.
➢The addition of tin also strengthens titanium, however, without a
significant loss of ductility.
➢In many instances, both alloying elements are added together as
in the commercial Ti-5Al-2.5Sn alloy.
➢The titanium alloys are generally categorized by good strength,
toughness, creep resistance, and weldability.
➢However, unlike other titanium alloys, alpha alloys cannot be
strengthened by heat treatment.
➢They are generally annealed or recrystallized to remove residual
stresses induced during cold working.
The Alpha Alloys

➢Alpha alloys containing extra low levels of

interstitials (ELI grades), such as Ti-5Al-
2.5Sn-ELI, retain ductility and toughness at
cryogenic temperatures.
➢Because of the absence of a ductile-brittle
transformation, a property of the bcc structure,
these alpha alloys have been extensively used in
cryogenic applications.
➢Some alpha alloys contain small additions of
beta stabilizers, such as Ti-4Al-1Mo-1V, and
contain some retained beta phase.
➢Nevertheless, since the majority of the alloys
consists of the alpha phase, they behave more
like alpha alloys than alpha-beta alloys.

FIG. 20.17 The hardening of titanium by

aluminum in solid solution.
The Alpha Alloys
The Alpha Alloys
Processing of CP-Ti and Alpha Titanium Alloys
The Alpha Alloys
Hardening of Alpha Alloys
➢The α phase is significantly hardened by the interstitial element
oxygen.
➢Substitutional solid solution hardening of the α phase is caused
mainly by the elements Al, Sn, and Zr which have fairly large
atomic size differences to titanium and also large solid solubilities
in the α phase.
➢Cold working
➢Precipitation hardening of the α phase occurs by coherent Ti3Al
particles above about 5% Al, see Ti-Al phase diagram.
➢These Ti3Al or α2 particles have an ordered hexagonal structure,
crystallographically a DO19 structure, and since they are
coherent, they can be sheared by moving dislocations resulting in
planar slip and extensive dislocation pile-ups against boundaries.
The Alpha Alloys
Processing of CP-Ti and Alpha Titanium Alloys
The Near Alpha Alloys
The Near Alpha Alloys
The Near Alpha Alloys
The Near Alpha Alloys
Near Alpha High Temperature Titanium Alloys
Near Alpha High Temperature Titanium Alloys
Near Alpha High Temperature Titanium Alloys
The Beta Alloys
The Beta Alloys
➢Beta alloys generally contain one or more of the so-called beta
stabilizers, such as molybdenum, vanadium, or chromium.
➢These alloys are characterized by high hardenability and
forgeability.
➢They are, however, susceptible to a ductile-brittle transformation
and are unsuitable for low-temperature applications.
➢In the solution-treated conditions, beta alloys have good
ductility, toughness, and excellent formability.
➢The most important advantage of beta alloys over alpha alloys is
that they can be age hardened to cause partial transformation of
the metastable beta phase to alpha.
➢The age hardening process, which is commonly accomplished at
700 to 900 K, results in the formation of finely dispersed alpha
particles in the retained beta phase.
The Beta Alloys
The Beta Alloys
The Beta Alloys
The Beta Alloys
The Beta Alloys

Hardening of the Beta Phase

1. Solid solution strengthening by beta stabilizing elements
2. Precipitation hardening:
Precipitation hardening of the β phase is the most effective way to
increase the yield stress of commercial β titanium alloys.
There are two metastable phases, ω and β’.
The isothermal ω particles have either an ellipsoidal or a cuboidal
shape depending on the precipitate/matrix misfit .
At low misfits, the ω particles are ellipsoidal.
The β' precipitates have a morphology which varies from spheres or
cuboids
3. Precipitation hardening by alpha phase
The Beta Alloys
The Beta Alloys
The Beta Alloys
3. Precipitation hardening by alpha phase
Both ω and β' are coherent and are sheared by the moving
dislocations. This results in the formation of intense, localized slip
bands leading to early crack nucleation and low ductility.
Therefore, microstructures containing these precipitates are
usually avoided in commercial β titanium alloys. β
Instead, commercial β titanium alloys are aged at slightly higher
temperatures in order to precipitate in reasonable aging times
incoherent particles of the stable α phase using ω or β’ particles
as precursors and nucleation sites. Sometimes it is necessary to
use a step aging treatment as will be discussed in more detail at
the end of this section. Using these precursors, it is possible to
obtain a fairly homogeneous distribution of small α platelets.
The Beta Alloys
Processing of Heavily Stabilized Beta Alloys
The Beta Alloys
Processing of Heavily Stabilized Beta Alloys
The Beta Alloys
Processing of High Strength Beta Alloys

Fig.7.4
The Beta Alloys

Table 7.4
The Beta Alloys
Processing of Beta Alloys
For high strength β alloys the processing route for β annealed
microstructures is different from that of heavily stabilized β alloys
because of the higher β transus temperature and the higher
volume fraction of the α phase.
The processing route is shown schematically in Fig. 7.4 which
illustrates the various processing steps.
Table 7.4 summarizes the important parameters of the processing
steps and the resulting microstructural features.
The Beta Alloys
The Beta Alloys
The Beta Alloys
The Beta Alloys
The Alpha-Beta Alloys
The Alpha-Beta Alloys
➢Alpha-beta alloys contain mixtures of both the alpha and the
beta stabilizers such that the alloys retain a mixture of the alpha
and beta phases at room temperature.
➢The dual-phase structure of these alloys makes them
considerably stronger than either the alpha or beta alloys.
➢Moreover, the alpha-beta alloys can be further strengthened by
heat treatment.
➢This is accomplished by quenching the alloys from the phase
field, followed by aging at a moderate temperature.
➢The heat treatment cycle for a typical alloy is schematically
shown in Fig. 20.18.
➢ It should be noted that the maximum heating temperature is in
the two-phase region, as marked by point a in the figure, in
contrast with the usual age hardening of other alloys such as Al-Cu.
The Alpha-Beta Alloys
The Alpha-Beta Alloys

FIG. 20.20 Schematic phase diagram showing the dependence of the martensitic start
(Ms) temperature of beta-stabilized types of titanium alloys on composition.
The Alpha-Beta Alloys
Processing of Alpha-Beta Alloys
The Alpha-Beta Alloys
The Alpha-Beta Alloys
The Alpha-Beta Alloys
The Alpha-Beta Alloys
➢For the latter alloys, the maximum temperature is in the one-
phase region, and a single-phase solid solution is formed prior to
quenching.
➢For alpha-beta alloys, however, heating to the all beta phase
field, to a point such as point b in Fig. 20.18A, would result in the
formation of the beta phase with excessively large grains.
➢The subsequent age hardening would also be mostly at the beta
boundaries, and inhomogeneously distributed. These conditions
reduce the ductility of the alloys.
➢When this alloy is slowly cooled from the beta region,
Widmanstätten plates of alpha initially nucleate at the grain
boundaries at about 980°C.
➢The hcp plates form with their basal planes parallel to the {110}
plane of the bcc matrix.
The Alpha-Beta Alloys
➢This orientation relationship is similar to that shown earlier for
the martensitic transformation of pure Ti.
➢Figure 20.19 schematically shows the formation of
Widmanstätten plates in a Ti-6Al-4V alloy.
➢Note that the partial phase diagram shown in the left of this
figure is an approximate isopleth for an alloy containing 6 percent
aluminum.
➢Upon continued cooling, the plates thicken relatively slowly at
their broad sides which are closely matching the matrix, but grow
muchfaster along the edge sides.
➢The final microstructure would consist of alpha plates with the
remaining beta in between them.
FIG. 20.19 Schematic illustration of the formation of a Widmanstätten structure in a
Ti-6Al-4V alloy by cooling slowly from above the beta transus. The final microstructure
consists of plates of alpha separated by the beta phase.
The Alpha-Beta Alloys
Alpha-Beta Processing
The Alpha-Beta Alloys
➢On the other hand, when the alloy is heated to the two-phase
field, the presence of alpha grains inhibits excessive growth of the
beta grains.
➢Quenching of this alloy then suppresses the transformation of the
beta phase, until it is reheated to the aging temperature.
➢During aging, alpha precipitate particles may form in a manner
similar to that described in the previous section on beta alloys.
➢It should be noted that upon quenching, beta may decompose by
a martensitic type reaction, forming a metastable phase.
➢Depending upon the quenching temperature and alloy
composition, the spontaneous transformation product may be α’ or
α”.
➢The structure of α’ has not yet been resolved, but it is indicated to
be either face-centered cubic or face-centered tetragonal or hcp.
Similarly, has been identified as having either a hexagonal or
orthorhombic structure.
The Alpha-Beta Alloys
➢Similar to the martensitic transformation in iron base alloys, the
formation of martensite begins at the martensite start temperature,
Ms, which depends on the alloy composition.
➢This is shown schematically in Fig. 20.20.
➢If the amount of the beta stabilizer is such that its Ms is lower
than room temperature, quenching of the alloy will result in the
retainment of the metastable beta phase.
➢On the other hand, when the Ms temperature is above room
temperature, quenching results in the partial or complete formation
of one of the martensites.
➢The formation of the titanium martensite produces some
hardening of the alloy, but greater strength can be attained if the
quenched alloy is subsequently “aged.”
The Alpha-Beta Alloys

FIG. 20.20 Schematic phase diagram showing the dependence

of the martensitic start (Ms) temperature of beta-stabilized
types of titanium alloys on composition.
The Alpha-Beta Alloys

➢During aging, some of the α’ or α decomposes to alpha and beta,

but a part of the retained metastable beta phase also decomposes
to form coherent alpha precipitates in the beta matrix.
➢It should be recognized that during the aging heat treatment
another phase called (ω) may form that has an undesirable
embrittling effect on the alloy.
➢The structure and details of the formation of ω are not yet fully
understood.
➢The omega phase precipitation occurs athermally within a narrow
composition range in many titanium alloys as a result of rapid
quenching from elevated temperatures.
➢Its structures may be either hexagonal or trigonal depending on
the solute concentration.
Corrosion Resistance of Titanium Alloys
Corrosion Resistance of Titanium in Sea Water
Corrosion Resistance of Titanium Alloys
Corrosion Resistance of Titanium Alloys
Crevice Corrosion Resistance
Martensitic Transformation in Titanium Alloys
➢There are three possible athermal transformation products in β-
quenched dilute alloys of Ti.

➢These are the hcp α’ and the orthorhombic α’’ martensites and
the athermal ω phase which has a hexagonal crystal structure.

➢The orthorhombic martensitic α’’ phase, which forms in alloys

containing large concentrations of β-stabilizing elements, can as well
be considered as a distorted hexagonal phase.

➢Ms temperature which is about 50K lower than the equilibrium

β→α transition temperature.

➢The temperature gap between Ms and Mf in most of the Ti-based

alloys is very small (in the range of 25 K, as reported in a few
systems).
Martensitic Transformation in Titanium Alloys
Applications of Titanium Alloys

Aerospace application
•- Aerospace has been themajor field of application of titanium
materials, particularly in the engine and airframe systems where it
comprises 36% and 7%respectively.
•- In parts subjected to aggressive conditions of corrosion, but not
submitted to high mechanical and thermal demands, as are the
cases of support structure under the kitchens and lavatories, the
CP-Ti is usually used.
•- In parts subjected to high mechanical and/or thermal demands,
including engine components and airframe, the higher strength and
heat resistant alloys are used, for example Ti-6Al-4V, Ti-6-2-4-2S,Ti-
13V- 11Cr-3Al, and IMI 834, among others.
•- The major challenge has been to develop new alloys with
improved strength and higher service temperature
Applications of Titanium Alloys
Applications of Titanium Alloys

Automotive application
•The application of titanium materials in automobile industry
began with F-1 racing cars in 1980s, being the application carried
out primarily in the engine parts.
•Recently, titanium and its alloys are actively used for intake and
exhaust valves, connecting rods, retainers, and others, being the
weight saving the major benefits of such applications.
•The major need is the development of new alloys with higher
service temperature, for example upto 800oC for motor cycle
exhaust valves application, and new surface treatment to improve
wear resistance.
•New alloys for application in the automobile parts are currently
under study, including Super-TIX, Super-TIX51AF, Super-TIX800,
and TIMETAL@LCB, among others.
Applications of Titanium Alloys
Applications of Titanium Alloys
Biomedical application
- The use of titanium alloys as biomaterials has growing due to their
reduced elastic modulus, good biocompatibility, excellent strength
to weight ratio, and enhanced corrosion resistance when compared
to conventional stainless steel and Co-Cr alloys.
- The CP-Ti and the Ti-6Al-4V are the most used titanium material in
medicine, being the first considered the best biocompatible metallic
material.
- Improving the biocompatibility through the elimination of
potential toxic elements such as Al and V, and lowering the elastic
modulus to a value similar of the bone are among the major
problems on development of new titanium alloys for biomedical
applications.
Applications of Titanium Alloys
Applications of Titanium Alloys
Applications of Titanium Alloys
Applications of Titanium Alloys
Applications of Titanium Alloys
Applications of Titanium Alloys
Magnesium Alloys
Magnesium (Mg) alloys have been extensively used in various
fields, such as aerospace, automobile, electronics, and
biomedical industries due to
•Magnesium is the lightest structural metal (4.5 times lighter than
steel, 1.7 times lighter than aluminum, and even slightly lighter than
carbon fibers)
•High specific strength and stiffness
•Excellent vibration absorption
•Electromagnetic shielding effect
•Good castability, suitable for high pressure diecasting
•Good weldability under controlled atmosphere
•Good machinability
•Readily available 98
Magnesium Alloys
Compared with polymeric materials
• Better mechanical properties
• Resistant to ageing
• Better electrical and thermal conductivity
• Recyclable.

99
Magnesium Alloys
The disadvantages of magnesium
•Low elastic modulus
•Limited cold workability and toughness
•Limited high strength and creep resistance at elevated
temperatures
•High degree of shrinkage on solidification
•High chemical reactivity
•Limited corrosion resistance in some applications

100
Magnesium Alloys
•Compared with nonferrous metals, such as aluminum alloys
and titanium alloys, the strength of the Mg alloys is relatively
lower.

Moreover, due to the hexagonal closepacked (HCP) crystal

structure of Mg alloys, the plastic deformation at room
temperature is mainly dominated by basal slip, whereas
prismatic and pyramidal slips are impeded (development of
strong basal texture during thermo-mechanical treatment)

101
Magnesium Alloys

c
Magnesium Alloys
•Even though the prismatic slip occurs as well, the basal and
prismatic slips can only provide four independent slip
systems, which do not satisfy the requirements of the von
Mises criterion.

• Furthermore, the basal and prismatic slips cannot

coordinate the strain along the c-axis; therefore, the plasticity
of Mg alloys at room temperature is low, and the plastic
forming is difficult.

103
Magnesium Alloys

Mechanical Properties of Pure Magnesium

104
 Magnesium Alloys

Code Letter for Designation of Mg alloy System

105
 Magnesium Alloys

➢Aluminium, zinc, cerium, silver, thorium, yttrium and

zirconium are examples of widely different elements
that are present in commercial alloys.
➢Solubility data for binary magnesium alloys are
shown in Table 5.1 with the first section containing
elements used in commercial compositions.
➢Apart from magnesium and cadmium which form a
continuous series of solid solutions, the magnesium-
rich sections of the phase diagrams show peritectic or,
more commonly, eutectic systems.

106
 Magnesium Alloys
Table 5.1 Solubility data for binary magnesium alloys

107
Magnesium-Aluminum Alloys

108
 Magnesium-Aluminum Alloys
➢The magnesium-rich side of the Mg–Al binary phase diagram
includes equilibrium solid phases α-Mg and β -Mg17Al12 and a
eutectic temperature of 437oC.
➢The β phase has a body-centered cubic structure with the lattice
parameter a=1.06 nm. The equilibrium solid solubility of Al in α-
Mg is 11.8 at.% (12.9 wt%) at the eutectic temperature, and
decreases to about 3.3 at.% at 200oC.
➢The equilibrium volume fraction of precipitates achievable in the
Mg–Al alloys aged at 200oC can reach a substantially large value of
11.4%.
➢This thermodynamic feature provides a unique opportunity for
generating a large volume fraction of precipitates by using
conventional aging treatments, that is solution treatment at about
420oC, followed by water quench and subsequent aging at a
temperature in the range 100–300oC. 109
Magnesium-Aluminum Alloys

420oC

100-300oC

110
 Magnesium-Aluminum Alloys

➢Unfortunately, during the isothermal aging treatment in the

temperature range 100–300oC, the precipitation process appears
to involve solely the formation of the equilibrium β phase.
➢While the β precipitates are resistant to dislocation shearing ,
their distribution is relatively coarse, presumably because of the
relatively high diffusion rate of Al atoms in the solid matrix of
magnesium and due to high concentration of vacancies in the α-
Mg matrix.
➢Consequently, the age hardening response of Mg–Al alloys is not
as appreciable as expected, Figure 49(a).

111
 Magnesium-Aluminum Alloys

Isothermal aging curves of magnesium alloy AZ91

112
 Magnesium-Aluminum Alloys

TEM images showing distribution and morphology of β

precipitates in samples aged for 8 h at 200oC.

113
 Magnesium-Aluminum Alloys

Demonstrating the coherent matching of the two sets of

lattice planes

114
 Magnesium-Aluminum Alloys

AZ91

Mg-Al Alloys

115
Magnesium-Aluminum Alloys

116
 Magnesium-Zinc Alloys
➢Zinc causes more solid solution strengthening than an equal
atomic per cent of aluminium but its solubility is much less (Table
5.1).
➢Mg–Zn alloys also respond to age hardening and, the ageing
process is complex and may involve four stages.
➢The GP zones solvus for the alloy Mg–5.5Zn lies between 70 and
80 °C, and preageing below this solvus before ageing at a higher
temperature (e.g. 150 °C) refines the size and dispersion of rods of
the coherent phase MgZn2 that form from the GP zones.
➢Maximum hardening is associated with the presence of this
coherent phase. However, binary Mg–Zn alloys are not amenable
to grain refining by superheating or inoculation, and are prone to
microporosity.

117
Magnesium-Zinc Alloys

118
Magnesium-Zinc Alloys

119
Magnesium-Zinc Alloys

120
Magnesium-Zinc Alloys

121
 Magnesium-Lithium Alloys
➢The Mg–Li system has attracted attention as a basis for very light-
weight sheet and plate.
➢Lithium with a relative density of 0.53 is the lightest of all metals
and the Mg–Li phase diagram (Fig. 5.30) shows this element to
have extensive solid solubility in magnesium.
➢Moreover, only about 11% lithium is needed to form a new -
phase, which has a body-centred cubic (bcc) structure, thereby
offering the prospect of extensive cold-formability.
➢Finally, the slope of the α+β/β phase boundary suggested that
selected compositions may show age hardening.
➢Early work on binary alloys revealed that traces of sodium caused
grain boundary embrittlement but this problem was overcome with
the availability of high-purity lithium.

122
 Magnesium-Lithium Alloys
➢A second difficulty was that the binary alloys became unstable
and over-aged at slightly elevated temperatures (50–70 °C)
resulting in excessive creep under relatively low loads.
Greater stability has since been achieved by adding other elements
and one composition LA141 (Mg–14Li–1Al), which was developed
in the USA and is weldable, has been used for armour plateand for
aerospace components. Elevated temperature stability can be
improved by the addition of 0.5% Si.
A number of wrought alloys were developed in Russia including
two designated MA18 and MA21.
MA18 (Mg–10.8Li–2.25Zn–0.75Al–0.25Ce) has a bcc lattice,
whereas MA21 (Mg–8.75Li–4.8Al–4.5Cd–1.5Zn–0.08Ce) has a
mixed hcp/bcc structure. These alloys are also weldable and some
properties are summarized in Table 5.9
123
Magnesium-Lithium Alloys

124
Magnesium-Lithium Alloys

125
 Magnesium Alloys

Directions in the development of magnesium alloys

126
Magnesium Alloys

To improve the strength and

plasticity of Mg alloys,
grain refinement has been applied.

127
Magnesium Alloys
• Severe plastic deformation (SPD) techniques are viable approaches to improve
the strength and ductility of Mg alloys.

•SPD severe plastic deformation successfully employed for grain refining of Mg

alloys:
•Equal Channel Angular Pressing (ECAP)
•Extrusion
•Accumulative Roll Bonding (ARB)
•Differential Speed Rolling
•Friction Stir Processing
•Due to the low formability of Mg alloys at room temperature, SPD techniques
are generally to be applied at high temperatures (i.e., 200–450oC)

•Friction stir processing (FSP) has been proven to be an effective pathway to

refine the alloy microstructure, providing more intense plastic deformation as
well as higher strain rates than other SPD methods.

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 Friction Stir Processing
Principle of FSP

FSW
Self Generated
Thermo-Mechanical Process
FSP
R.S. Mishra and Z Y Ma , Materials Science and Engineering R 50 (2005) 1–78

129
Friction Stir Processing of Magnesium Alloys

As an SPD technique, FSP has the following advantages.

1) FSP can refine, homogenize, and densify the
microstructure of materials simultaneously. It has been
shown that dynamic recrystallization decreases the
dislocation density while increasing the fraction of the
high-angle grain boundary to 97%. Such microstructure
characteristics ensure that the fine-grained materials
have not only high strength but also good plasticity.

130
Friction Stir Processing of Magnesium Alloys

As an SPD technique, FSP has the following advantages.

2) FSP can process the workpiece locally without
affecting its shape and size: This processing depth
ranges from hundreds of microns to tens of millimeters.
The precise control of microstructure and properties
can be achieved by the optimization of tool design and
process parameters.

131
Friction Stir Processing of Magnesium Alloys

As an SPD technique, FSP has the following advantages.

3) The process parameters of FSP are easy to control as
advanced intelligent FSP equipment can realize the
digital forming manufacturing of three dimensional
components.

132
Friction Stir Processing of Magnesium Alloys

Researchers have focused on the following aspects

of friction stir processed (FSPed) Mg alloys:
1) Modification of the cast structure by FSP
2) Preparation of the fine-grained, ultrafine-, and nano-
grained Mg alloys by FSP
3) Superplastic deformation behavior of FSPed Mg alloys
4) Preparation of Mg-based surface composites by FSP
5) FSP additive manufacturing technique.

133
Modification of the Cast Structure by FSP
•As most of Mg alloys for industrial applications are cast
structure, casting and solidifying defects, such as pores,
inclusions, microcracks, and composition segregation,
are inevitable.

•In particular, brittle and network-like secondary phases

of the alloys result in poor plastic deformation.

•FSP not only reduces and even eliminates these defects

but also breaks up the brittle and network-like
secondary phases.

134
 Magnesium Alloys

AZ91

Mg-Al Alloys

135
 Friction Stir Processing of Mg-alloys

E
z =  exp( − )
RT

Pradeep and Pancholi, Materials Sci. & Eng. A 561 (2013) 78–87

136
 Modification of the Cast Structure by FSP
Friction Stir Processed GZ31 Cast Alloy

(a) The dendritic microstructure of the as-cast plate, (b)

distribution of precipitates at higher magnification
M. Sabbaghian, R. Mahmudi, J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 25, 1856 (2016)

137
 Modification of the Cast Structure by FSP
Friction Stir Processed GZ31 Cast Alloy

The microstructure of
different regions after
two passes of FSP:
(a)SZ/TMAZ/HAZ,
(b)SZ/TMAZ,
(c)TMAZ, and
(d)Middle of SZ

M. Sabbaghian, R. Mahmudi, J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 25, 1856 (2016)

Advances in Thermo-Mechanical Processing of Materials

14th-18th, December, 2020 138
 Modification of the Cast Structure by FSP
▪During FSP, the secondary phases in the Mg alloys are usually broken
and dissolved, thus forming the supersaturated solid solution in the
processing zone.
▪Feng et al found that FSP led to the fragmentation of the original
coarse network-like β-Mg17Al12 phase and its rapid dissolution in cast
AZ91 Mg alloy.
▪A similar phenomenon of rapid dissolution of β-phase was also
observed in cast AZ31 Mg alloy during FSP.
▪Generally, it takes dozens of hours to achieve the complete solid
solution of β-phase by traditional solid solution treatment, while FSP
only takes tens of seconds.

139
 Modification of the Cast Structure by FSP
•This phenomenon can be due to two main factors:
1. On the one hand, FSP promotes grain refinement and shortens the diffusion
distance of elements.
2. On the other hand, the severe plastic deformation during FSP makes the
diffusion mechanism of elements change from bulk diffusion to tube
diffusion, increasing the diffusion rate by three orders of magnitude.

•Because of the obvious shortening of diffusion distance and the increasing of

diffusion rate, the secondary phases in Mg alloys are completely dissolved instantly
during FSP.

•Usually, this phenomenon exists in the FSP of precipitation strengthened Mg alloys,

including AZ series , ZK series, and rare-earth Mg alloys

140
Ductilization Mechanisms of FSP Treated Mg-alloys
•Ductility of the Mg-alloys is strongly affected by the size, volume fraction,
and distribution of the second phase particles.

•Cast Mg-alloys alloy exhibited low ductility due to its coarse grain size and
the presence of a high volume fraction of inter-linked coarse eutectic
Mg17Al12 phase.

The ductilization of the Mg-alloys after FSP treatment is a function of grain

refining as well as the translation of the coarse Mg17Al12 phase into the
ultra-fine particles.

Moreover, the texture is a critical factor for the ductility of Mg alloys. It has
been reported that FSP can affect the texture of the Mg alloys.

The modification of the original texture during FSP and increasing the
proportion of non-basal texture component can contribute to the enhance
ductility of FSP treated Mg-alloys.
141